RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration/decay/breakdown of heavy, unstable nuclei of atoms

to form lighter and stable nuclei with the emission of radiations such as alpha particles, beta particles
and gamma rays together with energy. It is sometimes referred to as Natural Radioactivity and the
process is known as Radioactive decay. An isotope whose nucleus undergoes radioactive decay is called
a radioactive isotope or radio isotope.
Properties of Radioactive Emissions/Radiations/Rays
a) Alpha (∝) particles/rays/emissions/radiations.
An alpha particle is a helium nucleus emitted during radioactive decay with mass number
(atomic mass) of 4 and atomic number of 2. i.e. It is written as 42He. Alpha
particles have the following properties:
• Have a mass number of 4 units and a charge number of +2 each.
• Their speed is about one to one twentieth of the speed light, ( x 3 x 108).
• They are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields. In an electric field, they are deflected
towards the negative plate because they are positively charged.
• They have a very low penetrating power (their relative penetrability) is 1. This is because of their
large mass and relatively low speed. They can be absorbed or stopped by a sheet of paper and a
few cm of air.
• They have a very high ionizing power (their relative ionizing power is 10,000). They cause
ionization of gases. This is because they are positively charged and so they can attract electrons
from the atoms they get into contact with and cause loss of electrons.
b) Beta (𝛽) particles/rays/emissions/radiations.
A beta particle is an intra-nuclear electron emitted when a neutron is converted into a proton. A beta
particle is written as; −01𝑒 𝑜𝑟 −01𝛽 10𝑛 11𝐻 + −01𝑒

However a beta particle is not the ordinary electron of atoms. Beta particles have the following
properties:
• They have negligible mass (their mass is approximately zero) and the charge of -1.
• Their speed varies from 3 to 99% of the speed of light.
• They are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields. In an electric field, they are deflected
towards the positive plate because they are negatively charged. They are deflected more than
alpha particles because they are lighter.
• They have a high penetrating power. They are more penetrating than the alpha particles because
they move faster and have a negligible mass and can penetrate a few mm of aluminium foil.
• They have a lower ionizing power than alpha particles. (their relative ionizing power is 100)
because they have a negligible mass and move faster.
N:B: A positron is taken as a positively charged beta particle (+β) written as +01e 𝑜𝑟 +01β e.g.
7835𝐵𝑟 7834𝑆𝑒 + +01e

c) Gamma (γ) particles/rays/emissions/radiations.

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Gamma rays are extra energies the nucleus releases or gives out as it gains stability after radioactive decay
or disintegration. Sometime after the emission of either α or β particles, the residue remains with a lot of
energy which leaves it in an excited state.
Gamma rays are not material particles and are represented as; ɤ or 00ɤ.
They have the following properties:
• They have high energy electromagnetic radiations of very short wave length.
• They have zero mass and zero charge.
• They travel at a speed of light.
• They are not deflected by both electric and magnetic fields because they are not
charged.
• They have a very high penetrating power and can penetrate a few cm of Lead.
(They are more penetrating than beta particles). This is because they have no mass
hence moving at a high speed.
• They have a very low ionizing power.
N.B: Other particles that may be emitted include:
- the Proton p, written as 11𝐻
- the Neutron n, written as 10𝑛
- the Deuterium particle d, written as 21𝐻
- the Tritium particle t, written as 31𝐻
The Effects of Radioactive Emissions on the Nucleus of an Atom
a) When an atom or a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its mass number decreases by four units and
its atomic number decreases by two units. This is illustrated in the nuclear reaction equation below;
222
2𝐻𝑒 + 86𝑅𝑛
226 4
88𝑅𝑎

226
88𝑅𝑎 + 218
4
84𝑃𝑜
2𝐻𝑒

b) When an atom or a nucleus emits a beta particle, its mass number remains unchanged or
constant but its atomic number increases by one unit as illustrated in the nuclear reaction equation
below; 23490𝑇ℎ −10𝑒 + 23491𝑃𝑎
137𝑁 −10𝑒 + 138𝑂
c) When an atom or a nucleus emits gamma rays, its mass number and atomic number remain
constant or unchanged. 6027𝐶𝑜 00ɤ + 6027𝐶𝑜

