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Blast effects on
buildings
Second edition

Edited by
David Cormie, Arup Security Consulting,
Geoff Mays, Cranfield University
at the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom
and
Peter Smith, Cranfield University
at the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom
Published by ICE Publishing, 40 Marsh Wall, London E14 9TP.

Full details of ICE Publishing sales representatives and distributors can be found at:
www.icevirtuallibrary.com/info/printbooksales

First published 1995

This second edition 2009
Reprinted 2012, with amendments

Also available from ICE Publishing

Application of codes, design and regulations. R. K. Dhir, M. D. Newlands and A. Whyte.
ISBN: 978-0-7277-3403-7
Progressive collapse of structures. U. Starossek. ISBN: 978-0-7277-3610-9

www.icevirtuallibrary.com

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-7277-3521-8

# Thomas Telford Limited 2009 and # Arup for chapter 8, # Crown Copyright for chapter 11

ICE Publishing is a division of Thomas Telford Ltd, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Institution of
Civil Engineers (ICE).

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Publisher, ICE Publishing, 40 Marsh Wall, London
E14 9TP.

This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the
statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply
that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers.
While every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions
expressed in this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can
be accepted in this respect by the authors or publishers.

Typeset by Academic þ Technical, Bristol

Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Index created by Indexing Specialists (UK) Ltd, Hove
Preface

In the fourteen years since the publication of the first edition of this
book, terrorism has evolved in scope and scale. In this second edition
we have attempted to update and expand the material to reflect the
development of the field of blast engineering in response to the
evolving terrorist threat. For the first time, material on hostile vehicle
mitigation is included, as is a chapter on the design of building
services against blast loads. Several parts of the field have developed
substantially since the first edition, in particular methods for the
design of glazing against blast loads which have benefited from an
extensive research and development programme in both the UK and
the US. Computational and numerical analysis permits us to evaluate
problems in ways which were not possible fourteen years ago. In
addition, we have expanded the scope to include material on the
design of buildings against other forms of blast such as industrial
explosions, vapour cloud explosions and deflagrations.

David Cormie, Geoff Mays and Peter Smith

xi
Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
About the editors xv
List of authors xvii

1 Introduction 1
Christopher Elliott
Objective 1
Scope 3
Modern terrorism 5
Risk 5
The special effect of catastrophic loss 6
Partial factors in blast design 6
A design philosophy: planning for protection 7

2 Basic guidelines for enhancing blast resilience 8

Geoff Mays and David Hadden
The requirements of the client 8
Design features 9
Blast loading and stand-off 12
Response of a building to blast load 17
Protected spaces 25
References 29

3 Blast loading 30
Peter Smith and David Cormie
Notation 30
Introduction 32

v
 Explosions 32
Explosion classification 33
Explosives classification 33
Blast waves in air from high explosives 34
Blast waves in air from vapour cloud explosions 36
Blast wave interactions 37
Basic blast wavefront parameters 37
Blast wave parameters for loading on structures 39
Blast wave scaling laws 41
Reflection coefficients 44
Regular and Mach reflection 45
External blast loading of structures 48
Internal blast loading of structures 53
Conclusions 56
References 58

4 Prediction of blast loads 59

David Cormie and Conrad Izatt
Notation 59
Introduction 59
Categorisation of techniques 60
Empirical methods 61
Phenomenological methods 65
First-principle methods for blast loads from high explosives
and deflagrative events 66
References 77

5 Structural response to blast loading 80

Peter Smith and David Cormie
Notation 80
Introduction 81
Elastic SDOF structure 82
Evaluation of the limits of response 85
Iso-damage diagrams 86
Energy solutions for specific structural components 92
Lumped mass equivalent SDOF systems 94
Resistance functions for specific structural forms 97
Advanced SDOF methods for blast analysis 99
Discussion 101
References 102

vi
6 Design of elements in structural steel 103
Geoff Mays, Ian Feltham and Mike Banfi
Notation 103
Introduction 104
Objectives 104
Design loads 105
Design strengths 105
Deformation limits 107
Behaviour of structural steelwork subject to blast loading 108
Flexural design of structural steel elements to resist blast
loading — quasi-static/dynamic response 111
Flexural design of structural steel elements to resist blast
loading — impulsive response 114
Dynamic reactions 115
Design example: structural steel beam subject to
quasi-static/dynamic load 115
Design of connections in structural steelwork 117
Steelwork detailing for steel structures subject to blast
loading 118
References 118

7 Design of elements in reinforced concrete and masonry 119

Geoff Mays and Ian Feltham
Notation 119
Introduction 121
Objectives 122
Design loads 122
Design strengths 123
Deformation limits 126
Behaviour of reinforced concrete subject to blast loading 127
Flexural design of reinforced concrete elements to resist
blast loading 130
Flexural design of reinforced concrete — impulsive response 131
Flexural design of reinforced concrete — quasi-static/
dynamic response 133
Design of reinforced concrete elements for shear under
blast loading 136
Dynamic reactions 139
Design example 1: reinforced concrete cantilever subject
to impulsive load 139

vii
 Design example 2: reinforced concrete wall panel subject
to quasi-static/dynamic load 142
Detailing reinforcement in concrete subject to blast
loading 146
Design of connections 147
Spalling and breaching of reinforced concrete under blast
loading 148
Design of masonry structures to resist blast loading 150
References 152

8 Design of elements in steel—concrete—steel composite

materials 154
Neil Coyle and David Cormie
Notation 154
Introduction 156
Objectives 156
Design loads 156
Design strengths 157
Deformation limits and design cross-sections 157
Behaviour of steel—concrete—steel composite elements
subject to blast loading 158
Stiffness 164
Shear design 164
Transverse shear design 165
Longitudinal shear design 165
Design of SCS elements to resist blast loading 166
Design example 1: SCS cantilever subject to impulsive load 168
Comparison of SCS and reinforced concrete 174
Detailing of SCS structures 175
References 176

