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Essays of Michel de Montaigne

An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's

own argument, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of a letter,
a paper, an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have been sub-
classified as formal and informal: formal essays are characterized by "serious
purpose, dignity, logical organization, length," whereas the informal essay is
characterized by "the personal element (self-revelation, individual tastes and
experiences, confidential manner), humor, graceful style, rambling structure,
unconventionality or novelty of theme," etc. [1]
Essays are commonly used as literary criticism, political manifestos,
learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of
the author. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works
in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g., Alexander Pope's An Essay on
Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity usually defines an essay,
voluminous works like John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding and Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of
Population are counterexamples.

In some countries (e.g., the United States and Canada), essays have become
a major part of formal education.[2] Secondary students are taught structured
essay formats to improve their writing skills; admission essays are often used
by universities in selecting applicants, and in the humanities and social
sciences essays are often used as a way of assessing the performance of
students during final exams.

The concept of an "essay" has been extended to other media beyond writing.
A film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary filmmaking
styles and focuses more on the evolution of a theme or idea. A photographic
essay covers a topic with a linked series of photographs that may have
accompanying text or captions.

Definitions
 John Locke's 1690 An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding

The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, "to try" or "to
attempt". In English essay first meant "a trial" or "an attempt", and this is
still an alternative meaning. The Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533–
1592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term
to characterize these as "attempts" to put his thoughts into writing.

Subsequently, essay has been defined in a variety of ways. One definition is

a "prose composition with a focused subject of discussion" or a "long,
systematic discourse".[3] It is difficult to define the genre into which essays
fall. Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject. [4] He
notes that "the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about
almost anything", and adds that "by tradition, almost by definition, the essay
is a short piece". Furthermore, Huxley argues that "essays belong to a
literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively
within a three-poled frame of reference". These three poles (or worlds in
which the essay may exist) are:

 The personal and the autobiographical: The essayists that feel most
comfortable in this pole "write fragments of reflective autobiography
and look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and
description".
  The objective, the factual, and the concrete particular: The essayists
that write from this pole "do not speak directly of themselves, but turn
their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme.
Their art consists of setting forth, passing judgment upon, and drawing
general conclusions from the relevant data".

 The abstract-universal: In this pole "we find those essayists who do

their work in the world of high abstractions", who are never personal
and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience.

Huxley adds that the most satisfying essays "...make the best not of one, not
of two, but of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to
exist."

History

The examples and perspective in this article may not

represent a worldwide view of the subject. You
may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk
page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January
2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Montaigne

Montaigne's "attempts" grew out of his commonplacing.[5] Inspired in

particular by the works of Plutarch, a translation of whose Œuvres
Morales (Moral works) into French had just been published by Jacques Amyot,
Montaigne began to compose his essays in 1572; the first edition,
entitled Essais, was published in two volumes in 1580. [6] For the rest of his
life, he continued revising previously published essays and composing new
ones. A third volume was published posthumously; together, their over 100
examples are widely regarded as the predecessor of the modern essay.

Europe

While Montaigne's philosophy was admired and copied in France, none of his
most immediate disciples tried to write essays. But Montaigne, who liked to
fancy that his family (the Eyquem line) was of English extraction, had spoken
of the English people as his "cousins", and he was early read in England,
notably by Francis Bacon.[7]

Bacon's essays, published in book form in 1597 (only five years after the
death of Montaigne, containing the first ten of his essays), [7] 1612, and 1625,
were the first works in English that described themselves as essays. Ben
Jonson first used the word essayist in 1609, according to the Oxford English
Dictionary. Other English essayists included Sir William Cornwallis, who
published essays in 1600 and 1617 that were popular at the time, [7] Robert
Burton (1577–1641) and Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682). In
Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il
Cortigiano. In the 17th century, the Spanish Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote
about the theme of wisdom.[8]

In England, during the Age of Enlightenment, essays were a favored tool of

polemicists who aimed at convincing readers of their position; they also
featured heavily in the rise of periodical literature, as seen in the works
of Joseph Addison, Richard Steele and Samuel Johnson. Addison and Steele
used the journal Tatler (founded in 1709 by Steele) and its successors as
storehouses of their work, and they became the most celebrated eighteenth-
century essayists in England. Johnson's essays appear during the 1750s in
various similar publications.[7] As a result of the focus on journals, the term
also acquired a meaning synonymous with "article", although the content
may not the strict definition. On the other hand, Locke's An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding is not an essay at all, or cluster of essays,
in the technical sense, but still it refers to the experimental and tentative
nature of the inquiry which the philosopher was undertaking. [7]

