CE05

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

SOIL
CHAPTER 3
GROUP 14
ACTUAL WRITTEN
NAME GROOMING
REPORT REPORT
GRIMARES, MARIE
DIANE T.
GUBATON,
GABRIELL
SEBASTIAN C.
REQUIJO, KYLA A.

CEIT – 02 – 401A
TF / 9:00 AM – 10:00 AM

January 31, 2025

Engr. Aleli N. Rey
PROFESSOR

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 CE05
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

SOIL
CHAPTER 3

GROUP 14

TOPICS:
3.0……………..……………………………..………GRIMARES
3.1……………………………………………..……..GRIMARES
3.2…………………………………...……………….REQUIJO
3.3……………………………………...REQUIJO & GUBATON
3.4…………………………………………………....GUBATON

CEIT – 02 – 401A
TF / 9:00 AM – 10:00 AM

DATE

Engr. Aleli N. Rey

PROFESSOR

2
 Table of Contents

3.0 Soil Definition…………………………………………………………………………….5

3.0.1 Soil Formation……………………………………………………………………….5
3.0.2 Factors of Soil Formation…………………………………………………………...5
3.0.3 Soil Horizons………………………………………………………………………....6
3.1 Major Divisions of Soil……………………………………………………..……………7
3.1.1 Based on Particle Size………………………………………………………..……...7
3.1.2 Based on Drainage Biological…………………………………………….………....8
3.1.3 Based on Organic Matter Content……………………………….…………..……..9
3.2 Properties of Soil………………………………………………………………..….…….9
3.2.1 Physical…………………………………………………………………………….…9
3.2.2 Chemical…………………………………………………………………….………10
3.2.3 Mechanical………………………………………………………………………….11
3.3 Soil Survey and Sampling……………………………………………………………...12
3.3.1 Soil Survey……………………………………………………………………….…12
3.3.2 Soil Sampling………………………………………………………………..…..….13
3.4 Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Aggregates…………………..……………...14
3.4.1 Fine Aggregates (Sand, Fine Gravel) ………………………………………….….16
3.4.2 Coarse Aggregates (Gravel, Crushed Stone) ……………………….…………....17

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Grimares, Marie Diane T. Gubaton, Gabriell Sebastian C.

Requijo, Kyla A.

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I. Soil
 Soil, the biologically active, porous medium that has developed in the uppermost
layer of Earth’s crust. Soil is one of the principal substrata of life on Earth, serving as
a reservoir of water and nutrients, as a medium for the filtration and breakdown of
injurious wastes, and as a participant in the cycling of carbon and other elements
through the global ecosystem. It has evolved through weathering processes driven by
biological, climatic, geologic, and topographic influences. It plays crucial roles in
plant growth, water and nutrient cycling, and supporting diverse ecosystems.

Soil Formation
 Soil formation refers to the dynamic process of transforming parent materials, such
as rocks and sediments, into soil through physical and chemical weathering under
changing environmental conditions.
Factors of Soil Formation

 Parent Material: This is the foundation of soil. The type of rock underlying the soil
significantly influences its mineral composition. For example, granite-derived soils
will be rich in minerals like silica and aluminum, while limestone-derived soils will
be rich in calcium.

 Climate: Climate plays a crucial role in soil formation through its influence on
weathering processes.

o Temperature: Fluctuations in temperature cause rocks to expand and contract,

leading to physical weathering.

o Rainfall: Rainfall contributes to chemical weathering by dissolving minerals

in rocks. It also influences the rate of organic matter decomposition.

 Organisms: Living organisms are integral to soil formation.

o Plants: Plant roots penetrate the bedrock, breaking it down and creating
spaces for air and water. They also contribute organic matter to the soil
through leaf litter and root exudates.

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 o Animals: Earthworms, ants, and other burrowing animals mix and aerate the
soil, facilitating the movement of water and air.

o Microorganisms: Bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms decompose

organic matter, releasing nutrients and creating complex soil structures.

 Topography: The slope and aspect of the land significantly influence soil
development.

o Slope: Steeper slopes are more prone to erosion, leading to thinner soils.

o Aspect: The direction a slope faces influences its exposure to sunlight and
precipitation, affecting soil moisture and temperature.

 Time: Soil formation is a slow and gradual process. It can take centuries or even
millennia for significant changes to occur. The time factor allows for the gradual
accumulation of organic matter, the weathering of minerals, and the development of
distinct soil horizons.

