CRESTBRIDGE COLLEGE, PORT HARCOURT

*Confidence * Leadership * Achievement

First Term Scheme of Work and Note
WEEK TOPIC CONTENT
1.  Scheme of Work  Scheme of Work Review
Review/Composition and  Meaning of soil
Properties of Soil I  Soil formation
 Factors affecting soil formation
 Types and properties of soil
2. Composition and Properties of the  Composition of soil
Soil II  physical and chemical properties of soil
 Soil profile
3. Farm Structures and Buildings 
Farm structures and buildings

Types of farm structures and buildings

Maintenance of farm buildings and farm
structures
4. Siting of farm and Layout of  Siting of a school farm
Farm Structures  Principles guiding the siting of farm structures
 Factors guiding the layout of farm structures
and buildings
 Importance of good siting of farm structures
and buildings.
5. CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TEST (CAT 1)
6. Farm Machines I  Farm machines and machinery
 Tractors
 Intermediate machinery
 Tractor-coupled implements
 Methods of maintaining farm machines
7. MID-TERM BREAK
8. Propagation of Crops  Meaning of propagation
 Sexual propagation
 Asexual propagation
9. Cultural Practices  Pre-planting operations
 Planting operation
 Post-planting operation
 Harvesting
 Post-harvest operation
10. Cultural Practice 
11. REVISION
12. EXAMINATION
13. CLOSING

WEEK: ONE & TWO

TOPIC: COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL
 CONTENT:
1. Meaning of soil
2. Factor affecting soil formation
3. Types and properties of soil
4. Composition of soil
5. physical and chemical properties of soil
6. Soil profile
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to;
i. define of soil
ii. describe the factor affecting soil formation
iii. mention the types of soil
iv. state the properties of soil
v. describe the composition of soil
vi. describe physical and chemical properties of soil
vii. give an illustration of the soil profile

NOTE I & 2

CONTENT
MEANING OF SOIL
Soil is the topmost part of the earth crust in which all farming activities are carried out. It can also be
defined as the solid part of the earth’s surface where crops are grown and livestock reared for man’s
use.
SOIL FORMATION
Soil formation is the development of soil through the process of rock weathering.
FACTOR AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION
1. Climate: abrasive action of rock particles caused by wind, temperature and rainwater contributes to
soil formation. Temperature causes the expansion and contraction of rocks; rainwater causes
chemical change of rock minerals.
2. Living Organism: Human activities can cause erosion which result in soil destruction and
formation. Soil organisms like termites and earthworms eat deep into the soil and mix the minerals
and organic matter together resulting in the formation of soil.
3. Topography: Topography influences the movement and amount of water in the soil. Hilly and
sloppy surfaces support erosion and encourage soil formation.
4. Parent Material: The chemical and mineral contents of the parent materials affect the types of soil
formed and the physical characteristics of the soil. Coarse and acidic parent materials produce
acidic soil while fine-grained rocks produce clayey soils.
5. Time: It takes longer period of time for rocks to disintegrate into grains of soil. A short time results
in the formation of immature soil while a long period of time allows for the formation of matured
soils.
TYPES OF SOIL
There are four (4) different types of soil. They are classified based on colour, texture, structure and
mineral contents. These soil types are sandy, loamy, clayey and silt.

SANDY SOIL
It is a soil that has high proportion of sandy particles with sizes ranging from 0.02mm to 2.0mm in
diameter.

PROPERTIES OF SANDY SOIL

1. It contains single-grained, loose and large particles.
2. It has large pore spaces; therefore, it is well aerated.
3. The rate of water percolation is high; it is well drained.
4. The colour is grey or brown
5. It has lower water retention capacity.
6. It is not pliable or plastic, and cannot form cast when moistened.

LOAMY SOIL
This is a mixture of sand and clay particles with a higher proportion of organic matter. It is more fertile
than sandy and clayey.
PROPERTIES OF LOAMY SOIL
1. It is dark-brown of black in colour
2. It contains organic matter and residues.
3. It has moderate-sized pore spaces.
4. The rate of water percolations moderate.
5. It is neither coarse as sand nor smooth as clay.

CLAYEY SOIL
It is made up of the smallest and finest particles.
PROPERTIES OF CLAYEY SOIL
1. It contains small fine powdery compact particles.
2. It is very smooth and soft.
3. It has high water retention capacity.
4. The rate of water percolation is low.
5. It has tiny pore spaces, hence, not well aerated.

SILT SOIL
Silt is made up of smaller particles and pore spaces ranging from 0.002mm to 0.02mm in diameter.
PROPERTIES OF SILT SOIL
1. Its particles are much smaller than sand particles.
2. It is well drained.
3. Particles are generally gritty to touch.
4. They are fairly easy to till.