Artificial (Man-Made) Radioactivity

Artificial radioactivity is the induced disintegration of naturally occurring stable nuclides through
bombardment with fast moving particles (neutrons, protons, alpha particles) forming more stable nuclides
with emission of radiations and energy. It can also be defined as the spontaneous disintegration of nuclei
of unstable isotopes that have been made by man through bombardment of naturally occurring stable (non-
radioactive) isotopes with emission of protons, neutrons, gamma rays, alpha, beta particles.
e.g. a) when stable isotopes of Aluminium are bombarded with ∝ particles, artificial radioisotopes of
phosphorous are formed which spontaneously disintegrate as illustrated below:
2713𝐴𝑙 + 42𝐻𝑒 ⟶ 3015𝑃 + 10𝑛
(stable) (unstable)

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The artificial radioisotopes phosphorous-30 decay by emitting positrons and neutrons to form silicon-28
isotopes. 3015𝑃 → 2814𝑆𝑖 + +10𝑒 + 210𝑛
Thus in artificial radioactivity, nuclear fusion takes place first followed by nuclear fission.
a) Nuclear fusion.
This is the joining together of lighter nuclei to form heavier nuclei with release of large amounts of energy.
The energy released is due to the loss of mass accompanying nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion
reactions require very high temperatures in order to overcome the strong electrostatic repulsions between
the positively charged nuclei, thus nuclear fusion reactions are referred to as thermal nuclear reactions.
e.g.
The hydrogen bomb is a nuclear weapon which relies primarily on nuclear fusion for its release of energy.
There are two types of hydrogen bombs e.g. tritium and deuterium bombs. - The tritium bomb. Derives
its energy from fusion of tritium and deuterium.
31𝐻 + 21𝐻 ⟶ 42𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛 (+𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) tritium
deuterium
- The deuterium bomb. Derives its energy from fusion of deuterium only.
21𝐻 + 21𝐻 ⟶ 42𝐻𝑒 (+𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)

The hydrogen bomb is 1000 times more powerful than that released by the atomic bomb.

b) Nuclear fission. This is the splitting up of heavy unstable nuclei into light nuclei with release of large
amounts of energy. A nuclear fission can be induced or brought about by bombarding heavy nuclei with
neutrons. The nucleus captures the neutron and breaks up into two nuclei of roughly equal size.
Certain nuclear fissions can also be induced by protons, deuterium particles or alpha particles but
the most important are those that are brought by neutrons.
e.g Uranium-235 isotope when it’s bombarded with neutrons as shown in the nuclear reaction equations
below,
23592𝑈 + 10𝑛 3890𝑆𝑟 + 14454𝑋𝑒 + 2 10𝑛 (+𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) and

23592𝑈 + 10𝑛3693𝐾𝑟 + 14056𝐵𝑎 + 3 10𝑛 (+𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)

N.B: Natural radioactivity is shown by elements with atomic number greater than 83 while artificial
radioactivity can be induced in elements with atomic number less than 83

Balancing Nuclear Equations

The following rules are applied when balancing nuclear reaction equations.
- The sum of mass numbers of the reactant species (nuclides) must be equal to the sum of the mass
number of the product species.
- The sum of the charge numbers of the reactant species or nuclides and that of the product species
must be equal.
complete the following nuclear reactions.

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(a) 24 0
11 𝑁𝑎 ………+ −1𝑒

10 13 1
(b) 5𝐵 + ………. 7𝑁 + 0𝑛

218
(c) 83 𝐵𝑖 … … … … … . . . + 2 42𝐻𝑒 + 206
82 𝑃𝑏

35 1 1
(d) 17 𝐶𝑙 + 0𝑛 1𝐻 + ……….