Soil Horizons (Distinct Layers)

 O Horizon (Organic): This is the

uppermost layer, primarily composed
of organic matter such as leaf litter,
dead plant material, and animal
remains. This layer is crucial for
nutrient cycling and provides a habitat
for many soil organisms.

 A Horizon (Topsoil): Commonly

known as topsoil, this layer is rich in
organic matter, nutrients, and living
organisms. It is the most fertile layer
and supports plant growth.

 E Horizon (Eluviated): Found in

some older soils, this layer is

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 characterized by the leaching of minerals, particularly clay and iron. It often appears
lighter in color than the overlying A horizon.

 B Horizon (Subsoil): This layer, also known as the subsoil, is typically enriched with
minerals leached from the overlying layers. It may have a higher clay content and a
denser structure than the A horizon.

 C Horizon (Parent Material): This layer consists of partially weathered parent

material, showing the initial stages of soil formation. It may contain fragments of the
underlying bedrock.

 R Horizon (Bedrock): This is the bedrock layer, the unweathered parent rock from
which the soil develops.

II. I. Major Divisions of Soil

Based on Particle Size:

a. Sand: Composed of relatively large, coarse

particles.
▫ Characteristics: High porosity, allowing for
good drainage but poor water retention.
▫ Implications: Can easily dry out, making it
challenging for plants to thrive without
adequate irrigation.

b. Silt: Consists of medium-sized particles.

▫ Characteristics: Retains moisture well due to its smaller
particle size, making it easier to work with.
▫ Implications: Can be easily eroded by wind and water if
not properly managed.

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 c. Clay: Composed of very fine particles, almost
microscopic in size.
▫ Characteristics: High water-holding capacity
due to its small particle size and numerous
tiny pores. However, this also leads to poor
drainage, potentially causing waterlogging.
▫ Implications: Can be challenging to work with
when wet, as it becomes sticky and difficult to cultivate.

d. Loam: A balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay.

▫ Characteristics: Combines the benefits of each particle
size, resulting in good drainage, adequate water retention,
and easy workability.
▫ Implications: Considered the ideal soil type for many
plants due to its balanced properties.

Based on Drainage:

a. Well-drained
▫ Water moves through the soil readily, preventing waterlogging.
▫ It has good aeration, allowing for healthy root growth.
▫ It is suitable for a wide range of plants, as it prevents root rot and other water-
related issues.

b. Poorly drained
▫ Water accumulates in the soil, leading to waterlogging.
▫ It has poor aeration, which can suffocate plant roots.
▫ Implications: Can limit plant growth and increase the risk of diseases. Often
requires drainage solutions to improve plant health.

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 Based on Organic Matter Content:

a. Organic soils: High in organic matter content, such as peat and muck.
▫ Characteristics: Dark in color, rich in nutrients, and often found in wetlands.
▫ Implications: Highly fertile and beneficial for plant growth, but may have
limitations in terms of drainage and construction.

b. Mineral soils: Low in organic matter content.

▫ Characteristics: Dominated by mineral particles, such as sand, silt, and clay.
▫ Implications: The most common soil type, with varying levels of fertility
depending on the specific mineral composition.

III. Properties of Soil

 The properties of soil are essential in determining its behavior and suitability for
various construction applications. These properties can be broadly classified into
physical, chemical, and mechanical properties:

a. Physical properties - These relate to the soil's structure and composition:

▫ Texture
→ Refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. It
influences drainage, compaction, and load-bearing capacity.

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▫ Color
→ Indicates the presence of organic matter, moisture, and minerals. (Example
red soils indicate iron oxides).
▫ Moisture Content
→ The amount of water present in the soil, which influences its compaction
and strength.
▫ Porosity
→ The ratio of void spaces to the total volume of soil. It affects permeability
and water retention.
▫ Permeability
→ The ability of soil to allow water to flow through it. Gravel has high
permeability, while clay has low permeability.

b. Chemical Properties - These define the soil's interaction with chemical elements
and its reactivity:

▫ Soil pH - Determines whether the soil is acidic, neutral, or alkaline. Affects the
durability of construction materials in contact with the soil.
▫ Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) - The soil’s ability to retain and exchange
nutrients, important for agricultural and environmental considerations.