COMPOSITION OF SOIL
The soil is made up of five (5) major components namely water, air, mineral matter, organic matter and
living organisms.
SOIL PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
COMPONENTS BY VOLUME
Water 25%
Air 25%
Mineral matter 45%
(Inorganic matter)
Organic matter 5%
Living organisms Variable

Total 100%

SOIL WATER
This is the water that is found in the pores of the soil as a result of rainfall or irrigation. It dissolves
minerals and nutrients to become solution.

FUNCTIONS OF SOIL WATER

1. It is required for seed germination
2. It dissolves plant nutrients for root absorption.
3. It is very vital for sustaining lives of plants and animals.

SOIL AIR
This is the amount of gases presents in the soil pores at a particular time. Air consists of carbon (IV)
oxide, oxygen and nitrogen which are essential for crop growth and development
FUNCTIONS OF SOIL AIR
1. Oxygen is essential for seed germination, proper growth and crop development.
2. Soil organisms require oxygen for respiration.

MINERAL OR INORGANIC MATTER

This consists of small rock fragments of the soil. It is made up of gravels, coarse sand, fine sand, silt,
clay, colloid. Mineral matter consists of macro-elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, etc.) and
micro-elements (manganese, copper, boron, etc.).

FUNCTIONS OF MINERAL MATTER

1. It is the main source of plant nutrients.
2. It provides support for the plants.
3. It holds air and water for plants use.

ORGANIC MATTER
This is a mixture of plants and animal residue in the soil. It consists of living organisms together with
their decaying residue such as leaves, bacteria, fungus, stems, roots, etc. It is also known as humus.

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIC MATTER

1. Improves the soil structure.
2. Improves water holding capacity of sandy soil.
3. It is very rich in plant nutrients.
4. It increases the population of soil organisms.

SOIL LIVING ORGANISMS

These are plants and animals which inhabit the soil. They include organisms such as bacteria, fungus,
virus, earthworms, insects, reptiles and small animals.

FUNCTIONS OF SOIL LIVING ORGANISMS

1. They improve soil structure.
2. They improve aeration of soil through burrowing.
3. They decompose organic matter in the soil.
4. They improve the plant nutrient.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The physical properties of soil are texture, structure, size, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour.
,

SOIL TEXTURE
This refers to the relative proportion of different sizes of mineral particles in the soil. This includes
sand, silt and clay. legacy

SOIL STRUCTURE
This is the arrangement of soil particles unto aggregates that is tilt of particles and the pores. The three
major types of soil structure are block-like, plate-like and prism-like structures. Others include:
spheroidal and single-grained structures.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL STRUCTURES
1. It reduces soil erosion.
2. It permits optimum aeration and water holding during crop growth.
3. It determines the level of fertility of soil.

SOIL PARTICLE SIZE

The size and diameter of the mineral particles in the soil can be used to classify soil unto clay, silt, fine
sand, coarse sand and gravel.
NAME OF PARTICLES RANGE OF PARTICLES IN DIAMETER
Clay Below 0.002mm
Silt 0.002 – 0.02mm
Fine sand 0.02 0 0.2mm
Coarse sand 0.2mm
Gravel Above 0.2mm

SOIL POROSITY: This is the ability of the soil to permit and water in and out of its pores.

SOIL CONSISTENCY
This is the resistance of soil to pressure and other physical manipulations. The consistency of wet soil is
sticky or non-sticky, moist soil is firm and dry soil is soft or hard.

SOIL TEMPERATURE: This is the coldness or hotness of the soil.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TEMPERATURE
1. It influences ripening of fruits.
2. It influences formation of soil organic matter.
3. It affects seed germination and root development.

SOIL COLOUR
The colour of the soil is determined by the quantity of organic matter and mineral matter in the soil.
Drainage and water also affect the color of the soil. There are different soil colors such as dark, black,
brown, white, yellow, etc.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The chemical properties of soils are soil pH, soil acidity, soil alkalinity.
SOIL pH
This is the measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. It is measured in pH unit which
ranges from 0 – 14. pH 6.9 - 0 increasing acidity while pH 7.1 – 14 indicates increasing alkalinity. The
best soil pH for crops is between the ranges 6 – 7.

SOIL ACIDITY
This is soil that contains high concentration of hydrogen ions than hydroxyl ions. The acidity of
tropical soils is usually between pH 3.5 and pH 6.5.

CAUSES OF SOIL ACIDITY

1. High Sulphur content in the soil.
2. Leaching – the washing down of plant nutrients beyond the reach of crop roots.
3. The use of acid fertilizer such as ammonium nitrate.
4. The presence of acid parent materials in the soil.
5. Nutrients uptake by crops without replacement.

EFFECTS OF SOUIL ACIDITY

1. High acidity reduces the activities of useful microbes.
2. Low pH leads to the accumulation of aluminum and manganese which may be toxic to crop roots.
3. Highly acidic soil causes the dissolution of iron, copper, zinc, aluminum and becomes toxic to
plants.
4. It hinders the absorption of mineral nutrients by roots.
5. It reduces the rate of decomposition of organic matter in the soil.