235 1 93 + 140
(e) 92𝑈 + 0𝑛 36 𝐾𝑟 + ………. 56 𝐵𝑎

30 30
(f) 15 𝑃 14 𝑆𝑖 + ………

14 4 18
(g) 7𝑁 + 2𝐻𝑒 9𝐹 + ……

2) From word nuclear equations; write balanced equations for each of the following nuclear
transformations.
(a) Loss of an alpha particle by 23090𝑇ℎ

…………………………………
(b) Beta decay by lead-214

…………………………………..
(c) Fusion of 157𝑁 with a proton to give another nucleus with emission of an alpha particle.

……………………………….....
(d) Fusion of sodium-23 and a neutron to give another nucleus with emission of gamma rays.

………………………………….
Differences between nuclear and chemical reaction
i. Nuclear reactions involve fission for splitting or fusion of nuclei while chemical
reactions involve transfer (loss or gain) or sharing of electrons.
ii. Nuclear reactions result into formation of new elements while chemical reactions result
into formation of compounds. iii. Nuclear reactions are exothermic i.e release
energy while chemical reactions can be exothermic or endothermic.
iv. Nuclear reactions release very large amounts of energy while chemical reactions
release or absorb smaller amounts of energy.
v. Nuclear reactions produce radioactive emissions in the form of alpha, beta and
gamma emissions.
vi. The rate of nuclear reactions is not affected by changes in temperature and pressure but
rates of chemical reactions are affected by changes in temperature and pressure.
vii. In nuclear reactions isotopes of an element react differently whereas isotopes of an
element react in the same way during chemical reactions.

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Radioactive Decay Law
The rate at which a radioactive isotope decays (disintegrations) cannot be speeded up or slowed
down by any physical or chemical means. It depends only one:-
- the identity of the isotope i.e. it is a characteristic of the radio isotope.
- the amount (mass, activity, concentration, count rate, number of undecayed atoms) of the
isotope present.
Therefore the radioactive decay law states that; the rate of decay of a radioactive isotope is
directly proportional to the amount of the isotope present at that particular time.
Thus if Nt = amount of the radioactive isotope present at time t,
Then rate of decay ∝ 𝑁𝑡
Graph type 1
Plotting a graph of amount of a radioactive substance present, Nt against time, t give a curve with
a negative gradient / slope. This curve is called a decay curve.

Since amount of the isotope decreases with increase in time, the change (δN) is negative because
the original amount, N0 is greater than Nt i.e. δN = Nt - N0 = negative value.
Thus rate of decay = − (𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡 ) but − (𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡 ) ∝ 𝑁𝒕 hence − (𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝜆𝑁𝑡 ------ (a)
where 𝜆 = decay constant.
By definition the decay constant is the constant of proportionality in the decay equation (or
this is the fraction of radioactive nuclei which decays per a time).
Equation (a) is the radioactive decay equation which can be solved by separating variables
followed by integration.
Graph type 2
From − (𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝜆𝑁𝑡 and by rearranging and separating variables, − (𝑑𝑁 𝑁𝑡 ) = 𝜆 𝑑𝑡

Integrating,

ln (𝑁𝑡/ 𝑁𝑜 ) = -λt ----------- (i)

which is in the form y = m x

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Plotting a graph of ln (𝑁𝑡) against time gives a straight line with a negative gradient.
𝑁𝑜

Graph type 3
Using logarithm, log10 (𝑁𝑡/ 𝑁𝑜 ) = - 𝜆 2.303 t ----------- (iii)

which is in the form y = m x

Plotting a graph of log10 (𝑁𝑡) against time gives a straight line with a negative gradient.
𝑁𝑜

Graph type 4
If the negative sign is removed, ln (𝑁0) = λ t ----------- (iv)
𝑁𝑡 which
is in the form y = m x
Plotting a graph of ln (𝑁𝑜)
against time gives a straight
line passing through the origin
and having
𝑁𝑡
a positive gradient.