9 Design of glazing 177

David Smith and David Cormie
Notation 177
Introduction 177
Types of glazing and behaviour under blast loading 180
Levels of blast enhancement 184
Framing systems 187
Design of laminated glass for blast loads 190
Derivation of the resistance function for a laminated
glass pane 194

viii
 Design example 1: single-glazed laminated glass pane
subject to blast load 202
Design example 2: single-glazed laminated glass pane
subject to increased blast load 208
Iso-damage analysis 208
Calculation of edge reaction forces 210
Glazing hazard classification 211
References 214

10 Whole-building response to blast damage 216

David Cormie
Notation 216
Introduction 216
Disproportionate versus progressive collapse 217
Protection and disproportionate collapse 218
Development of robustness requirements in national standards 218
Tolerability of risk 223
Methods of design for structural robustness 226
Tie-force-based design methods 228
Alternate loadpath methods 230
Alternate loadpath analysis procedures 237
Key element design methods 245
Discussion 246
References 247

11 Vehicle-borne threats and the principles of hostile

vehicle mitigation 250
Paul Forman, Dorian Evans and Gary Heward
Introduction 250
Types of vehicle-borne threat 253
Site assessment for vehicle-borne threats 255
Principles of hostile vehicle mitigation (HVM) 257
Principles of design of vehicle security barriers for
high-energy impact 269
Foundation requirements for vehicle security barriers 271
References 273

12 Design of building services under blast loading 274

John Taylor
Introduction 274
Effects of explosions on building services 274

ix
 Principles of design 275
Design of services to support life safety 277
Design of services to aid escape and evacuation 282
Design for service continuity 283
Design for ease of recovery 284
Fixing, mounting and containment of building services 285
References 289

13 Implications for building operation 290

Chris Veale
Introduction 290
Managing the risk 292
The threat assessment 292
Pre-event contingency planning 292
Post-event contingency planning 295
Useful publications 295
References 297

Appendices
A Equivalent SDOF properties for beams and slabs 299
B Maximum deflection and response time for elasto-plastic
SDOF systems 309
C Design flowchart 319
D Conversion factors 323

Index 325

x
1
Introduction
Christopher Elliott, Arup Security Consulting, London

Objective
The purpose of this book is to give engineers and architects a better
understanding of the opportunities (and of their own and their clients’
responsibilities) to provide buildings which minimise damage to people
and property in the event of an explosion. Of course, the focus is on the
damaging effects of terrorist attacks, but the principles herein can be
applied to all explosive events. It is not a design manual, requiring
compliance, but a design handbook, giving guidance and practical advice.
Since the first edition was published in 1995, the threat of terrorism
has evolved in scope and scale, particularly with the emergence of
suicide bombers prepared to die in the act of delivery. Regrettably,
terrorism shows every sign of enduring for a long season yet. So
normal has it become that counter-terrorist measures are now consid-
ered usual in most commercial and recreational activities; protection
is now common-place in infrastructure projects and there is
heightened curiosity about what can be achieved in this area. This
has helped the blast engineer very considerably in attracting attention
to the benefits of sensible protective design.
However, it was the deliberate flight of two fully-fuelled aircraft into
the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York in 2001 that
changed awareness most abruptly. Initial astonishment at the act was
replaced by a recognition that terrorists would explore any opportunity
presented, bounded only by what was possible within the laws of physics.
The simultaneous attacks on the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon have left a deep imprint on perceptions: the ambition of
the terrorists involved; the elegance and the novelty of their method
of attack; the complexity of their preparations; the callous and casual
murder of thousands of innocents; the initial disruption to a highly
interconnected commercial world (and also the surprising resilience
achieved through that interconnectivity); the insult delivered to
national self-esteem with consequences far beyond the attack itself.

1
Blast effects on buildings

Yet the buildings performed extremely well under what was an

‘unscripted’ attack for them, for they remained standing long enough
for almost all those below the location of the impact to escape. Much
of this was due to an inherently robust structure and to a sensible
review of evacuation procedures by the owners following the 1993
detonation of a vehicle-borne device in the basement car park. Through
the experience learned, the evacuation rules for events which could
challenge the structural integrity of the building were changed from
‘stay put’ to ‘evacuate with best speed’.
These go to the heart of the philosophy laid out in this book: that
protection should be intelligent, thoughtful and holistic in approach,
not blind and expensive hardening against the greatest explosive
charge weight that a terrorist might be theoretically able to deliver.
It is a fact that too much is not done that could be done, because of
conflict of interest with planning and financial areas or lack of
imagination. An underlying purpose of this book is to give engineers
the arguments that will sway the debate in favour of sensible, practical,
economic measures being adopted, not discarded.
All this underlines the thesis of the first edition: that protective
measures were not solely about hardening and blast protection, but a
much more inclusive consideration about the balance between
protection and continuing normal life. However, since its first printing,
the field of blast engineering has expanded greatly and a great deal of
effort has been invested around the world in research and development
of counter-terrorist design, from the development of better methods of
analysis to manufacturers bringing new products to the market for
improving the counter-terrorist resilience of buildings. Much work has
been undertaken to improve the way in which we manage and respond
to incidents, in terms of evacuation and sheltering strategies, emergency
response and coordination, and recovery after an incident.
In parallel, significant advances have been made in numerous other
fields. The development in the field of computational fluid dynamics
has important applications in the prediction of blast loads that were
not possible fourteen years ago. As the oil and gas industry has matured,
technology developed for protection against gas deflagrations has
transferred onshore and into the high explosives arena. Our
understanding of structural behaviour has improved greatly with
regard to phenomena such as progressive collapse. The regulations
pertaining to progressive collapse in the UK Building Regulations
were revised in 2004. Research into structural collapse has also been
a very active field, and particularly so since the collapse of the World

