X-ray and CT Imaging

Contents
X-ray..................................................................................................................................2
Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation...................................................................................2
Attenuation:...................................................................................................................2
SCATTERING INTERACTIONS.................................................................................2
Coherent Elastic Scatter............................................................................................2
Compton Effect.........................................................................................................2
Photoelectric Effect...................................................................................................3
Absorption Edges..........................................................................................................3
Radiation Units: Effective Dose....................................................................................3
Characteristic X-rays.....................................................................................................4
CT: Hounsfield Unit......................................................................................................4
CT Basic Principles...........................................................................................................4
Steps:.............................................................................................................................4
Data Acquisition:.......................................................................................................4
Sinogram Creation:....................................................................................................4
Filtering:....................................................................................................................5
Back Projection:........................................................................................................5
Summation:................................................................................................................5
Normalization:...........................................................................................................6
Iterative Reconstruction.....................................................................................................6
Steps:.............................................................................................................................6
Other CT........................................................................................................................7
Helical CT.....................................................................................................................7
Multislice CT.................................................................................................................7
Spectral CT....................................................................................................................7
X-ray
Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation
 Electromagnetic waves: Transverse waves with oscillating electric/magnetic
fields. Not influenced by external EM fields.

Attenuation: The reduction in the intensity of X-ray beams as they pass

through matter.
 Processes Involved:
 Absorption: X-ray photons are removed from the beam,
depositing energy in the matter.
 Scatter: X-ray photons are deflected in different directions,
sometimes accompanied by absorption.
 Exponential Decay Law: Attenuation follows an exponential decay,
where equal thicknesses of material absorb equal fractions of the incident
radiation.
 Half Value Layer (HVL): The thickness of material required to reduce
the intensity of X-rays by 50%.
 Attenuation Coefficient (μ): Represents the fraction of X-rays absorbed
or scattered per unit thickness of the material.

SCATTERING INTERACTIONS
Coherent Elastic Scatter
 Definition: A low-energy photon interacts with an electron, causing it to vibrate
and re-radiate the photon without a loss of energy.
 Characteristics:
 No Energy Loss: The scattered photon has the same energy as the
incident photon.
 Low Photon Energies: Occurs at photon energies between 1-30 keV.
 Interaction Probability: Inversely proportional to the energy (1/E) and
directly proportional to the square of the atomic number (Z²).

Compton Effect
 Definition: An incident photon interacts with a free or loosely bound electron,
resulting in a scattered photon with reduced energy.
 Characteristics:
 Energy Loss: The scattered photon has less energy than the incident
photon.
  Dependence on Electron Density: The probability of interaction
depends on the electron density of the material, making it relatively
independent of the atomic number (Z).
 Common in Medical Imaging: Especially relevant at higher photon
energies used in diagnostic radiology.

Photoelectric Effect
 Definition: An incident photon is completely absorbed by an electron, which is
then ejected from the atom.
 Characteristics:
 Complete Absorption: The incident photon’s energy is entirely
transferred to the electron.
 Dependence on Atomic Number: Interaction probability is proportional
to the cube of the atomic number (Z³) and inversely proportional to the
cube of the photon energy (1/E³).
 Significance in Imaging: Provides high contrast between different
tissues, important for distinguishing bone from soft tissue.

Absorption Edges
 Definition: Sharp increases in the absorption of photons when their energy
matches the binding energy of electrons in specific atomic shells.
 Characteristics:
 K-edges: Most prominent absorption edges corresponding to the K-shell
electrons.
 Importance in Imaging: Utilized in selecting appropriate filters and
contrast media to enhance image quality.

Radiation Units: Effective Dose

 Effective Dose (Sievert, Sv): A measure that accounts for the absorbed dose, the
type of radiation, and the sensitivity of different tissues and organs to radiation.
 Calculation:
 Absorbed Dose: Energy deposited per unit mass (Joules per
kilogram), measured in Grays (Gy).
 Radiation Weighting Factor: Adjusts for the type of radiation
(e.g., γ, x-rays = 1, α-particles = 10).
 Tissue Weighting Factor: Accounts for the varying sensitivity of
different tissues to radiation.
 Usage: Provides a risk estimate for the potential biological effects of
ionizing radiation, including the probability of developing cancer.
Characteristic X-rays
 Definition: X-rays produced when an electron transitions between energy levels
in an atom after an inner-shell electron is ejected.
 Characteristics:
 Emission Lines: Specific energies corresponding to the differences
between energy levels, such as Kα and Kβ lines.
 Applications: Used in material analysis (Tungsten most used) and
enhancing image contrast in X-ray imaging.

CT: Hounsfield Unit

 Definition: A quantitative scale for describing radiodensity in computed
tomography (CT) images.
 Scale:
 Water: Assigned a value of 0 HU.
 Air: Assigned a value of -1000 HU.
 Bone: Typically ranges from +300 to +1000 HU.
 Calculation: Based on the linear attenuation coefficient of the tissue
relative to water.
 Significance: Enables differentiation of various tissues and detection of
abnormalities based on their density.