Graph type 5
which is in the form y = m x
Plotting a graph of log10 (𝑁𝑜) against time gives a straight line passing through the origin and
𝑁𝑡
having a positive gradient.

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Half Life (𝒕𝟏/𝟐) of a Radioisotope
This is the time taken for one half of the original amount to disintegrate decay.
It is the time taken for a given amount of a radioisotope to disintegrate to a half its original value.

From ln(𝑁𝑜/𝑁𝑡) = 𝜆𝑡 when t = 𝑡1/2 and 𝑁𝑡= 𝑁𝑜/2

𝑁𝑜
then by substituting; ln( ) = 𝜆𝑡1/2 ln2 = 𝜆𝑡1/2
𝑁𝑜/2

𝑡1/2 = In2/ 𝜆

or from 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (No/Nt) = 𝜆𝑡 where t = 𝑡1/2 and 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁o/2

then 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (No/No/2 ) = 𝜆𝑡1/2 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 = 𝜆𝑡1/2 𝑡1/2 = 0.693/𝜆
From the above equations for half-life it is clear that the half-life of a radio isotope is a constant
and is independent of the initial amount of the radioisotope. i.e. It is always the same whatever
the original amount of the same radioactive substance may be.
The half-life of a radioisotope is an indicator of the suitability of the radioisotope i.e.; the longer
the half-life, the more stable the radio isotope and the shorter the half-life the less stable the radio
isotope.
Finding half-life from a graph;

Examples:
1. Carbon-14 dating shows that a piece of ancient wood gives 10 counts per minute per gram (10
Cmin-1g-1) of carbon compared with 15 Cmin-1g-1 of carbon from a sample of new wood of the
same kind. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5600 years. What is the age of the ancient wood?
Solution
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Let original activity be = A0 = 15 C min-1g-1
activity at time t be = At = 10 C min-1g-1
half-life be = 𝑡1/2 = 5600yrs age
of ancient wood = t = ?

From radioactive decay equation,

𝑙𝑛 2 𝑙𝑛 2 𝑙𝑛 2
but 𝑡1/2 = 𝜆 = 𝜆 = = 1.24 x 10-4 year-1
𝜆 𝑡1 /2 5600

then t = 3,270 years.

2. The half-life of Radium is 1590 years. How long will it take for a sample for Radium to decay
to 10% of the original activity?
Questions:
1. A sample of carbon from wooden artifact is found to give 7.00 Cmin-1g-1 of carbon 14. The
carbon-14 from wood recently cut down decays at a rate of 15.3 Cmin-1g-1. If the t1/2 for carbon-14 is 5570
years, what is the age of the artifact?
2. In an experiment, the rate of radioactive decay of bromine decreased by 25% in 96 minutes.
Calculate the half-life of bromine.
3. The half-life of 10043Tc, a beta emitter is 16 seconds. How many atoms of 10043Tc? What is the
mass of the sample?
4. When 23892U decays, the end product is 20682Pb. The half-life is 1.4 x 1017 s. Suppose a rock sample
contains 20682Pb and 23892U in the ratio 5:1 by weight. Calculate;
(i) the number of 20682Pb atoms in 1.0g of the rock sample.
(ii) the age of the rock.
5. The table below shows the count rates of a certain radioactive material. Plot a graph of count rate
against time and use it to find the half-life and decay constant of the material.
Count rate (Cmin-1g-1) 6400 5380 3810 2700 1910 1350
Time in minutes 0 1 3 5 7 9

6. (a) Gallium has two isotopes of mass numbers 69 and 71 in the ratio x:y. If the relative atomic
mass of gallium is 69.8, determine the values of x and y expressed as percentages. (3 marks)
(b) The table below shows the results of the radioactive decay of 23491𝑃𝑎
Time(seconds) 20 40 60 80 100 120
Mass of 23491𝑃𝑎 (g) 48.2 38.5 31.5 26.0 21.0 17.2

Plot a graph of log10(mass) against time. (4 marks)