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. The early 19th century, in
particular, saw a proliferation of great essayists in English—William
Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt and Thomas De Quincey all penned
numerous essays on diverse subjects, reviving the earlier graceful
style. Thomas Carlyle's essays were highly influential, and one of his
readers, Ralph Waldo Emerson, became a prominent essayist himself. Later
in the century, Robert Louis Stevenson also raised the form's literary level.
[9]
In the 20th century, a number of essayists, such as T.S. Eliot, tried to
explain the new movements in art and culture by using essays. Virginia
Woolf, Edmund Wilson, and Charles du Bos wrote literary criticism essays.[8]

In France, several writers produced longer works with the title of essai that
were not true examples of the form. However, by the mid-19th century,
the Causeries du lundi, newspaper columns by the critic Sainte-Beuve, are
literary essays in the original sense. Other French writers followed suit,
including Théophile Gautier, Anatole France, Jules Lemaître and Émile Faguet.
[9]

Japan
Main article: Zuihitsu

As with the novel, essays existed in Japan several centuries before they
developed in Europe with a genre of essays known as zuihitsu—loosely
connected essays and fragmented ideas. Zuihitsu have existed since almost
the beginnings of Japanese literature. Many of the most noted early works of
Japanese literature are in this genre. Notable examples include The Pillow
Book (c. 1000), by court lady Sei Shōnagon, and Tsurezuregusa (1330), by
particularly renowned Japanese Buddhist monk Yoshida Kenkō. Kenkō
described his short writings similarly to Montaigne, referring to them as
"nonsensical thoughts" written in "idle hours". Another noteworthy difference
from Europe is that women have traditionally written in Japan, though the
more formal, Chinese-influenced writings of male writers were more prized at
the time.

China

The eight-legged essay (Chinese: 八股文; pinyin: bāgǔwén; lit. 'eight bone
text') was a style of essay in imperial examinations during
the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. The eight-legged essay was needed
for those test takers in these civil service tests to show their merits for
government service, often focusing on Confucian thought and knowledge of
the Four Books and Five Classics, in relation to governmental ideals. Test
takers could not write in innovative or creative ways, but needed to conform
to the standards of the eight-legged essay. Various skills were examined,
including the ability to write coherently and to display basic logic. In certain
times, the candidates were expected to spontaneously compose poetry upon
a set theme, whose value was also sometimes questioned, or eliminated as
part of the test material. This was a major argument in favor of the eight-
legged essay, arguing that it were better to eliminate creative art in favor of
prosaic literacy. In the history of Chinese literature, the eight-legged essay is
often said to have caused China's "cultural stagnation and economic
backwardness" in the 19th century.[10]

Forms and styles

This section describes the different forms and styles of essay writing. These
are used by an array of authors, including university students and
professional essayists.

Cause and effect

The defining features of a "cause and effect" essay are causal chains that
connect from a cause to an effect, careful language, and chronological or
emphatic order. A writer using this rhetorical method must consider
the subject, determine the purpose, consider the audience, think critically
about different causes or consequences, consider a thesis statement,
arrange the parts, consider the language, and decide on a conclusion.[11]

Classification and division

Classification is the categorization of objects into a larger whole while

division is the breaking of a larger whole into smaller parts. [12]

Compare and contrast

Compare and contrast essays are characterized by a basis for comparison,

points of comparison, and analogies. It is grouped by the object (chunking) or
by point (sequential). The comparison highlights the similarities between two
or more similar objects while contrasting highlights the differences between
two or more objects. When writing a compare/contrast essay, writers need to
determine their purpose, consider their audience, consider the basis and
points of comparison, consider their thesis statement, arrange and develop
the comparison, and reach a conclusion. Compare and contrast is arranged
emphatically.[13]

Expository

An expository essay is used to inform, describe or explain a topic, using

important facts to teach the reader about a topic. Mostly written in third-
person, using "it", "he", "she", "they," the expository essay uses formal
language to discuss someone or something. Examples of expository essays
are: a medical or biological condition, social or technological process, life or
character of a famous person. The writing of an expository essay often
consists of the following steps: organizing thoughts (brainstorming),
researching a topic, developing a thesis statement, writing the introduction,
writing the body of essay, and writing the conclusion. [14] Expository essays
are often assigned as a part of SAT and other standardized testing or as
homework for high school and college students.