REMOVAL OF SOIL ACIDITY

1. Application of quicklime, limestone, wood ash, slaked lime, bone meal, etc.
2. Application of organic manure.
3. Mulching to reduce leaching.
4. Farmers should not apply excess acidic fertilizers to the soil.

SOIL ALKALINITY
Alkaline soils have higher concentration of hydroxyl ions than hydrogen ions. It is caused by the
excessive quantities of soluble minerals in the soil.

REMOVAL OF SOIL ALKALINITY

1. Application of Sulphur to the soil.
2. Through irrigation.
3. Application of ammonium sulphate.

SOIL PROFILE
This is the vertical cross-section of the soil showing different horizontal layers of soil called Horizons.
It is made up of four (4) distinct horizons namely top soil (A – Horizon), subsoil (B – Horizon), parent
materials (C – Horizons) and bedrock (D – Horizons).

IMORTANCE OF SOIL PROFILE

1. It influences the type of crops to be grown by farmers.
2. A loosely packed subsoil allows for easy root penetration.
3. It determines he level of soil fertility.
A fertile soil shows the absence of toxic substances, has appropriate pH, deep and friable, has optimal
aeration, has the required amount of essential elements, is easily tilled or has good workability,
presence of humus contents, good water-holding capacity.

STUDENTS EVALUATION
The teacher evaluates the student with the following questions:
1. define of soil
2. describe all the factor affecting soil formation
3. mention the different types of soil
4. state three properties each of the types of soil
5. describe the composition of soil
6. describe physical and chemical properties of soil
7. give an illustration of the soil profile.

STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT

Draw and label the soil profile

TERM: FIRST TERM

WEEK: THREE
TOPIC: FARM STRUCTURES AND BUILDINGS
CONTENT:
1. Farm Structures and Buildings
2. Types of Farm Structures and Buildings
3. Maintenance of Farm Structures and Farm Buildings
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to;
i. define farm structure and buildings;
ii. describe the types of farm structures and buildings;
iii. mention ways of maintaining farm structures and buildings
NOTE I
CONTENT
MEANING OF FARM STRUCTURES
Farm structures are very simple buildings designed to serve specific purposes on the farm so that farm
operations are more easily carried out eg barns, cribs, silos, etc.
EXAMPLES OF FARM STRUCTURES
 Silos  Cribs  Pond
 Silage pit  Compost pit/manure  Bins
 Nursery pit  Abattoir
 Rhombus  Cages  Hutches
 Feed mill  Barns
 Paddock  Drying shed
Below are types of farm structures and their uses.

TYPES OF FARM STRUCTURES AND THEIR USES

Farm structures are classified based on their uses
1. Production structures: These are structures for rearing animals and nursing young crop
plants/seedlings e.g. poultry battery cages, grazing paddocks, poultry range shelters, fish pods,
rabbit hutches, potting sheds for seedlings (nurseries),
2. Processing structures: These are structures that facilitate the conversion of harvested farm produce
into usable and marketable forms. Examples are processing sheds for processing machines such as
grinding machine sheller, oil palm press, feed mill machines, silage pit compost pit, drying
shed/pavement/barns; slaughter slab; smoking chamber etc.
3. Storage structures: These are structures constructed for the storage and preservation of farm
produce e.g. silos, cribs, rhumbus, barns, irrigation dams, compost pits, feed mills, tanks, cold
stores etc.
4. Maintenance structures: These are structures where repairs and servicing of farm equipment take
place. These include mechanics workshop; carpenter’s workshop etc.
5. Utility structures: These are structures used to serve various purposes on the farm. Examples are
dams, irrigation canals, drainage canals, well and water tanks, pumping house, waste disposal pits.
6. Protective structures: These are structures made to protect crops and livestock from possible
attack by pests and diseases. Examples are fences, spray devices, animal dips etc.

FARM BUILDINGS
These are more elaborate constructions/structures built to serve more than one purposes on the farm
e.g. farm offices, stores, etc.

TYPES OF FARM BUILDINGS

Farm buildings are mainly of two types.
1. Temporary farm buildings: These are buildings constructed from cheap or locally available
materials from the farm. They are abandoned soon after the farmer has completed using them.
Temporary buildings include storage sheds, nurseries house, animal pens, construction sheds,
workshop shed etc.
2. Permanent farm buildings: These are solid buildings normally constructed to last for a very long
time. The walls and floors are usually constructed from cement, sand, stones and gravel, wood,
corrugated iron sheets or aluminum is used for the roof. Examples of permanent farm buildings are
farm offices, workshops, living quarters for workers, stores for farm supplies and harvests, animal
houses, generator houses and abattoir, security house, milking parlour etc.