(c) Use the graph in (b) above to determine the:
(i) initial mass of Pa . (1 mark)
(ii) decay constant of Pa (2 marks)
(iii) half- life of 𝑃𝑎 . (2 marks)

Nuclear Stability (Stability of the Nucleus)

This is a measure of the extent to which the nucleus of an atom stays or remains without
disintegrating / decaying / breaking down. Therefore a stable nucleus does not undergo
radioactive decay and has a strong tendency to resist splitting up or fusion despite the fact that it
contains positively charged protons which strongly repel each other.
An unstable nucleus undergoes radioactive decay with emission of alpha, beta and gamma rays.
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The decay continues until a stable nucleus is formed.
Factors affecting nuclear stability include:
The two main factors that determine nuclear stability are the neutron to proton ratio and the total
number of nucleons (mass number) in the nucleus.
1. The neutron/proton (n/p) ratio
A stable nucleus always contains an adequate number of neutrons in order to dilute the
concentration of positive charge due to protons which would strongly repel one another and
cause instability hence nuclear fission. A nucleus will be stable if it maintains a balanced
neutron to proton ratio of a specific range.
Too many neutrons or protons upset a balanced neutron to proton ratio disrupting the binding
energy from the strong nuclear forces making the nucleus unstable and the atom becomes
radioactive.
Therefore stability of a nucleus is due to stable arrangements of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. Stable nuclei are predominantly (mainly) those with even numbers of protons and/or
neutrons as shown in the table below.
Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of stable isotopes
Even Even 168
Even Odd 57
Odd Even 50
Odd Odd 4
• Nuclides containing odd numbers of both protons and neutrons are the least stable means
more radioactive.
• Nuclides containing even numbers of both protons and neutrons are most stable means
less radioactive.
• Nuclides containing odd numbers of protons and even numbers of neutrons are less stable
than nuclides containing even numbers of protons and odd numbers of neutrons. In
general, nuclear stability is greater for nuclides containing even numbers of protons and
neutrons or both.
Question: Based on the even-odd rule presented above, predict which one of the nuclides below would
you expect to be radioactive in each pair?
(i) 168𝑂 and 178𝑂 (ii) 35 37
17𝐶𝑙 and 17𝐶𝑙 (iii) 20
10𝑁𝑒 and 10 Ne
17
(iv) 195 196
80𝐻𝑔 and 80𝐻𝑔

The Band (or Belt) of Stability (Stability Belt/band) is a graph of stable elements that shows a
region of the neutron to proton ratio for which isotopes are stable. It consists of a plot of number
of neutrons against number of protons for naturally occurring stable nuclides or isotopes as shown
below:

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From the plot above, stable nuclei form a belt/band of stability i.e. all stable nuclei are located
in the stability belt or band which has the following features;
➢ Stable nuclei of isotopes with atomic number (proton number) less than or equal to 20
have a neutron to proton ratio equal to 1. They lie on line AB which represents isotopes
with an equal neutrons and protons number. Along AD, the nucleus is stable and
nonradioactive but along DB the nucleus is unstable and radioactive. e.g. 126𝐶 and
168𝑂 are stable.

➢ Stable nuclei of isotopes with atomic number greater than 20 and less than 83 have a
neutron to proton ratio (𝑛⁄𝑝) greater than 1 but not exceeding 1.6:1 because they contain
slightly more neutrons than protons to become stable.
The reason for this difference in ratio is because of the repulsive force between protons. The
stronger the repulsion force between the many protons close to each other, the more neutrons
are needed to stabilize the nuclei.
Neutrons help to separate the protons from each other in a nucleus so that they do not feel a
strong repulsion force from other.
This explains why the stability belt curves towards the axis for number of neutrons. Therefore,
the straight line AB does not indicate stability for nuclei with proton number greater than 20.
Line or region DC represents variation in the number of neutrons and protons for non-radioactive
isotopes but along line DB the nuclides are unstable and radioactive.
➢ With this increasing ratio of neutrons to protons, the stability is impossible after point C.
Therefore the stability belt ends with proton number 83 and neutron number 125. Note:
From the graph it shows that nuclei of isotopes whose plot of number of neutrons against
proton number that lie outside the stability belt are unstable hence they undergo decay to form
stable nuclei as explained below:
a) Isotopes to the left of the belt e.g. at P
A nucleus at P is unstable because it contains too many neutrons compared to protons (has a very
high 𝑛⁄𝑝 ratio greater than 1.6). Such a nucleus can gain stability through any of the following
ways:
i) Beta particle decay (emission). During beta decay, a neutron splits up to form a proton
and one electron. i.e. 10𝑛 (𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) 11𝐻 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛) + −01𝑒 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) In this