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▫ Salinity - The presence of soluble salts in soil, which can corrode construction
materials like steel and concrete.

c. Mechanical properties - These relate to soil strength, stability, and behavior under
loads:

▫ Shear Strength - The soil's resistance to shearing

forces, important for slope stability and foundation
design.

▫ Compaction - The process of densifying soil by

reducing air voids, improving its strength and load-
bearing capacity.

▫ Plasticity - The soil's ability to deform without

cracking or breaking, measured using Atterberg
limits (plastic limit, liquid limit).

▫ Compressibility - The degree to which soil volume

decreases underload. High compressibility soils
(e.g., clay) are unsuitable for foundations without
stabilization.

▫ Bearing Capacity - The soil's ability to support loads from structures.

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IV. Soil Survey and Soil Sampling

Soil surveys
 A soil survey is the systematic study, classification, and mapping of soils in a
specific area to understand their physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. It
involves collecting data about the soil’s type, structure, distribution, and behavior
under different conditions.

TYPES OF SOIL SURVEY

a. Reconnaissance Survey - It is a quick survey method that is less complex and
ideal for scanning greater areas. In this survey, the soil boundaries are partially
marked rather than completely traversed.

b. Detailed Survey - Observations from actual traverses along the boundary make the
boundaries of the soil units evident. It facilitates accurate evaluation of geography,
soil characteristics, and other elements.
c. Detailed-reconnaissance Survey - It combines thorough surveying with
reconnaissance. It aids in comprehending the distribution of series soil classes and
their phases. We conduct this survey in low-potentiality areas.

d. Semi-detailed Survey - extremely thorough investigation of a few chosen strips

that span numerous aerial photo interpretation units in order to establish a
relationship between AP| units and soils.

SOIL SURVEY TECHNIQUES

a. General Purpose API Survey – Low intensity surveys are its primary application.
For the purpose of characterizing physiographic units, mapped borders are entirely

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 obtained via Aerial Photo Interpretation (API) using a free survey at low field
observation intensities.

b. General Purpose Free Survey – It maps boundaries using APls as well, although
it makes extensive use of field observations.

c. Special Purpose Grid Survey – This survey method records each soil property on
a grid pattern that can be parametrically mapped. Additionally, it can be used in
situations where there aren't enough surface indicators or landmarks to permit a
free survey of the areas of interest.

Soil Sampling
 A soil sample is the
representative of the whole lot
from which it is taken. It
completely represents all the
characteristics of the lot from
which it is recovered. Following
are some of the types of samples
which are generally retrieved in
geotechnical engineering

a. Disturbed Soil Samples

b. Undisturbed Soil Samples
Disturbed Soil Samples
 When the natural conditions of a
sample such as its structure, texture,
density, natural water contents or the
stress conditions are disturbed then
the sample is called as disturbed soil
sample. By using a shovel from
auger cutting these samples can be recovered.

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 Undisturbed Soil Samples
 An undisturbed sample is retrieved with
minimal disturbance to its structure, water
content, stress state and density. This helps in
study and analysis of the soil’s behavior as it
exists below the surface.
Types of Soil Samplers
▫ Continuous Auger (DS)
▫ Bulk Sampler (DS)
▫ Shelby Tubes and Thin Walled Samplers (UDS)
▫ Piston Sampler (UDS)
Difference Between Disturbed and Undisturbed Soil Samples:
Disturbed Soil Samples Undisturbed Soil Samples
 Disturbed samples are  Undisturbed samples are
generally obtained to used to determine the in-
determine the soil type, place strength,
gradation, classification, compressibility
consistency, density, (settlement), natural
presence of contaminants, moisture content, unit
stratification, etc. weight, permeability,
 These samples are discontinuities, fractures
considered disturbed. since and fissures of subsurface
the sampling process formations.
modifies their natural  Designated as undisturbed,
structure. in reality they are disturbed
 Disturbed samples are to varying degrees.
easier to collect than  Undisturbed Samples are
undisturbed samples. necessary to represent the
▫ Disturbed samples are soil’s natural structure and
used for simple tests properties.
▫ Undisturbed samples are
used for more detailed
tests

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V. Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Aggregates

Fine Aggregates
 Fine aggregates are small-sized particles, used extensively in construction. These
aggregates are essential in mixing concrete and mortar to give the mixtures a
smoother consistency. Fine aggregates are crucial for achieving the right texture
and strength in various construction projects.