USES OF FARM STRUCTURES

The following are some farm structures and their uses:
1. Silo: A silo is a storage facility for storing of grains such as corn, rice etc. The silo keeps the grains
dry and protected from rodents and insects. There are different types of silo such as tower silos,
bunker silos, bag silos, concrete stave silos, fabric silos, etc.

2. Cribs: They are used for drying and storing maize which are still on the cob/unshelled maize (dual
purpose).
3. Rhombus: It is used for storing grains but in small quantity such as millet, maize, cowpea,
sorghum and groundnut.
4. Feed mills: They are used to manufacture animal feeds.
5. Barns: Barns are used for storing crops like yam, cocoyam, cassava, as well as grass or hay. A barn
can also be used as a shelter for livestock or livestock feeds like hay, grains etc.

6. Animal dips: They are used as bath for farm animals to prevent them from ecto-parasites such lice,
ticks, etc.

USES OF FARM BUILDINGS

The following are some farm buildings and their uses:
1. Farm office: It is used for the administration of all facets of the farm business

2. Living (quarters) or Farmhouse: This is a structure used primarily as a residence for families,
farmers, and workers on a farm. It can be connected to a barn sometimes.
3. Storage sheds: For keeping machines, equipment and tools
4. Nurseries: Used for raising seedlings.

5. Animal pens: Used for housing farm animals etc.

6. A chicken coop or chicken house: A chicken coop or chicken house is a small structure used for
keeping chickens especially the female ones. It is built basically to protect them from bad weather
and also a place where they can lay their eggs for easy collections.

7. A shed: A shed is a simple structure used for storage of equipment or as a workshop.

8. Stable: A stable is a structure used for keeping horses, although it can also be used for keeping
some other types of livestock.

9. Brooder house: A brooder house is a farm structure used for keeping young livestock especially
poultry. This structure is a heated enclosed shelter.

10. Cow-shed: A cowshed can also be referred to as a barn. But it is only designed for the purpose of
keeping cows.

MAINTENANCE OF FARM STRUCTURES AND BUILDINGS

The kind of maintenance practices applied depends on the nature of materials used for the construction
of the farm structure and buildings.

CONCRETE BUILDINGS: These are buildings made up of concrete, brinks, stones or mixture of
these.
i. Regular cleaning of the floor with disinfectant, izal, moriguard etc.
 ii. Painting of walls
iii. Mending of all licking roofs and cracked walls.
iv. The walls and floors should be plastered or re-plastered when broken.
v. Installation of braces to the sagged buildings
vi. Use insulators for roofing poultry houses to prevent heat escape.
TIMBER STRUCTURE AND BUILDINGS:
i. Dry the wood thoroughly before used to prevent rotting.
ii. ii. Treat woods with fire retardants
iii. Paint/treat woods with preservatives to prevent termite and fungi attack. Examples of wood
preservatives are selenium, coal tar, vanish, creosote, wax, paint, oil stains etc.
STEEL/METAL STRUCTURES AND BUILDINGS
i. Painting of metal parts with oil paint to prevent corrosion and rusting.
ii. Steel and iron structures should be kept away from continuous contact with water to avoid
rusting.
iii. Worn-out and faulty hinges should be replaced and not repaired. iv. Silos should be
coated with aluminum paint to prevent rust and to reflect light.
FENCES
i. Fence should be inspected regularly to check for cracks and holes.
ii. Any decayed post should be removed promptly.
iii. Plaster the fence to avoid its wearing away by water.

EVALUATION
State two ways of maintaining each of the following structures

a. Concrete buildings:
b. Timber structures
c. Fence
d. Steel
2. Highlight the uses of each of the following in agriculture a. Silos

b. Animal dip
c. Storage sheds
d. Workshop
e. Farm office

STUDENTS EVALUATION: The teacher evaluates the student with the following questions:
 1. define farm structures and buildings
2. state the types and uses of farm structures
3. give the description of different farm structures and buildings
4. state the maintenance of Farm Structures and Buildings

STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT

1. List two examples each of the following

 Temporary farm buildings
 Permanent farm building.
2. Mention the uses of the following structures:
 paddock
 Fish pond
 battery cage
 rabbit hutches
 dam, drying shed
 slaughter slab.
 silage pit
 animal dip
 compost pit.
3. Workbook assignment on the topic: FARM STRUCTURES AND BUILDINGS.

WEEK: 4
TOPIC: SITING AND LAYOUT OF FARM STRUCTURES
CONTENT:
1. Factors guiding siting of a farm.
2. Factors guiding layout of farm structures.
3. Importance of siting a farm structure.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to;
i. state the importance of siting a farm structure.
ii. state the factors guiding the siting of a farm structure.
NOTE 4
CONTENT

SITING
Sitting refers to locating an area where a particular farm structure or building is to be constructed. Farm
structures must be located in suitable areas for a farmer’s ease of use. Therefore, siting is very
important in the construction of farm structures and buildings.