case, a neutron is converted into a proton with formation of an electron which is emitted
as a beta particle. The proton is retained in the nucleus while the electron is released.
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 This transformation reduces the number of neutrons but increases the number of protons
hence bringing the daughter nucleus diagonally downwards from left to right towards the
stability belt.
ii) Neutron Emission. Nucleus at P can attain stability by losing neutrons to reduce the
number of neutrons in it hence reducing the neutron to proton ratio such that the daughter
nucleus formed is close to or within the stability belt.

b) Isotopes to the right of the stability belt. e.g at R

Nuclei of such isotopes are unstable because they contain too many protons compared to
neutrons i.e. they have a very low neutron to proton ratio. They attain stability by
i) Positron decay (Emission). It involves conversion of a proton into a neutron and a positron. A
positron is a positive beta particle. The positron is demitted but the neutron is retained in the
nucleus. This transformation increases the number of neutrons, thus moving the daughter nucleus
diagonally upwards from right to left towards the stability belt. 11𝐻 → 10𝑛 + +01𝑒 ii)
Electron capture. In this case a nucleus captures an electron from the K–shell (energy level
closest to the nucleus) which immediately combines with a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron.
i.e. 11𝐻 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛) + −10𝑒 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) 10𝑛 (𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛)

This increases the neutron number but reduces the proton number hence increasing the neutron to
proton ratio. This transformation continues until the daughter nucleus attains a stable n:p ratio.
iii) Proton Emission. A nucleus can emit protons hence reducing their number in nucleus and
increasing the neutron to proton ratio.
c) An Isotope at Q.
An isotope at Q has an atomic number greater than 83 and is too heavy, therefore it attains stability
through alpha decay/emissions. This is because the emission of an alpha particle would cause the
significant decrease in the mass of the isotope for stability to occur.
e.g 23490𝑇ℎ 23088𝑅𝑎 + 42𝐻𝑒
Note that: With all decay pathways, if the daughter nuclides are not on the stability belt, then
subsequent decay pathways will occur until the daughter nuclei are on the belt of stability. This
is known as the decay series.
2. Binding Energy of the Nucleus
This is the energy released or given out when a nucleus is formed from the individual protons
and neutrons.
Alternatively, this is the energy required to separate a nucleus into individual protons and
neutrons. The higher the binding energy of the nucleus, the harder it is to break the nucleus and
the more stable the nucleus and the lower the binding energy, the less stable the nucleus is.
Origin of binding energy: Generally, the total mass of individual protons and neutrons is
greater than the experimentally determined mass of the nucleus formed after their combination.
i.e. formation of a nucleus from the individual protons and neutrons is accompanied by a
decrease/loss in mass called mass defect (deficit). This mass defect is converted into the binding
energy of the nucleus according to Einsten’s law 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐2 where E = energy (binding
energy), m = mass (mass defect) c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s
By definition; mass defect is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the total mass
of the individual protons and neutrons.
When neutrons and protons combine to form a nucleus, there is a loss in mass called the mass
defect which is converted into energy according to Einstein’s law; 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐2. This energy

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overcomes (counteracts) the repulsion between the protons hence making the nucleus stable.
This lost or released energy during nuclear formation is called the binding energy.