2
 Introduction

Trade Center on 9/11. The importance of ductility and rotation capa-

city of connections is now more generally recognised, as are the
concepts of robustness and resilience.
Façade design has moved on very significantly since the publication
of the first edition. Our understanding of the behaviour of glass, glazing
systems and façade framing systems has benefited from wide-ranging
programmes of research and development supported by full-scale testing
undertaken by the UK Government and the US Army Corps of
Engineers. Design methods have been developed for the design of
glazing systems based on fundamental theory of structural analysis,
rather than the semi-empirical methods contained in the first edition,
which are now outdated and obsolete.
Finally, the field of structural engineering continues to make
advances. With ever more demanding architectural and structural
forms being proposed, challenges present themselves apace to the
industry’s structural engineers for more efficient, elegant, slender or
architecturally demanding solutions.
For all these reasons it has been appropriate to revise and expand the
original text, if it is to continue to provide authoritative and useful
guidance.

Scope
The chapters of this book have been thoroughly revised to update the
material to take account of the advances made in the field. The basic
guidelines for enhancing building resilience in Chapter 2 have been
retained and updated. Blast loading has now been split into two
chapters, with the theory of blast loading being covered in Chapter 3,
followed by a new chapter (Chapter 4) on the prediction of blast
loads. Chapter 4 describes the empirical methods available for the
prediction of blast loads and when they might be used or might indicate
that more advanced methods are necessary. A section is presented on
the use of semi-empirical methods and more advanced methods such
as computational fluid dynamics for the prediction of blast loads.
Chapter 5 describes the structural response to blast loading, and has
been revised and enhanced to include recent developments in advanced
single degree of freedom techniques for modelling structural behaviour.
The previous single chapter on the design of elements in steel and
reinforced concrete has now been split into separate chapters on each
material (Chapters 6 and 7), with a further chapter (Chapter 8) on
the design of elements in steel—concrete—steel composite materials.

3
Blast effects on buildings

The material has been aligned with the Eurocodes in recognition of

their forthcoming adoption in the UK.
The methods for design of façade elements is perhaps the one area that
has altered most radically since this book was first published, and there is
now a separate chapter (Chapter 9) on the design of glazed façades.
Modern methods of analysis and design bear almost no resemblance to
the state-of-the-art methods that were available in 1995, thanks mainly
to a very extensive programme of full-scale tests carried out on glazing
by the UK government throughout the second half of the 1990s.
A new chapter (Chapter 10) has been included on the whole-
building response to blast damage. This chapter includes discussion
on progressive and disproportionate collapse. Material is presented on
the issues of robustness as they apply to blast effects on buildings.
The chapter aims to give the practising engineer an insight into the
theory and modern approach to the fundamental analysis of collapse
following sudden structural damage. The aim is to provide the engineer
with an understanding of the phenomenon, its characteristics, and how
to go about a logical and coherent assessment of the vulnerability of a
building to collapse under blast loading. Where specific vulnerabilities
are identified in a structure, the engineer may choose to provide
protection to or enhance the robustness of a local structural element,
or to enhance the ability of the structure to redistribute load after
damage. Practical mitigation measures are presented for both these
approaches.
One area not covered in the first edition was the design of protection
against vehicle-borne attack. Penetrative vehicle attacks on buildings
have become a common occurrence around the world, and the engineer
is now frequently asked to consider the design of vehicle protection for
high-energy impact. In Chapter 11 the principles of design of vehicle
restraint measures to protect military, government and commercial
buildings against high-energy impact are presented, enabling the
engineer to approach the problem competently.
Chapter 12 is a new chapter presenting the design of building services
under blast loading. The design of building services to exhibit resilience
under blast loading has become increasingly important as the emergency
response to terrorist threat has changed. Frequently, high-rise and large-
occupancy office buildings now adopt principles of inward evacuation,
seeking refuge in hardened or adequately protected areas of the
building. Consequently, the need arises for continuity of life safety
services under blast loading and due consideration of the design of
other building services during a blast event. Higher performance criteria

4
 Introduction

for business-critical activities place greater resilience requirements on

building services, and this chapter discusses the design of building
services to withstand and provide continued safe operation through
and after a terrorist attack.
The final chapter of the book (Chapter 13) discusses implications for
building operation. The management of and response to incidents has
since the publication of the first edition benefited significantly from
substantial research and development in this area. The original content
of this chapter has been completely revised and extended to include the
findings of much of this work and to present an analysis of how we
operate our buildings to best manage and minimise the risks associated
with terrorist attack.

Modern terrorism
Terrorism has been described as the deliberate use of violence to create
a sense of shock, fear and outrage in the minds of a target population.
Several factors in the way we now live make that easy to achieve.
First, terrorists are able to make use of the media as never before to carry
a sense of terror to their target population, and television, in particular,
gives terrorists a political leverage out of all proportion to their other
powers. Second, developed societies have become very dependent on
complex, ‘brittle’ systems (e.g. railways, airlines, gas pipelines, large
shopping areas and business centres) which are both vulnerable and
critical to society’s function, and allows the terrorist many suitable targets.
Third, terrorists hide behind the camouflage of normal daily life. This
means that almost all effective measures to combat terrorism also carry
considerable constraints on individual freedoms, which governments
are rightly reluctant to impose, and often will not.
This leads to several conclusions: terrorism today is much easier
to contain than to eliminate; there are few completely acceptable
antidotes to it; the prudent design will allow for its effects wherever it
is possible and affordable.