Different Types of Fine Aggregates

a. Natural Sand
▫ Derived from riverbeds and
beaches, natural sand features a
smooth texture due to natural
erosion.
▫ It's preferred for concrete and
plaster works due to its uniform
grain size, enhancing the aesthetic
and strength of the structures.

b. Crushed Stone Sand

▫ Produced by mechanically
crushing solid rocks
▫ Suitable for structural bases and
other applications that require
more durability.

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 c. Crushed Gravel Sand
▫ Obtained through the crushing of
natural gravel
▫ It's used in similar applications as
crushed stone sand, including
driveways and pathways.

d. Manufactured Sand
▫ Created by crushing rocks into fine
particles and is widely used as an
eco-friendly alternative to natural
sand.

e. Stone Dust
▫ A by-product of crushing stones,
stone dust can sometimes serve as a
sand substitute in construction.
▫ Its fine particle size fills in tiny
voids between the aggregate,
effectively increasing the density of the mix and providing stability.

Physical Properties of Fine Aggregates

 Particle Size
▫ Fine aggregate consists of particles that pass through a 4.75 mm sieve and are
retained on a 75-micron sieve. The particle size distribution affects the
workability and strength of the concrete mix.

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 Specific Gravity
▫ The specific gravity of fine aggregate typically ranges from 2.5 to 2.9. It is an
important property that influences the weight and volume calculations in
concrete mix design.

 Fineness Modulus
▫ The fineness modulus is an index number that represents the mean size of the
particles in the fine aggregate. It is calculated by adding the cumulative
percentages of aggregate retained on a series of standard sieves and dividing the
sum by 100. A typical value ranges from 2.3 to 3.1.

 Moisture Content
▫ Fine aggregate can absorb water, which affects the water-cement ratio in
concrete mixes. The moisture content should be monitored and adjusted to
ensure the desired consistency and strength of the concrete.

Coarse Aggregates
 Coarse aggregates are granular materials. It is often used in construction for
concrete making. Its major composition includes crushed stone, gravel, or recycled
concrete. Their durability depends on the quality of the coarse aggregate,
significantly impacting the strength and workability of the concrete. Coarse
aggregates are classified as those larger than 4.75 mm according to sieve analysis.
Typical coarse aggregates are mostly smaller than two inches.

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Different Types of Coarse Aggregates

 Rounded Aggregate
▫ The major source of rounded aggregates is from natural deposits. The smooth
texture of the aggregates are used in concrete production. It is known for its
workability and ease of handling.
▫ The smooth surface of the rounded aggregate produces less friction and
enhances the workability of the concrete.
▫ Rounded aggregates can include various materials such as sand, gravel, and
other naturally occurring
stones.

 Irregular Aggregates
Sand Gravel ▫ Can decrease
workability compared to
rounded aggregates.
Small Stones Gravel
▫ The use of irregular
aggregate started with the advent of mechanical crushing techniques. It is used
to provide strength and durability to the concrete mix.
▫ It is mainly composed of gravel and small stones.

 Angular Aggregates
▫ The angular aggregate is
popularly known for its
higher interlocking
Basalt Limestone capacity. This offers
high strength to the
concrete mix
▫ It is composed of basalt, limestone, or granite.
▫ It is used in pavement and road construction.

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Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregates

 Size of Coarse Aggregates

▫ Materials that are large enough to be retained on the 4.7mm sieve size usually
constitute coarse aggregates and can reach a maximum size of 63mm.
▫ The size of coarse aggregates affects several aspects of the concrete, mainly
strength and workability.
 Grading of Coarse Aggregate
▫ The grading of aggregate is its classification according to the average size of
the particles. It is important that the grading is kept constant for concrete
batches.
▫ The aggregate particles need to be of a consistent size for an even grading.
Similar shaped coarse aggregates make the concrete more cohesive and
uniform.
 Shape of Coarse Aggregate
▫ The characteristic of the parent rock from which coarse aggregates are
produced and also the type of crusher used to influence the shape of the
aggregates.
▫ They may be round, angular or completely irregular.
 Water Absorption
▫ Aggregate absorption is the water it soaks up in the concrete batch. Dry
aggregates suck up any water in the concrete, which can lead to a dry and
brittle mix.
▫ Coarse aggregates can absorb water up to five percent of their weight.

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 Reference:

https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-11/Texture%20and%20Structure%20-
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/soil-formation
https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Soil_physical_properties_and_processes#:
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