Descriptive

Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which appeal to the

physical senses, and details that appeal to a reader's emotional, physical, or
intellectual sensibilities. Determining the purpose, considering the audience,
creating a dominant impression, using descriptive language, and organizing
the description are the rhetorical choices to consider when using a
description. A description is usually arranged spatially but can also
be chronological or emphatic. The focus of a description is the scene.
Description uses tools such
as denotative language, connotative language, figurative
language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant impression.[15] One
university essay guide states that "descriptive writing says what happened
or what another author has discussed; it provides an account of the topic".
[16]
Lyric essays are an important form of descriptive essays.

Dialectic

In the dialectic form of the essay, which is commonly used in philosophy, the
writer makes a thesis and argument, then objects to their own argument
(with a counterargument), but then counters the counterargument with a
final and novel argument. This form benefits from presenting a broader
perspective while countering a possible flaw that some may present. This
type is sometimes called an ethics paper.[17]

Exemplification

An exemplification essay is characterized by a generalization and relevant,

representative, and believable examples including anecdotes. Writers need
to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience,
decide on specific examples, and arrange all the parts together when writing
an exemplification essay.[18]
 Malthus' Essay on the Principle of Population

Familiar

An essayist writes a familiar essay if speaking to a single reader, writing

about both themselves, and about particular subjects. Anne Fadiman notes
that "the genre's heyday was the early nineteenth century," and that its
greatest exponent was Charles Lamb.[19] She also suggests that while critical
essays have more brain than the heart, and personal essays have more
heart than brain, familiar essays have equal measures of both. [20]

History (thesis)

A history essay sometimes referred to as a thesis essay describes an

argument or claim about one or more historical events and supports that
claim with evidence, arguments, and references. The text makes it clear to
the reader why the argument or claim is as such. [21]

Narrative

A narrative uses tools such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, and transitions that

often build to a climax. The focus of a narrative is the plot. When creating a
narrative, authors must determine their purpose, consider their audience,
establish their point of view, use dialogue, and organize the narrative. A
narrative is usually arranged chronologically. [22]
Argumentative

An argumentative essay is a critical piece of writing, aimed at presenting

objective analysis of the subject matter, narrowed down to a single topic.
The main idea of all the criticism is to provide an opinion either of positive or
negative implication. As such, a critical essay requires research and analysis,
strong internal logic and sharp structure. Its structure normally builds around
introduction with a topic's relevance and a thesis statement, body
paragraphs with arguments linking back to the main thesis, and conclusion.
In addition, an argumentative essay may include a refutation section where
conflicting ideas are acknowledged, described, and criticized.
Each argument of an argumentative essay should be supported with
sufficient evidence, relevant to the point.

Process

A process essay is used for an explanation of making or breaking something.

Often, it is written in chronological order or numerical order to show step-by-
step processes. It has all the qualities of a technical document with the only
difference is that it is often written in descriptive mood, while a technical
document is mostly in imperative mood.[23]

Economic

An economic essay can start with a thesis, or it can start with a theme. It can
take a narrative course and a descriptive course. It can even become
an argumentative essay if the author feels the need. After the introduction,
the author has to do his/her best to expose the economic matter at hand, to
analyze it, evaluate it, and draw a conclusion. If the essay takes more of a
narrative form then the author has to expose each aspect of the economic
puzzle in a way that makes it clear and understandable for the reader

Reflective

A reflective essay is an analytical piece of writing in which the writer

describes a real or imaginary scene, event, interaction, passing thought,
memory, or form—adding a personal reflection on the meaning of the topic in
the author's life. Thus, the focus is not merely descriptive. The writer doesn't
just describe the situation, but revisits the scene with more detail and
emotion to examine what went well, or reveal a need for additional learning
—and may relate what transpired to the rest of the author's life.

Other logical structures

The logical progression and organizational structure of an essay can take
many forms. Understanding how the movement of thought is managed
through an essay has a profound impact on its overall cogency and ability to
impress. A number of alternative logical structures for essays have been
visualized as diagrams, making them easy to implement or adapt in the
construction of an argument.[24]

Academic

University students, like these students doing

research at a university library, are often assigned essays as a way to get
them to analyze what they have read.