Risk
Protection is not an absolute concept and there is a level of protection
where the cost of protection provided with respect to the cost of the
potential loss is in balance. Protection can never offer a guarantee of
safety; conversely, too much protection is a waste of resources with
regard to what is being saved.

5
Blast effects on buildings

Furthermore, the consequences of loss vary; some loss is incremental,

but certain losses, such as human life, essential records or specialist
equipment, are catastrophic. For these reasons the approach to design
against terrorism should be risk-based, assessing a combination of the
type, the likelihood and the consequences of an attack. Some risks
will have to be accepted, while others must be deflected at all costs.
Advice on how to conduct a terrorist threat assessment can be found
in Chapter 13.

The special effect of catastrophic loss

The special effects of catastrophic failure or large numbers of casualties
on public perceptions need special attention. In terrorist attacks, the
number of casualties is often dictated by whether or not a warning is
given before a terrorist device is detonated; a warning allows emergency
action to be taken. Today the stated aim of many terrorist groups is mass
casualties.
An important consequence in such situations could be the public
perception of the effects of no warning being given in further attacks
and their possible reluctance to work in unprotected buildings while
the potential for another attack remains. There are no firm metrics
for these arguments, but they are important nonetheless when trying
to decide the cost/benefit of protective measures.

Partial factors in blast design

When designing structural elements in accordance with limit state
principles, partial factors are applied to loads and the strengths of
materials. In designing against blast loading, the following special
conditions will usually apply:
(a) The incident will be an unusual event.
(b) The threat will be specified in terms of an explosive charge weight
at a stand-off, which can only be an estimate and already subject to
a risk assessment.
(c) For economic design, some plastic deformation is normally
permitted. The level of damage is specified in terms of the limiting
member deflection or support rotations.
(d) The strengths of materials will be enhanced because of the high rate
of strain to which they will be subjected.
(e) The strengths of in situ materials often exceed the characteristic
values.

6
 Introduction

For these reasons, the design initially should be carried out at the
ultimate limit state, with partial factors for both load and materials
usually set at unity. However, special enhancement factors may be
applied to material strengths. These are considered in further detail in
Chapters 6 and 7. A limit is usually placed on the deformation of
members to permit some functionality after the event.

A design philosophy: planning for protection

A starting-point for the design of a building that resists blast loading is
to consider the building layout and arrangements. The aim here is to
decide what needs protection (the contents or the structure itself ); to
imagine how damage or injury will be caused; and to consider how
the building or structure can be arranged to give the best inherent
protection. Specifically for protection against terrorist attacks, the
building design should achieve one or all of the following:
1. Deflect a terrorist attack by showing, through layout, security and
defences, that the chance of success for the terrorist is small;
targets that are otherwise attractive to terrorists should be made
anonymous.
2. Disguise the valuable parts of a potential target, so that the energy
of attack is wasted on the wrong area and the attack, although
completed, fails to make the impact the terrorist seeks; it is reduced
to an acceptable annoyance.
3. Disperse a potential target, so that an attack could never cover a
large enough area to cause significant destruction, and thereby
impact; this is suitable for a rural industrial installation, but
probably unachievable for any inner-city building.
4. Stop an attack reaching a potential target by erecting a physical
barrier to the method of attack; this covers a range of measures
from vehicle bollards and barriers to pedestrian entry controls.
Against a very large car bomb, in particular, this is the only defence
that will be successful.
5. Blunt the attack once it reaches its target, by hardening the
structure to absorb the energy of the attack and protect valuable
assets.
The first three of these objectives can often be met at no cost, while
the last two require extra funds or special detailing. These last two
objectives, to stop and blunt the attack, are the subject of the remainder
of this book.

7
2
Basic guidelines for enhancing
blast resilience
Geoff Mays, Cranfield University at the Defence Academy, Shrivenham
David Hadden, Arup Security Consulting, London

The requirements of the client

The type of building being considered in this chapter is a typical
commercial multi-storey building, assumed to be a new structure
without a retained façade. The client, engineer and architect have a
number of choices to make regarding the fundamental aspects of the
building design. The designers can advise the client regarding these
choices based on the points made in this chapter. It should be noted
however that while the guidelines set out below will provide a sound
basis for a resilient building, they will not automatically ensure that
all the client’s requirements are met.
The level of protection provided will inevitably be influenced by the cost
associated with the enhancements. While extensive blast hardening to
glazing, cladding, building services and the structural frame are possible,
the fundamental requirement is the safety of the building’s occupants.
Design of the cladding to mitigate blast hazards and the structure to
survive an explosion without gross collapse can save the lives of
occupants and aid rescue, without requiring excessively costly protection
measures or allowing blast mitigation to dominate the design intent to
the detriment of other design considerations. This philosophy is
pertinent for high-consequence but low-likelihood risks such as terrorist
attack, where a large device may cause substantial damage if detonated
close to the structure but the blast hardening measures implemented in
the design are balanced against the low likelihood of the occurrence of
such an event. Buildings may not remain undamaged or ensure that all
injuries or fatalities are avoided, but the measures adopted should limit
the effects of an attack as far as reasonably practicable.
The designer will have to define the size of a device to be used as a
basis for design, and to help the client define limits on the extent of

8
 Basic guidelines for enhancing blast resilience

damage associated with these design threats. It is worth noting that

outwardly similar design details can result in sharply dissimilar
performance, and that relatively small changes in the design can be
extremely cost-effective in improving the protection of building
occupants and/or reducing the amount of repair required to reinstate
a building after an attack.
Consequently, the client must be presented with clear options
regarding the level of protection afforded by different blast mitigation
options, with due regard to the potential blast loading from various
devices placed at a range of stand-off distances. The client is then in
a position to assess the cost implications of these and select the
appropriate level of protection.