Binding energy per nucleon also called the binding fraction is the ratio of the binding energy
of the nucleus to the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Binding energy per nucleon for different isotopes depends on their mass number as shown in
the graph below.

From the graph, maximum value of binding energy per nucleon are obtained for isotopes with
mass numbers about 60 implying that the nuclei of these isotopes are the most stable. They
include; 5626𝐹𝑒 , 27𝐶𝑜, 2859Ni and 6429Cu
59

- Isotopes with mass number greater than 60 are heavy and have low binding energies
hence, they undergo nuclear fission to form lighter and more stable nuclei with release of
energy. - Similarly, isotopes with mass numbers less than 60 are light nuclei with low binding
energy per nucleon, so they are not stable. Therefore they undergo nuclear fusion to form
heavier, more stable nuclei with release of energy.
3. Atomic number/atomic mass
Stability reduces as atomic mass increases. Atoms with atomic number greater than 83 are too
heavy to be stable.
Very light nuclei (with atomic number less than 20) are stable.
4. Half-life
The shorter the half-life the faster the radioactive nuclide decays and the less stable it is. The
reverse is true.
5. Magic numbers
These are natural occurrences of specific neutron or proton numbers in isotopes that are
particularly stable. Nuclides with magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 114 as the number of
protons or 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 and 184 as number of neutrons are stable.
These numbers of protons and neutrons are called magic numbers and are thought to represent
closed nuclear shells comparable to closed electron shells for noble gases. Stable isotopes with
these magic numbers of protons and neutrons include: 42He, 166O and 20882Pb.

Question: (a) Define the term isotopes. (1 mark)

(b) State factor(s) that affect stability of the isotopes apart from the neutron to proton ratio. (1 mark)
(c) Sketch a graph of number of neutrons versus number of protons and on it indicate

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(i) the line in which n/p = 1.
(ii) the stability region.
(iii) three points in the unstability region. (3½ marks)
(d) Describe briefly how the isotopes in the unstability region in the three points indicated in (c) above
can gain stability. (4 marks)
Uses or Application of Radioisotopes
1. Treatment of cancer: - Cancerous tissue is destroyed or killed in preference to healthy tissues
by exposure to gamma rays, emitted from radioisotope such as cobalt-60 or Radium.
- Radioactive phosphorous has been used in treatment of leukemia.
- Radioactive iodine is used in treatment of goiter.
2. Sterilizing surgical instruments and contaminated hospital blankets. Gamma rays emitted
by radioisotopes are used to kill bacteria and viruses on surgical instruments and contaminated
hospital blankets.
3. Food preservation: Food stuffs are radiated with gamma rays emitted by radioisotopes
which kill bacteria that are in food, hence preventing food spoilage.
4. Tracer studies; Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers for diagnostic purposes as well
as in research on metabolic processes.
A radioactive tracer or label is a chemical compound in which one or more atoms in a strategic
position have been replaced by another atom of the same element which is radioactive
(radioisotope).
An object with a very small amount of a radioisotope attached to it/incorporated in it can readily
be detected by picking up radiations from it by virtue of its radioactive decay, after a series of
nuclear reactions. Thus tracer studies use radioisotopes to track the path of an element through
the body of an animal or plant e.g.
a) Radioactive iodine-131 isotope has been used in both the diagnosis and treatment of
thyroid disease and in research on the functioning of the thyroid gland and kidneys.
b) The uptake of phosphorous by a plant can be traced using a phosphate fertilizer
containing radioactive phosphorous-32 isotope.
c) The introduction of radioactive iron-59 in the blood stream has enabled scientists to
identify the role played by iron in blood formation.
d) Study of reaction mechanism; when radioactive oxygen-18 isotope can be used to
determine the mechanism of the reaction between a monocarboxylic acid and a primary alcohol
as explained below;
A primary alcohol containing oxygen-18 isotope is reacted with a monocarboxylic acid. A mass
spectrometer is used then to analyse the ester and water formed. The oxygen-18 isotope is found
in the ester only and not in the water. This implies that the carbon to oxygen single bond in the
carboxylic acid and the oxygen to hydrogen bond in the alcohol are broken (cleaved).
O