Main article: Free response

In countries like the United States and the United Kingdom, essays have
become a major part of a formal education in the form of free
response questions. Secondary students in these countries are taught
structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and essays are often
used by universities in these countries in selecting applicants
(see admissions essay). In both secondary and tertiary education, essays are
used to judge the mastery and comprehension of the material. Students are
asked to explain, comment on, or assess a topic of study in the form of an
essay. In some courses, university students must complete one or more
essays over several weeks or months. In addition, in fields such as the
humanities and social sciences,[citation needed] mid-term and end of term
examinations often require students to write a short essay in two or three
hours.
In these countries, so-called academic essays, also called papers, are usually
more formal than literary ones.[citation needed] They may still allow the
presentation of the writer's own views, but this is done in a logical and
factual manner, with the use of the first person often discouraged. Longer
academic essays (often with a word limit of between 2,000 and 5,000 words)
[citation needed]
are often more discursive. They sometimes begin with a short
summary analysis of what has previously been written on a topic, which is
often called a literature review.[citation needed]

Longer essays may also contain an introductory page that defines words and
phrases of the essay's topic. Most academic institutions require that all
substantial facts, quotations, and other supporting material in an essay be
referenced in a bibliography or works cited page at the end of the text. This
scholarly convention helps others (whether teachers or fellow scholars) to
understand the basis of facts and quotations the author uses to support the
essay's argument. The bibliography also helps readers evaluate to what
extent the argument is supported by evidence and to evaluate the quality of
that evidence. The academic essay tests the student's ability to present their
thoughts in an organized way and is designed to test their intellectual
capabilities.

One of the challenges facing universities is that in some cases, students may
submit essays purchased from an essay mill (or "paper mill") as their own
work. An "essay mill" is a ghostwriting service that sells pre-written essays to
university and college students. Since plagiarism is a form of academic
dishonesty or academic fraud, universities and colleges may investigate
papers they suspect are from an essay mill by using plagiarism
detection software, which compares essays against a database of known mill
essays and by orally testing students on the contents of their papers. [25]

Magazine or newspaper

Main article: Long-form journalism

Essays often appear in magazines, especially magazines with an intellectual

bent, such as The Atlantic and Harpers. Magazine and newspaper essays use
many of the essay types described in the section on forms and styles (e.g.,
descriptive essays, narrative essays, etc.). Some newspapers also print
essays in the op-ed section.
 An 1895 cover of Harpers, a US magazine that
prints a number of essays per issue

Employment

Employment essays detailing experience in a certain occupational field are

required when applying for some jobs, especially government jobs in the
United States. Essays known as Knowledge Skills and Executive Core
Qualifications are required when applying to certain US federal government
positions.

A KSA, or "Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities", is a series of narrative

statements that are required when applying to Federal government job
openings in the United States. KSAs are used along with resumes to
determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a
job. The knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful
performance of a position are contained on each job vacancy announcement.
KSAs are brief and focused essays about one's career and educational
background that presumably qualify one to perform the duties of the position
being applied for.

An Executive Core Qualification, or ECQ, is a narrative statement that is

required when applying to Senior Executive Service positions within the US
Federal government. Like the KSAs, ECQs are used along with resumes to
determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a
job. The Office of Personnel Management has established five executive core
qualifications that all applicants seeking to enter the Senior Executive
Service must demonstrate.
Non-literary types

Film

Duration: 1 hour, 45 minutes and 10 seconds.1:45:10Häxan (1922), a

horror essay film about the historical roots and superstitions
surrounding witchcraft

A film essay (also essay film or cinematic essay) consists of the evolution
of a theme or an idea rather than a plot per se, or the film literally being a
cinematic accompaniment to a narrator reading an essay. [26] From another
perspective, an essay film could be defined as a documentary film visual
basis combined with a form of commentary that contains elements of self-
portrait (rather than autobiography), where the signature (rather than the life
story) of the filmmaker is apparent. The cinematic essay often
blends documentary, fiction, and experimental film making using tones and
editing styles.[27]