FACTORS GUIDING SITING OF A FARM

1. Land tenure system: Land tenure is the system of land ownership by family, individual or
government agency for temporary or permanent use. Farmers should ensure that they put into
consideration the prevailing land tenure system in a community to avoid land disputes in order to
make land available for agricultural purposes.
2. Sizes and Locations: The farmer should consider the size of land because of future expansion of
his farming business. The farm should also be located near a village or town to assist the early and
quick distribution of farm produce to the market.
3. Soil Types: Soil types affect the types of crop to be grown by the farmer and yield. Fertile crops
promote cultivation of crops with high yield.
4. Topography or Slope of The Land: topography refers to the shape of the land. If the land is too
sloppy, there are high chances of landslide occurrence; and if it is too flat, there is a likelihood of
poor drainage that leads to flooding. A relatively flat free drained area is most suitable.
5. Accessibility: A farmer should site his farm in an accessible location to aid transportation of his
farm inputs and outputs.
6. Security: A farmer should pay attention to the security of lives and properties of his farm.
7. Climatic Factors: This greatly affects the incidence of pests and diseases which can have negative
effects on the productivity of the farm. It also determines the yield of crops and farm animals.
8. Water Supply: A farmer should site his farm close to river or streams for adequate water supply
for farming purposes.
9. Farmstead: This refers to the farm house and all production and processing structures on the farm.
It should be planned in such a way that it will promote high yield.

FACTORS GUIDING LAYOUT OF FARM STRUCTURES

1. Accessibility: Farm buildings and structures should be located within walking distance to reduce
transportation problems on the farmland.
2. Drainage: Adequate drainage is important to avoid waterlogging.
3. Health or Hygiene: Farmers should not erect livestock units against the wind direction to avoid or
reduce the transfer of animal diseases to human beings.
4. Nearness to the Market: It reduces the distribution of transportation, cost of farm produce and
exposes the produce to many buyers
5. Nearness to utility sources such as electrical power lines, telephone lines and piped water:
This allows cheaper access to essential services.
6. Topography: Living quarters should be located on the highest elevation and it should be far away
from animal units.
7. Soil Type: farmers should site crop farms on soils that are fertile while farm buildings should be
constructed on poor soils.
8. Water Supply: adequate water supply is needed for human and livestock use on the farmstead. It
is also required for irrigation purposes for dry season cropping.

IMPORTANCE OF SITING A FARM STRUCTURE

1. Ease of Operation: Well-planned farm structures make it convenient for farmers to transport farm
inputs from one area of the farm to another.
2. Ease of Transportation within and Outside the Farm: Good access roads ensure movement of
farm workers within the farm to ensure timelines of farm operations.
3. Proximity to Markets: The middlemen and traders can buy farm produce from the farm without
farmers making arrangement for storage of their produce. It ensure farm produce such as perishable
produce e.g. eggs, meat, pepper, tomatoes, etc get to the market in fresh form without the need of
preserving them. It also eliminates cost of transporting farm produce over a long distance.
4. Proper Utilization of Resources: A well-planned farm market makes it possible for farmers to
utilize available resources properly without wasting them.
5. Adequate Security: A fenced farm will prevent intruders from entering the farm.

STUDENTS EVALUATION: The teacher evaluates the learners with the following questions:
1. State five (5) factors guiding the layout of farm structures.
2. State five (5) importance of siting a farm structure.

STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT

1. Workbook Assignment on the topic: Siting and Layout of Farm Structures

2. Reading Assignment on the topic: Farm machines?

WEEK: 4
TOPIC: FARM MACHINES
CONTENT:
1. Meaning of farm machinery
2. Types of Farm Machines
 3. Tractors
4. Maintenance of Tractors
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to;
i. Explain the meaning of farm machinery.
ii. State and give examples of the different types of farm machinery.
iii. Define a tractor.
iv. Highlight five maintenance practices given to a tractor
NOTE I
CONTENT
MEANING OF FARM MACHINERY
Farm machinery is different types of machines and implements used in farming operations. These
machines and implements are: tractors, bulldozers, planters, sprayers, shellers, ridgers, ploughs,
harrows, harvesters, dryers, incubators, milking machines, etc. All these machines can be grouped into
three:
1. primary machines
2. intermediate machines
3. tractor-coupled or mounted implements