Design features
Some aspects of modern building design are often thought to be at odds
with blast resilience. For example, floor-to-floor curtain walling is
common in city centres which, together with single-, double- and triple-
storey heights, creates challenges in designing the façade under normal
environmental loads without even considering the effects of blast. If
designed without blast effects in mind, a building may cause additional
hazards to occupants through façade failure, structural damage and
destruction of internal finishes. With a more appropriate approach a
modern building should be at worst neutral in terms of its effects on the
blast hazards to occupants and when well designed can offer substantial
blast protection. Some of the features of good design are outlined in the
paragraphs below, and it is the question of how to achieve good blast
design which is the subject of the later chapters of this book.

Building form and façade

The exterior building geometry should be simple and essentially convex
in form. Convexly curved or faceted geometries tend to allow blast
loads to dissipate more effectively than rectilinear forms. Conversely,
re-entrant corners, cantilevered upper floors/set-backs of the lower
floors, recesses, internal courtyards and arcades are undesirable as
they will exacerbate the effects of an external bomb blast. Features of
the building form and the design of the façade that will facilitate
protection against blast include the following:
(a) The minimum glazing compatible with the required internal
environment, considering aesthetic, thermal, energy efficiency,

9
Blast effects on buildings

acoustic, daylight and lighting issues in parallel with security

requirements.
(b) Building cladding spanning vertically from floor to floor, with
direct, robust connections into the structural slabs rather than
arrangements that would induce local bending in columns or
other perimeter elements which might fail as a result.
(c) Easily accessible cladding fixings which allow rapid inspection and,
if necessary, replacement after an event, and the easy removal and
installation of individual panels. This will avoid the need to remove
numerous panels after an event if only a small number are damaged.
(d) Avoidance of deep recesses which are accessible from ground level
as these provide ideal concealment places for small devices.
(e) Avoidance of deep window sills and deep surface profiling, which
can exacerbate the blast effects by virtue of the complex reflections
produced and lead to a greater level of damage than would be
produced with a plane façade. Such features can also provide
places where small devices can be concealed.
(f ) Where possible, avoidance of openable windows in the façade. If
required for ventilation, some enhancement of hinges, latches
and drive mechanisms may be necessary. Outward-opening
windows are generally more robust to external blast loads than
inward-opening units.

Structural frame
An essential requirement is for a structure that is well tied together so
that its overall inertia is utilised and so that it can sustain localised
damage without widespread collapse. This requires tensile capacity
and ductility in the design of the elements and their connections,
focusing the designer towards construction of reinforced concrete or
steel-framed buildings. A framed building, tied together adequately,
will have many different load paths by which to transfer loads to the
ground. This aspect, coupled with ductile behaviour in the design of
elements and their connections, will enable the structure to fulfil its
primary requirement to protect the safety of occupants. The structural
engineer should aim for the following features in the design:
(a) A framed building at least three bays wide, designed incorporating
at least the tying requirements and robustness requirements set out
in current UK Building Regulations [1] against local loss of support.
The design should avoid cantilevered upper floors which will
exacerbate the effects of the blast.

10
 Basic guidelines for enhancing blast resilience

(b) Floor slabs tied into the structural frame and designed to withstand
load reversal, particularly if diaphragm action in the floors is part of
the lateral stability system. The uplift pressures from blast loads will
frequently overcome the gravity loads on the floor. Continuity of
floor spans and reinforcement in both faces of the slab should be
provided, particularly on the lower floors where load reversal due
to blast pressures entering the building is most likely.
(c) Brittle failure modes such as shear failure should be avoided in
element behaviour. In general, shear capacity should exceed the
flexural capacity of elements so that ductile failure is ensured.
(d) Avoidance, as far as possible, of structural arrangements in which
critical members, such as transfer beams, need to be designated
key elements as defined in the UK Building Regulations [1]. Key
elements in reinforced concrete should be designed with sufficient
shear links to provide restraint to the longitudinal reinforcing bars
and to prevent their premature shear failure.
(e) Internal structural core areas, preferably formed in reinforced
concrete, large enough to contain the building’s occupants and
unconnected to stairwells or lift shafts that face directly on to the
street at ground level. If the building requires circulation cores to
be on the perimeter of the building, hardening of the cores may be
necessary to minimise the risk that evacuation routes are impaired.

Internal design
The internal layout of the building can enhance the performance of the
structure when subjected to blast loading and enable the provision of
protected spaces for occupants [2], the design of which is addressed
later in this chapter. Features of the internal design which should be
considered include the following:
(a) Diverse escape routes well separated and evacuating in different
directions, so that the risk of all escape routes becoming impaired
in a single event is minimised.
(b) Critical facilities, including the incident control room, located in
the most well-defended parts of the building such as basements
or well away from loading bays, car parks and other vulnerable
areas.
(c) Robust internal partitions, especially to critical areas. Internal
partitions are generally lightweight and are easily demolished
under relatively low levels of blast loading, causing secondary
debris which can be a serious hazard to occupants. Careful detailing