CT Basic Principles
 CT Imaging: Combines multiple X-ray projections taken from different angles
to produce cross-sectional images.

Steps:
Data Acquisition:
 Rotation of X-ray Source: The X-ray tube and detectors
rotate around the patient.
 Projection Collection: X-rays pass through the patient
and are captured by detectors on the opposite side.
 Multiple Angles: Data is collected from many angles
(typically 180 or 360 degrees).

Sinogram Creation:
 Projection Data Compilation: The data from each
projection is compiled into a matrix called a sinogram.
 Each row in the sinogram represents a projection at a
specific angle, while columns represent detector positions.
 Visualization: The sinogram provides a way to visualize
how X-ray intensity changes with angle and position.

Filtering:
 Purpose of Filtering: Enhance edges and details by
amplifying high-frequency components and reducing low-
frequency noise.
 Convolution Process: Apply a mathematical filter
(kernel) to the projection data.
 Types of Filters:
 Ramp Filter: Emphasizes high-frequency
components, ideal for sharp edges.
 Shepp-Logan Filter: A modified ramp filter that
reduces artifacts.
 Hamming Filter: Smooths the image by reducing
high-frequency noise.
 Implementation: Convolution can be done in the spatial
domain or more efficiently in the frequency domain using
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).

Back Projection:
 Concept: Reverse the data acquisition process by
spreading (smearing) each filtered projection back across
the image space.
 Projection Overlap: Each pixel in the image receives
contributions from multiple projections.
 Algorithm: For each angle, distribute the intensity values
of the filtered projection along the corresponding path in
the image grid. Every new angle, it will create a clearer
image. Not too good because algorithm prevails low
frequency over high, preventing sharp edges.
 Implementation: This process is computationally
intensive but necessary for accurate reconstruction.

Summation:
 Accumulation of Values: Sum the contributions from all
back-projected filtered projections for each pixel in the
image grid.
  Constructive Interference: Properly aligned projections
reinforce each other, creating clear structures.
 Artifact Reduction: Proper filtering and accurate back
projection reduce artifacts like streaks and blurring.

Normalization:
 Correction for Variations: Adjust the summed values to
account for differences in the number of projections and
varying detector responses.
 Uniformity: Ensures consistent intensity values across
the image, improving diagnostic quality.
 Final Image:
 Reconstructed Image: The final image represents a
cross-sectional slice, showing different tissue densities.
 Clinical Use: Provides detailed anatomical information,
used for diagnosing various conditions.
 Post-Processing: Additional steps like windowing
(adjusting brightness and contrast) may be applied to
enhance visibility of specific structures.

Iterative Reconstruction
 Definition: A method of image reconstruction that iteratively refines the image
estimate to minimize the difference between the measured and calculated data.

Steps:
 Initial Estimate: Start with an initial estimate of the object.
 Forward Projection: Project the estimate to obtain a synthetic sinogram.
 Comparison: Compare the synthetic sinogram to the measured
sinogram.
 Back Projection: The difference between the synthetic and measured
sinograms is back-projected to update the initial estimate.
 Repetition: Repeat the process many times until the difference between
successive iterations is small.
 Techniques:
 ASiR (Adaptive Statistical Iterative Reconstruction): Uses Filtered
Back Projection (FBP) as the first estimate and controls the extent of
iterative reconstruction applied to the image.
  VEO: A model-based iterative reconstruction using a full model of the
CT system, including physics (spectra, beam hardening, scatter) and
optics (focal spot size, detector spatial resolution).

Other CT
Helical CT
 Definition: A CT imaging technique where the X-ray tube continuously rotates
around the patient while the table moves longitudinally.
 Advantages:
 Continuous Gantry Motion: Eliminates waiting time between slices,
leading to faster image acquisition.
 Helical Path: The X-ray beam follows a helical path around the patient,
allowing for continuous data acquisition.
 Efficiency: Increases scanning speed and reduces motion artifacts.

Multislice CT
 Definition: A CT imaging technique that uses a two-dimensional array of
detectors to acquire multiple slices simultaneously.
 Advantages:
 Multiple Slices: Can acquire multiple slices in a single rotation, greatly
decreasing scanning time.
 Improved Resolution: Enhances image resolution and coverage.
 Speed: Significantly reduces the time required for complete scans,
improving patient throughput and comfort.

Spectral CT
 Definition: A CT imaging technique that utilizes different energy levels of X-ray
photons to obtain more detailed information about tissue composition.
 Principles:
 Linear Attenuation Coefficient (µ): Depends on the energy of the X-ray
photons.
 Beam Hardening: Lower energy photons are preferentially absorbed as
the X-ray beam passes through the object, altering the beam’s energy
spectrum.
 Benefits:
 Enhanced Contrast: Provides more information about different tissues
by analyzing their attenuation properties at different energies.
 Applications: Useful in differentiating materials with similar attenuation
coefficients at a single energy level, such as distinguishing between
iodine contrast and calcifications.