TYPES OF FARM MACHINES

Farm machines are classified based on some factors such as usage, sources of power, suite of operation,
etc.
1. Types of Machines Based On Uses:
a. primary machines: These are machines which supply mechanical power to other machines for
farm operations e.g. tractor.
b. Tillage machines: They are used for the preparation of soil before planting. These include
ploughs, harrows, ridgers, etc.
c. Planting machines: These are machines used to plant or sow planting materials (seeds, stems,
etc.) in the soil. Examples are broadcasters, drillers, planters.
d. Crop protection machines: they are used to apply agro-chemicals on the crops or soil to
control pests, weeds and diseases. Examples are knapsack sprayer, boom sprayers, etc.
e. Harvesting machines; These are machines used for removing the matured parts of crops,
examples are: corn pickers, mowers, combined harvesters, etc.
f. Processing machines: these are machines used as grinders, hammer mills, shellers, etc, used for
processing agricultural products.
g. Milking machines: These are machines used for extracting milk from the udders of dairy farm
animals such as cow, doe, and ewe, etc.
 h. Incubators: These are machines used for keeping fertile eggs under controlled temperature
until hatching.
2. Types of machines based on sources of power:
a. Primary machines: examples tractors, bulldozers.
b. Mounted machine: These are machines totally carried by the tractors without any wheel
support. Examples are ploughs, harrows, ridgers, etc.
c. Self-propelled machines: Machines with in-built power source. Examples are grinding
machines, incubators, etc.

3. Types of Farm Machines Based on Suite of Operation.

a. Barn machines: machines that located in the barn or sheds for post-harvest activities.
Examples are mixers, grinders, shellers, etc.
b. Field machines: These are machines used for field operations such as ploughing,
harrowing,
ridgers, cultivators, etc.

TRACTORS
A tractor is a multipurpose motor vehicle with internal combustion engine and hydraulic system,
equipped to power both mobile and stationery machines and implements. Tractors can be grouped
based on their engine power output (capacity)j, types of engine and wheels.
1. Based on engine power output or capacity:
a. Large tractors
b. Medium tractors
c. Small tractors
2. Based on type of engine:
a. Petrol engine tractors: they use spark plug and petrol. They are used for small horticultural
operations.
b. Diesel engine tractors: they use diesel oil and have no spark plugs.
3. Based on wheel types:
a. Pneumatic tyre type: presence of large rear and small; front wheels.
b. Crawler type: presence of chains or crawlers and suitable on wet soil.

MAINTENANCE OF TRACTORS
1. Keep the tractor clean by removing trashes or mud from it.
2. Check water level and top it when necessary.
3. Check oil daily and top it when necessary.
4. Check tyre pressure before operation.
5. Replace worn-out tyre with new ones.
6. Replace worn out parts.
7. Loose nuts, screws or shield should be tightened at regular intervals.

STUDENTS EVALUATION: The teacher evaluates the student with the following questions:
1. Explain the meaning of farm machinery.
2. State and give examples of the different types of farm machinery.
3. Define a tractor.
4. Highlight five maintenance practices given to a tractor

STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT
1. Mention five tractor-coupled implements and their various uses.
2. Draw and label a tractor in your agricultural science notebook.

WEEK: 8
TOPIC: CROP PROPAGATION
CONTENT:
1. Meaning of crop propagation
2. Methods of crop propagation
a. by seed (sexual)
b. By vegetative organs (asexual)
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to;
i. explain the meaning of crop propagation.
ii. describe the different methods of propagating crop plants.
NOTE I
CONTENT
MEANING OF PROPAGATION
Crop propagation is the practice of increasing the number of crop plants by sowing their seeds or
planting their cutting, leaves stems and roots. It is the reproduction of a new plant as an independent
unit. Propagation is primarily aimed at reproducing new young plants series methods.

METHODS OF CROP PROPAGATION

1. Sexual propagation (By seed)
2. Asexual propagation (By vegetative organs)
SEXUAL PROPAGATION OF CROPS
This is the production of new plants through the use of seeds. Sexual propagation of crops involves the
fertilization that involve the union or joining together of male and female gametes (pollen grains and
ovules) from two parent flowers to form the ovule which later matures to produce seeds. Seeds are the
main plant form of reproduction in sexual propagation of crops.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SEED

Seeds to be propagated should have the following characteristics:
1. Highly viable – containing living cotyledon or endosperm.
2. Good and robust shape and size
3. Early maturing – ability to grow and reach market at fast rate.
4. Free from pest attack.
5. Well filled and free from holes.
6. Highly yield – has prospect to generate higher income or profit
7. Hardiness – drought, pest and diseases resistance.
Examples of sexually propagated crops that are sown directly in the field are Maize, sorghum,
melon, cowpea, groundnut, soya beans, okra, millet, cotton etc. Examples of sexually propagated
crops that are first raised in the nursery for some time and later transplanted into the field are
cocoa, pepper, onion, oil palm, citrus, tomato, rice, etc.

ASEXUAL PROPAGATION OF CROPS

Asexual propagation is the reproduction of new plants from parent plant through the use of vegetative
organs/parts such as the leaves, stems, roots. This method of crop propagation is also known as
vegetative propagation of crops. In this method, plants organs such as the leaves, stems, cuttings and
roots are removed from their original parents, cut into suitable sizes and length and then planted into
the soil for the production of more types of the same plant.