11
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pasado aún por la aduana de las coquetas, y así, es una pérdida
muy digna de llorarse.»
A esto, poco más o menos, se redujo la conversación antes de
comer, y sobre el mismo asunto continuó durante la comida. Y como
nunca acabaría yo si hubiese de referir cuantas especies se tocaron,
todas de murmuración o de fatuidad, el lector llevará a bien que las
suprima, para contarle el modo con que fué recibido un pobre diablo
de autor que llegó a casa de Arsenia hacia el fin de la comida.
Entró nuestro lacayuelo donde estaban comiendo, y en voz alta
dijo a mi ama: «Señora, ahí está un hombre con la camisa sucia y
lleno de cazcarrias hasta el cogote, que, con perdón de ustedes,
tiene traza de poeta, y dice que desea hablar a usted.» «Hazle subir
—respondió Arsenia—. ¡Nada de cumplimientos, señores—añadió—,
que es un autor!» Efectivamente, era uno que había compuesto
cierta tragedia admitida por la compañía y traía el papel que había
de representar mi ama. Llamábase Pedro de Moya. Al entrar, hizo
cinco o seis profundas cortesías a los concurrentes, sin que ninguno
de ellos se levantase ni siquiera le saludase. Solamente Arsenia le
correspondió con una simple inclinación de cabeza. Fuése
acercando, pero siempre temblando y confuso; cayéronsele los
guantes y el sombrero; levantólos y se acercó a mi ama, y
presentándole un papel, más respetuosamente que un litigante
presenta a su juez un memorial, «Dignaos, señora—le dijo—, de
aceptar el papel que tengo la honra de ofrecer a vuestros pies.»
Recibióle ella con la mayor frialdad y con cierto aire de desprecio, sin
dignarse ni aun de responder una sola palabra a su cumplimiento.
No por esto se acobardó nuestro autor, el cual, aprovechando
aquella ocasión para distribuir otros papeles, dió uno a Casimiro y
otro a Florimunda, quienes los tomaron sin más cortesías ni
ceremonias que las que había usado Arsenia; antes por el contrario,
el comediante, naturalmente muy cortés, como lo son casi todos
estos señores, le insultó con chanzas picantes; pero el buen Pedro
de Moya las llevó con paciencia y no se atrevió a volverle las nueces
al cántaro porque no lo pagase después su trágica composición.
Retiróse sin decir palabra, pero, a mi parecer, vivamente picado del
recibimiento que le habían hecho. Tengo por cierto que allá en su
interior no dejaría de decir mil pestes de los comediantes, como
merecían; y éstos, después que él salió, comenzaron a hablar de los
autores con mucho respeto. «Paréceme—dijo Florimunda—que el
señor Pedro de Moya no ha ido muy satisfecho de nosotros.» «Y
bien, señora—interrumpió Casimiro—, ¿qué cuidado se os da? ¿Por
ventura son dignos de nuestra atención los autores? Si los
igualáramos a nosotros, ése sería el mejor medio para echarlos a
perder. Tengo bien conocidos a esos pobres diablos y por eso mismo
sé que si los tratáramos de otra manera presto se olvidarían de lo
que son y nos perderían el respeto. Tratémoslos, pues, como
esclavos, y no temamos que les apuremos la paciencia. Si,
enfadados, se retiraren de nosotros algún tiempo, no durará mucho;
la manía de escribir les hará presto volver a buscarnos, y darán
gracias a Dios si nos dignamos de representar sus obras.» «Tienes
mucha razón—dijo entonces Arsenia—; solamente perdemos
aquellos autores cuya fortuna labramos con nuestra habilidad, pues
luego que los hemos acreditado y puesto en paraje de que tengan
que comer se dan a la ociosidad y ya no quieren trabajar; pero al fin
la compañía se consuela y el público tiene menos que padecer.»
Aplaudieron todos este parecer y quedaron en que los autores, a
pesar de lo mal que los trataban los comediantes, siempre les
estaban muy obligados, porque les eran deudores de todo lo que
tenían. Así los abatían los histriones, haciéndolos inferiores a ellos y
ciertamente no podían despreciarlos más.
 CAPÍTULO XII

Toma Gil Blas inclinación al teatro, entrégase

enteramente a los pasatiempos de la vida
cómica y dentro de poco se disgusta de ella.