R O H + R C OH R C O R + H2O

(alcohol) carboxylic Ester

acid
The dotted lines show the bonds that are broken (cleaved) during the reaction.
i.e. a non-radioactive oxygen atom in the alcohol is replaced by radioactive oxygen-18. By virtue
of its radioactivity, oxygen-18 undergoes a series of nuclear reactions during esterification. The
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path followed by oxygen-18 during the reaction with the carboxylic acid or acid anhydride is
then traced from its original position in the reactants to the final position in the products. 5)
5)Detects leaks in buried (underground) water, oil or gas pipelines. This is done by introducing a
Gamma emitting radioisotope e.g. Cobalt-60 into the flow of water, oil or gas in the pipeline.
The level of surface radioactivity is monitored using a detector and where a sudden increase in
the radioactivity is detected is the point where the leakage is.
6) Detection of wear in an engine.
7) Detection of metal fatigue.
8) Measurement and control of thickness of material like paper, metal and plastic.
9) Detection of the level to which a container is filled with a liquid or solid.
10) Radio dating: Radioactive isotopes can be used to get good estimates of the ages of
ancient materials.
Carbon-14 is continuously formed in the upper atmosphere by effect of cosmic ray neutrons on
nitrogen-14 atom. It is then rapidly oxidised in air to carbondioxide gas and enters the global
carbon cycle.
The carbon-14 from carbondioxide is taken up or assimilated by plants during photosynthesis
and by animals during respiration. There is negligible disintegration of this carbon during life
time of plants and animals. However, when they die, there is no more carbon-14 taken in. The
carbon-14 starts to decay as its proportion in dead tissue falls with time and is proportional to the
number of active atoms remaining (This is known as activity).
Carbon-14 dating is the best known technique in which radioactive carbon-14 is used to date old
dead (archeological samples of plant and animal materials). This is done by measuring the
amount (concentration or activity) of carbon-14 in the archeological object. The amount of
carbon-14 in a similar object (of the same kind) which is still alive (i.e. fresh sample) is also
measured. Since the half-life of carbon-14 is known (5570 years) then these values can be used
to calculate the approximate age of the archeological object using the equations below:
𝜆= ln 2 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 0 .693 and ln (𝑁𝑜) = 𝜆𝑡 𝑜𝑟 2.303 log(𝑁𝑜) = 𝜆𝑡
𝑡1⁄2 𝑡1⁄2 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑡

where 𝜆 = decay constant of carbon-14

𝑡1⁄2 = half-life of carbon-14
No = amount of carbon-14 in the fresh (live) sample or freshly killed.
Nt = amount of carbon-14 in the dead or fossil (archeological) sample
t = approximate age of the archeological sample.
Other Questions:
1. Protons are positively charged but they all exist in the nucleus of an atom without splitting it.
Explain this observation.
Answer: A stable nucleus always contains an adequate number of neutrons in order to dilute
the concentration and effect of positive charge due to protons which would strongly repel one
another and make the nucleus unstable hence nuclear fission.
2. (a) Explain what is meant by the following terms:
(i) Electron (ii) Proton (iii) Neutron (iv) Isotope
(b) The radioactive atom 229 88𝑅𝑎 decays by ∝-emission with a half-life of 364 days.

(i) What is meant by “half-life of 364 days?”

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(ii) Referring to the product of the decay, what will be its mass number and atomic number?
(iii) Radium is in group II of the periodic table. What group is the decay product?
(iv) Calculate the percentage of 22988𝑅𝑎 that decays after 500 days.
(c) Explain briefly the principle underlying (i)
the use of radioactive isotopes as “tracers”
(ii) the dating of dead organic matter using radiocarbon-14.

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