The genre is not well-defined but might include propaganda works of

early Soviet filmmakers like Dziga Vertov, present-day filmmakers
including Chris Marker,[28] Michael Moore (Roger & Me, Bowling for
Columbine and Fahrenheit 9/11), Errol Morris (The Thin Blue Line), Morgan
Spurlock (Supersize Me) and Agnès Varda. Jean-Luc Godard describes his
recent work as "film-essays".[29] Two filmmakers whose work was the
antecedent to the cinematic essay include Georges Méliès and Bertolt
Brecht. Méliès made a short film (The Coronation of Edward VII (1902)) about
the 1902 coronation of King Edward VII, which mixes actual footage with
shots of a recreation of the event. Brecht was a playwright who
experimented with film and incorporated film projections into some of his
plays.[27] Orson Welles made an essay film in his own pioneering style,
released in 1974, called F for Fake, which dealt specifically with art
forger Elmyr de Hory and with the themes of deception, "fakery", and
authenticity in general.

David Winks Gray's article "The essay film in action" states that the "essay
film became an identifiable form of filmmaking in the 1950s and '60s". He
states that since that time, essay films have tended to be "on the margins"
of the filmmaking the world. Essay films have a "peculiar searching,
questioning tone ... between documentary and fiction" but without "fitting
comfortably" into either genre. Gray notes that just like written essays, essay
films "tend to marry the personal voice of a guiding narrator (often the
director) with a wide swath of other voices". [30] The University of
Wisconsin Cinematheque website echoes some of Gray's comments; it calls a
film essay an "intimate and allusive" genre that "catches filmmakers in a
pensive mood, ruminating on the margins between fiction and documentary"
in a manner that is "refreshingly inventive, playful, and idiosyncratic". [31]

Video

Video essays are an emerging media type similar to film essays. Video
essays have gained significant prominence on YouTube, as YouTube's policies
on free uploads of arbitrary lengths have made it a hotbed. Some video
essays feature long, documentary style writing and editing, going deep into
the research and history of a particular topic. Others are more akin to an
argumentative essay in which a single argument is developed and supported
throughout the video. Video essay styles have become especially prominent
among BreadTube creators such as ContraPoints and PhilosophyTube.[32]

Music

In the realm of music, composer Samuel Barber wrote a set of "Essays for
Orchestra", relying on the form and content of the music to guide the
listener's ear, rather than any extra-musical plot or story.

Photography

"After School Play Interrupted by the Catch and

Release of a Stingray" is a simple time-sequence photo essay.

A photographic essay strives to cover a topic with a linked series

of photographs. Photo essays range from purely photographic works to
photographs with captions or small notes to full-text essays with a few or
many accompanying photographs. Photo essays can be sequential in nature,
intended to be viewed in a particular order—or they may consist of non-
ordered photographs viewed all at once or in an order that the viewer
chooses. All photo essays are collections of photographs, but not all
collections of photographs are photo essays. Photo essays often address a
certain issue or attempt to capture the character of places and events.

Visual arts

In the visual arts, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch that forms a

basis for a final painting or sculpture, made as a test of the work's
composition (this meaning of the term, like several of those following, comes
from the word essay's meaning of "attempt" or "trial").

See also

 Abstract (summary)

 Body (writing)

 Book report

 Essay thesis

 Five-paragraph essay

 Introduction

 List of essayists

 SAT Essay

 Schaffer paragraph

 Treatise

References

1. ^ Holman, William (2003). A Handbook to Literature (9 ed.).

New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 193.

2. ^ Owens, Derek (1996). "Essay". Keywords in Composition

Studies. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. pp. 85–88. ISBN 0-
86709-399-4.

3. ^ Gale – Free Resources – Glossary – DE Archived 2010-04-25 at

the Wayback Machine. Gale.cengage.com. Retrieved March 23,
2011.

4. ^ Aldous Huxley, Collected Essays, "Preface", London: Harper

and Brothers, 1960, p. v.

5. ^ "Book Use Book Theory: 1500–1700: Commonplace Thinking".

Lib.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-08-01.
Retrieved 2013-08-10.

6. ^ Montaigne, Michel de (1580). Essais de messire Michel de

Montaigne,... livre premier et second (I ed.). impr. de S.
Millanges (Bourdeaus). Retrieved 22 November 2019 – via
Gallica.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e
Gosse 1911, p. 777.

8. ^ Jump up to:a b Essay (literature) – Britannica Online

Encyclopedia Archived 2009-12-04 at the Wayback Machine.
Britannica.com. Retrieved March 22, 2011.

9. ^ Jump up to:a b
Gosse 1911, p. 778.