Los convidados se quedaron hablando sobremesa hasta que llegó

la hora de ir al teatro, y entonces marcharon todos a él. Seguílos y vi
también la comedia que se representó aquel día, la que me gustó de
manera que hice ánimo de no perder ninguna. Así me fuí
insensiblemente acostumbrando a los actores: a tanto llega la fuerza
de la costumbre. Llevábanme particularmente la atención aquellos
que hacían más gestos y daban más gritos en las tablas, y no era yo
el único de este gusto.
No me causaba menos agrado la discreción de las piezas que el
modo de representarlas. Algunas verdaderamente me embelesaban;
sobre todo aquellas en que se dejaban ver a un mismo tiempo en el
teatro todos los cardenales o los doce pares de Francia. Sabía de
memoria muchos pasos de aquellos incomparables poemas.
Acuérdome de que en dos días aprendí toda entera una comedia
famosa, intitulada La reina de las flores. La rosa era la reina, que
tenía por confidenta a la violeta y por escudero al jazmín. No había
para mí obras mejores que las parecidas a éstas, persuadido de que
daban mucho honor a nuestra nación.
 No me contentaba con adornar mi memoria con los trozos más
selectos de estas bellas producciones dramáticas, sino que también
me apliqué a perfeccionar el gusto, y para conseguirlo con acierto,
escuchaba con la mayor atención el parecer de los comediantes. Si
alababan una pieza, yo la estimaba, y despreciaba todas aquellas de
que les oía hablar mal. Parecíame que eran tan inteligentes en
piezas teatrales como los diamantistas en piedras preciosas. Sin
embargo, observé que la tragedia de Pedro de Moya fué muy
aplaudida, aunque ellos habían pronosticado que todos la silbarían.
Pero no bastó esta experiencia para que su crítica se me hiciese
sospechosa, y antes quise creer que el público carecía de gusto y
discernimiento que dudar de la infalibilidad de la compañía. No
obstante, me aseguraban todos que ordinariamente eran recibidas
con aplauso aquellas comedias nuevas de que los actores formaban
mal concepto y, por el contrario, silbadas casi todas las que ellos
más celebraban. Decíanme que era regla general suya hablar
siempre mal de las obras, y me citaban mil ejemplares de algunas
que habían desmentido sus decisiones. Todo esto fué menester para
que al cabo me desengañase.
No se me olvidará jamás lo que sucedió un día en que se
representó una comedia nueva. Habíales parecido a los comediantes
fría y fastidiosa, adelantándose a pronosticar que el auditorio no la
vería concluir. Con esta preocupación representaron la primera
jornada, que mereció grandes aplausos. Admirólos mucho esto.
Representaron la segunda, la cual fué aún más aplaudida que la
primera. Y he aquí a todos mis pobres actores atónitos. «¡Cómo
diablos es esto!—exclamaba Casimiro—. ¡Esta comedia adquiere
fama!» Representaron la tercera, que fué sin comparación más
celebrada que las otras dos. «¡Yo no lo entiendo!—dijo Ricardo—.
¡Cuando creíamos que esta pieza no lograría aceptación, todos la
aplauden!» «Señores—dijo entonces un cómico ingenuamente—, la
causa es porque hay en ella mil gracias y rasgos ingeniosos que
nosotros no habíamos comprendido.»
Desde entonces dejé de tener a los comediantes por buenos
jueces y me hice justo apreciador de su mérito. Ellos mismos
acreditaban con cuánta razón la gente les afeaba varias ridiculeces.
Veía yo claramente que los aplausos, nada merecidos, tenían
echados a perder tanto a los cómicos como a las cómicas, los cuales,
considerándose como personas de suma importancia y objetos
dignos de admiración, estaban persuadidos de que hacían gran favor
al público en divertirle. Dábanme muy en rostro sus defectos; mas,
por mi desgracia, su modo de vivir llegó a gustarme demasiado, y
así, me vi metido de pies a cabeza en el desenfreno y en la
disolución. Ni podía ser otra cosa. Todas sus conversaciones eran
perniciosas a la juventud y nada veía en ellos que no contribuyese a
estragarme. Aun cuando no supiera yo todo lo que pasaba en las
casas de Constanza, Casilda y las demás comediantas, bastaba para
perderme lo que estaba viendo en la de Arsenia. Además de
aquellos señores ya viejos de que hablé antes, concurrían a ella
varios elegantes y no pocos hijos de familia, que encontraban en los
usureros todo el dinero que habían menester para arruinarse. Alguna
vez recibían también a ciertos agentes de quienes se servían, los
cuales, en vez de ser pagados por su trabajo, les pagaban a ellas
por que se dejaran servir.
Florimunda vivía pared por medio de Arsenia, y todos los días
comían y cenaban juntas. Estaban las dos tan unidas, que causaba
admiración a las gentes ver tanta armonía entre cortesanas y se
creía que tarde o temprano se rompería su amistad por algún
obsequiante; pero conocían mal a tan perfectas amigas, porque era
muy íntima su unión; en lugar de ser celosas, como las demás
mujeres, hacían vida común. Gustaban más de repartir entre sí los
despojos de los hombres que de disputarse neciamente sus
amorosos suspiros.
Laura, a ejemplo de estas dos ilustres compañeras, aprovechaba
también el tiempo, no dejando malograr lo más florido de sus años.
Habíame ella dicho que vería mil lindezas y no me engañó. Con todo
eso, yo no hacía el celoso, por haberle prometido que procuraría
adoptar el espíritu de la compañía. Disimulé por algún tiempo,
contentándome con preguntarle el nombre de los sujetos con
quienes la veía a solas en conversación; pero siempre me respondía
que era un tío o un primo carnal suyo. ¡Oh y cuánta multitud de
parientes tenía! Su familia debía de ser más numerosa que la del rey
Príamo. Mas no era negocio de atenerse únicamente a su infinita
parentela: hacía también sus salidas fuera del árbol genealógico y no
se olvidaba de ir de cuando en cuando a representar el papel de
señora viuda en casa de la vieja de antaño. En fin, Laura—por dar al
lector una idea cabal de su persona—era tan joven, tan linda y tan
alegre como su ama, excepto que ésta divertía al pueblo
públicamente y la criada sólo lo hacía en secreto. Yo cedí al torrente,
y por espacio de tres semanas me entregué a todo género de
placeres y pasatiempos; pero debo decir que en medio de ellos me
sentía atormentado de crueles remordimientos, efecto de mi
educación, que llenaban de amargura todas mis delicias. No triunfó
la disolución de tan saludables remordimientos; al contrario, eran
mayores cuanto más me abandonaba a mis desórdenes.
Comenzaron éstos a causarme horror, gracias a mi natural
complexión. «¡Ah, desventurado!—me decía yo a mí mismo—. ¿Es
esto lo que esperaba de ti tu familia? ¿No te bastaba haberla
engañado tomando otra carrera que la de preceptor? El verte
precisado a servir, ¿te dispensa de cumplir con las leyes de hombre
de bien? ¿Parécete que te puede servir de algún provecho vivir entre
gente tan viciosa? En unos reina la envidia, la ira y la avaricia; el
pudor y la vergüenza están desterrados de otros; éstos se entregan
a la intemperancia y a la pereza; aquéllos, al orgullo y a la
insolencia. ¡Esto se acabó! ¡No quiero vivir más con los siete
pecados capitales!»