FORMS OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION

1. Natural method of vegetative propagation
2. Artificial method of vegetative propagation

NATURAL METHOD OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Natural vegetative propagation is also known as propagation by division. This is a process whereby
some plants from special vegetative organs (propagules) of their parent are separated and propagated
naturally. This includes the following vegetative groupings with their examples:
a. Corms – cocoyam, radish, etc.
 b. Suckers – plantain, banana, pineapple
c. Bulbs – onion, wild onion
d. Stem tuber – yam, bitter yam
e. Rhizomes – ginger, spear grass
f. Runners – sweet potato, strawberries
g. Bulbils – Bulbifera species of yam, wild yam.

ARTIFICIAL METHOD OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Artificial method of vegetative propagation involves the deliberate reproduction of new plants from the
cut-off parts of the parent plants by man for his use. The cut – off organs may be root, stem or leaf.
Forms of artificial vegetative propagation include:
a. cutting
b. grafting
c. budding
d. layering
e. marcotting
PROPAGATION BY CUTTING
When plant organs are cut off from the parent, and the part are further cut into definite sizes in
order to be used as planting materials.
TYPES OF CUTTINGS
1. Stem cutting such as in cassava, sugar cane, sweet potato, hibiscus, Irish potato etc.
2. Root cuttings such as breadfruit, citrus, bougainvillea.
3. Leaf cuttings such as bryophyllum and water leaf.

Cassava stem cutting

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING
Is the act of joining the scion stem of one plant to the stock of another related plant. The top shoot is
called the scion while the rooted stem where the scion will be inserted, in V- shape form is refers to as
the root stock. In other to enhance easy fusion of the cambia layers of the two plants, they should be
of the same size in age.
Examples of plants that can be grafted are citrus, mango, rubber.

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING
This is the act of uniting a bud from one plant with the stock of another plant of the same or different
species. It means cutting off the bud of a plant and tying it to bud exile of another plant in a similar way
as grafting. Examples of crops that can be propagated by budding are rubber, citrus, mango, cocoa,
avocado pear.

PROPAGATION BY LAYERING
This is a method in which plant parts are made to develop root while they are still attached to the parent
plant. In mound layering, stems or branches of plants are made to produce and develop root system in
the soil by bending and laying the branch into the soil while still attached to the main plant. Examples
of crops that can be propagated by this method are lemon, coffee, rose etc.
 PROPAGATION BY MARCOTTING
This is also known as air layering. It involves a making ring peel at the branch ends up to the
region of cambium and covered with sack filled with humus soil. These regions are then left for
some days after which the branch is cut off and planted on a separate soil. The process is
carried out in the air unlike layering that occurs at the ground level. Examples of crops that can
be propagated by this method are the same as layering.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PROPAGATION BY SEEDS

Advantages of Sexual Propagation

1. Seeds are light and can easily be transported
2. Seeds are relatively cheaper.
3. It is very easy to practice, that is, seeds can be carried conveniently to the farm.
4. It brings about easy multiplication of plant population.
5. Well stored seeds can remain viable for a long time.
6. It is a sure way to start diseases free crops.
7. It can be used to improve crops through cross- breeding

Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation

1. Seed may not germinate because of dormancy.
2. It reduces the amount of seeds for consumption.
3. Seeds that are not properly stored may be attacked by the pests and diseases.
4. Growth is slow.
5. Seedless crop cannot be propagated.
6. Crops are poorly adapted.
7. Plants grown from seeds are not always uniform in growth, yield, colour, height etc.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL/VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Advantages of Asexual Propagation
1. There is good adaptation of crops.
2. More resistance to pests and diseases.
3. It enables crop to produce in very short time e.g citrus
4. Crops are uniformly established.
5. They can stand a more adverse environmental condition e.g poor soil
6. Seedless crops can be propagated.
7. The offspring are always identical to the parent plant.
8. Many flowers or ornamental plant are easily grown with the method.

Disadvantages of Asexual/Vegetative Propagation

1. Planting materials cannot be stored for a long period of time without losing their viability.
2. Diseases of parent stock are manifested in offspring.
3. Vegetative materials are costly especially tree crops.
4. It requires special skill or expertise.
5. The plant lodge very readily.
6. The process involved in the preparation of the vegetative material may be time consuming.
7. Vegetative materials are generally bulky making their transportation and handling difficult.

STUDENTS EVALUATION: The teacher evaluates the student with the following questions:

1. Explain the meaning of crop propagation.

2. Name the vegetative part used in the propagation of the following crops:
a. Cocoyam
b. pineapple
c. onion
d. ginger
 e. sweet potato
3. List five methods of artificial vegetative propagation.
4. State five crops that can be propagated by seeds

STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT
In your Agricultural Science notebook, show the diagrammatic representations of the following
methods of artificial propagation:
i. Grafting
ii. Budding
iii. Layering

WEEK: 9 & 10
TOPIC: CULTURAL PRACTICE
CONTENT:
1. Meaning of Cultural Practices
2. Types of Cultural Practices
a. Pre-planting,
b. Planting and
c. Post-planting Operations.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to;
i. explain the meaning of crop propagation.
ii. describe the different types of cultural practices.
NOTE 9 & 10
CONTENT

MEANING OF CULTURAL PRACTICES

Cultural practices or operations refer to all the operations carried out on the farm from the
beginning of the farming season to the end of that season.