10. ^ Elman, Benjamin A. (2009). "Eight-Legged Essay" (PDF).

In Cheng, Linsun (ed.). Berkshire Encyclopedia of China.
Berkshire Publishing Group. pp. 695–989. ISBN 9780190622671.

11. ^ Chapter 7: Cause and Effect in Glenn, Cheryl. Making

Sense: A Real-World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et
al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

12. ^ Chapter 5: Classification and Division in Glenn, Cheryl.

Making Sense: A Real-World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B.
Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

13. ^ Chapter 6: Comparison and Contrast in Glenn, Cheryl.

Making Sense: A Real-World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B.
Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

14. ^ "Subject Verb Agreement" (PDF). Nova Southeastern

University.

15. ^ Chapter 2: Description in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A

Real-World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second
ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

16. ^ Section 2.1 of the Simon Fraser University CNS Essay

Handbook. Available online at: sfu.ca

17. ^ "How to Write an Ethics Paper (with

Pictures)". wikiHow. Archived from the original on 2016-08-28.
Retrieved 2016-07-01.

18. ^ Chapter 4: Exemplification in Glenn, Cheryl. Making

Sense: A Real-World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et
al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

19. ^ Fadiman, Anne. At Large and At Small: Familiar Essays.

p. x.

20. ^ Fadiman, At Large and At Small, xi.

21. ^ History Essay Format & Thesis Statement, (February
2010)

22. ^ Chapter 3 Narration in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A

Real-World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second
ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

23. ^ "Examples and Definition of Process Essay". Literary

Devices. 2017-04-04. Retrieved 2018-11-07.

24. ^ "'Mission Possible' by Dr. Mario

Petrucci" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2014-10-26.
Retrieved 2014-10-25.

25. ^ Khomami, Nadia (20 February 2017). "Plan to crack

down on websites selling essays to students announced". The
Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017.

26. ^ Laura Rascaroli (2008). "The Essay Film: Problems,

Definitions, Textual Commitments". Framework: The Journal of
Cinema and Media. 49 (2): 24–
47. doi:10.1353/frm.0.0019. ISSN 1559-7989. S2CID 17094290
1.

27. ^ Jump up to:a b Cinematic Essay Film

Genre Archived 2007-08-08 at the Wayback Machine.
chicagomediaworks.com. Retrieved March 22, 2011.

28. ^ (registration required) Lim, Dennis (July 31, 2012). "Chris

Marker, 91, Pioneer of the Essay Film" Archived 2012-08-03 at
the Wayback Machine. The New York Times. Retrieved July 31,
2012.

29. ^ Discussion of film essays Archived 2007-08-08 at

the Wayback Machine. Chicago Media Works.

30. ^ Gray, David Winks (January 30, 2009). "The essay film in
action". San Francisco Film Society. Archived from the original
on March 15, 2009.

31. ^ "Talking Pictures: The Art of the Essay Film".

Cinema.wisc.edu. Retrieved March 22, 2011.

32. ^ Schindel, David (December 29, 2023). "The best video

essays of 2023". Polygon. Retrieved July 11, 2024.
Further reading

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public

domain: Gosse, Edmund (1911). "Essay, Essayist". In Chisholm,
Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press. pp. 776–778.

 Theodor W. Adorno, "The Essay as Form" in: Theodor W. Adorno, The

Adorno Reader, Blackwell Publishers 2000.

 Beaujour, Michel. Miroirs d'encre: Rhétorique de l'autoportrait. Paris:

Seuil, 1980. [Poetics of the Literary Self-Portrait. Trans. Yara Milos. New
York: NYU Press, 1991].

 Bensmaïa, Reda. The Barthes Effect: The Essay as Reflective Text.

Trans. Pat Fedkiew. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1987.

 D'Agata, John (Editor), The Lost Origins of the Essay. St Paul: Graywolf
Press, 2009.

 Giamatti, Louis. "The Cinematic Essay", in Godard and the Others:

Essays in Cinematic Form. London, Tantivy Press, 1975.

 Lopate, Phillip. "In Search of the Centaur: The Essay-Film", in Beyond

Document: Essays on Nonfiction Film. Edited by Charles Warren,
Wesleyan University Press, 1998. pp. 243–270.

 Warburton, Nigel. The Basics of Essay Writing. Routledge,

2006. ISBN 0-415-24000-X, 978-0-415-24000-0

External links