TYPES OF CULTURAL PRACTICES

Cultural operations can be classified as:
1. Pre-planting operations
2. Planting operations
3. Post-planting operations
PRE-PLANTING OPERATIONS
These are the farming activities carried out before planting is done. These activities are carried
out to prepare and make the soil conducive for the crop to be planted. They include: selection of
the site, surveying of the soil and land measurement, clearing, stumping, field plotting or farm
layout, tilling or ridging, ploughing, harrowing, nursery and nursery practices.
NOTE 10
CONTENT
MEANING OF PLANTING OPERATIONS
These are operations associated with the actual planting or sowing of the planting materials.
Planting operations include the following:

1. SEED RATE: Seed rate is the amount or quantity of seeds or planting material used on a hectare of
land. It is expressed in kilogram per hectare (kg /ha) in the case of seeds and in number of stands
per hectare for vegetative propagation.
NB- Calculation required
2. PLANTING DATE: No definite date can be given for planting a crop because topographic and
climatic factors differ from place to place and from time to time. However, planting is done when
rain has sufficiently moisture the soil.
3. PLANTING DISTANCE/SPACING: Spacing refers to the distance between two plants. It varies
from species to species. Crops should be given the correct spacing to avoid too much competition
for light, water and nutrients. The distance from one crop stand to the next on the same row is
known as within row spacing while the distance between two adjacent rows is known as between
row spacing.
4. PLANTING OR SOWING DEPTH: The depth of planting required by seeds or seedlings varies
with the type of crop. The seed should be covered with rich topsoil, gently pressed down to avoid
air pockets.
TRANSPLANTING
This is the transfer of seedlings from the nursery beds to their permanent position in the field. The
following procedure should be adopted in transplanting.
• Water the bed thoroughly 3-4 hours before transplanting.
• Transplant in the evening of a cloudy or rainy day.
• Transplant only strong seedlings, taking them with a ball of earth with a hand trowel.
• Place each seedling with the ball of earth in a planting hole and cover with soil, pressing the ball
of earth firmly down.
PLANTING METHODS
a. Planting at stake/in-situ: When planting materials are sown directly in the field on flats, ridges or
beds.
b. Drilling: Sowing seeds in rows.
c. Broadcasting: To scatter over the soil surface.

POST-PLANTING OPERATIONS
These are the operations carried out after planting. They include thinning, supplying, mulching,
manure/fertilizer application, weeding, control of pests and diseases, harvesting, processing,
storing and marketing.

a. Thinning: This is the removal of extra seedlings from a stand to give room for others to grow.
The weakest plants should be carefully pulled up without damaging the remaining ones.
b. Supplying: This is the replacing of seeds that failed to germinate at all because they have lost
their viability.
c. Mulching: This is the practice of covering the soil surface with grass, crop residue, straw or
sawdust.
d. Fertilizer and manure application: This is the application of inorganic and organic manure to
supply plant nutrients for good growth.
e. Weeding: Weeding is the removal of unwanted plants in the farm. Early weeding is
recommended as early weed competition is hazardous. Weeds compete with crops for space,
light, water and nutrients.
f. Staking: This is the act of raising up/supporting some twining and creeping crops plants such as
tomato, yams, pumpkin etc.
g. Pruning and Trimming: This is the cutting off of dead and dropping branching in fruit trees
and flowers. The tools required are shears and secateurs
h. Control of pests and diseases: When crops are attacked by pests and diseases, the result is low
yield or crop failure. To ensure this it is necessary to prevent and control pests and diseases. This
can be achieved by the use of resist ant varieties, good management practices and spraying of
pesticides.
i. Harvesting: This is the removal and gathering of mature crops for processing and storage. The
sign of maturity differ for different crops. For crops like yam, cocoyam and ground nut, maturity
is signified when most of their leaves are turn into yellow and drying.

STUDENTS EVALUATION: The teacher evaluates the student with the following questions:
1. explain the meaning of crop propagation.
 2. Name the vegetative part used in the propagation of the following crops: Cocoyam, pineapple,
onion, ginger, sweet potato.
3. List five methods of artificial vegetative propagation.
4. State five crops that can be propagated by seeds
5. Define the following planting operations: Seed rate, Spacing, Transplanting
6. Define post-planting operations
7. List and explain five post-planting operations

STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT
1. What is a nursery?
2. Give three reasons why seedlings are raised in nursery.
3. Give one reason for staking each of the following crops: yam, tomato, banana.
4. In a tabular form, give the planting date and distance of the following crops: maize, tomato,
groundnut.