FIN DEL TOMO PRIMERO

 INDICE DEL TOMO PRIMERO

Páginas

Declaración de Le Sage 7
Una palabrita al lector 9

LIBRO PRIMERO
Capítulo I.—Nacimiento de Gil Blas, y su educación. 11
Capítulo II.—De los sustos que tuvo Gil Blas en el
camino de Peñaflor, lo que hizo cuando llegó allí y
lo que le sucedió con un hombre que cenó con él. 14
Capítulo III.—De la tentación que tuvo el arriero en el
camino, en qué paró y cómo Gil Blas se estrelló
contra Caribdis queriendo evitar a Scila. 24
Capítulo IV.—Descripción de la cueva subterránea y de
lo que vió en ella Gil Blas. 28
Capítulo V.—De la llegada de otros ladrones al
subterráneo y de la conversación que tuvieron
entre sí. 31
Capítulo VI.—Del intento de escaparse Gil Blas y éxito
de su tentativa. 41
Capítulo VII.—De lo que hizo Gil Blas, no pudiendo
hacer otra cosa. 45
Capítulo VIII.—Acompaña Gil Blas a los ladrones; qué
empresa acomete en los caminos reales. 48
Capítulo IX.—Del serio lance que siguió a la aventura
del fraile. 52
Capítulo X.—De qué modo se portaron los bandoleros
con la señora desmayada. Gran proyecto de Gil
Blas, y sus resultas. 55
Capítulo XI.—Historia de doña Mencía de Mosquera. 63
Capítulo XII.—Del modo poco gustoso con que fué
interrumpida la conversación de la señora y de Gil
Blas. 73
Capítulo XIII.—Por qué casualidad sale Gil Blas de la
cárcel y a dónde se encaminó después. 78
Capítulo XIV.—Recibimiento que le hizo en Burgos doña
Mencía. 83
Capítulo XV.—De qué modo se vistió Gil Blas, del nuevo
regalo que le hizo la señora y del equipaje en que
salió de Burgos. 88
Capítulo XVI.—Donde se ve que ninguno debe fiarse
mucho de la prosperidad. 94
Capítulo XVII.—Partido que tomó Gil Blas de resultas
del triste suceso de la casa de posada. 102

LIBRO SEGUNDO
Capítulo I.—Entra Gil Blas por criado del licenciado
Cedillo; estado en que éste se hallaba y retrato de
su ama. 115
Capítulo II.—Qué remedios suministraron al canónigo
habiendo empeorado en su enfermedad; lo que
resultó y qué dejó a Gil Blas en su testamento. 123
Capítulo III.—Entra Gil Blas a servir al doctor Sangredo
y se hace famoso médico. 131
Capítulo IV.—Prosigue Gil Blas ejerciendo la Medicina
con tanto acierto como capacidad. Aventura de la
sortija recobrada. 139
Capítulo V.—Prosigue la aventura de la sortija; deja Gil
Blas la Medicina y se ausenta de Valladolid. 153
Capítulo VI.—A dónde se encaminó Gil Blas después
que salió de Valladolid y qué especie de hombre
se incorporó con él. 162
Capítulo VII.—Historia del mancebillo barbero. 166
Capítulo VIII.—Encuentro de Gil Blas y su compañero
con un hombre que estaba mojando mendrugos
de pan en una fuente y conversación que con él
tuvieron. 198
Capítulo IX.—Estado en que encontró Diego a sus
parientes y cómo Gil Blas se separó de él después
de haber participado de ciertas diversiones. 203

LIBRO TERCERO
Capítulo I.—Llegada de Gil Blas a Madrid, y primer amo
a quien sirvió allí. 213
Capítulo II.—De la admiración que causó a Gil Blas el
encuentro con el capitán Rolando y de las cosas
curiosas que le contó aquel bandolero. 223
Capítulo III.—Deja Gil Blas a don Bernardo de
Castelblanco y entra a servir a un elegante. 232
Capítulo IV.—Hace Gil Blas amistad con los criados de
los elegantes; secreto admirable que éstos le
enseñaron para lograr a poca costa la fama de
hombre agudo y singular juramento que a
instancia de ellos hizo en una cena. 244
Capítulo V.—Vese Gil Blas de repente en lances de amor
con una hermosa desconocida. 253
Capítulo VI.—De la conversación de algunos señores
sobre los comediantes de la compañía del teatro
del Príncipe. 265
Capítulo VII.—Historia de don Pompeyo de Castro. 272
Capítulo VIII.—Por qué accidente se ve precisado Gil
Blas a buscar nuevo acomodo. 282
Capítulo IX.—Del amo a quien Gil Blas fué a servir
después de la muerte de don Matías de Silva. 289
Capítulo X.—Entra Gil Blas a servir de mayordomo en
casa de Arsenia; informes que le da Laura de los
comediantes. 294
Capítulo XI.—Del modo como vivían entre sí los
comediantes y cómo trataban a los autores de
comedias. 300
Capítulo XII.—Toma Gil Blas inclinación al teatro,
entrégase enteramente a los pasatiempos de la
vida cómica y dentro de poco se disgusta de ella. 307
 LOS HUMORISTAS

TITULOS PUBLICADOS POR “CALPE”

Julio Camba.—La rana viajera.—Cuatro pesetas.
Arnold Bennet.—Enterrado en vida.—Trad. del inglés
por Vicente Vera. Cuatro pesetas.
—— El «matador» de Cinco-Villas.—Trad. del inglés
por C. Rivas Cherif. Cuatro pesetas.
—— La viuda del balcón, y Otros cuentos de
Cinco-Villas.—Traducido del inglés por C. Rivas
Cherif. Cuatro pesetas.
René Benjamín.—Gaspar.—Trad. del francés por Manuel
Azaña. Cuatro pesetas.
Jorge Courteline.—Los señores chupatintas.—Trad.
del francés por Nicolás González Ruiz. Cuatro
pesetas.
—— Boubouroche.—Trad. del francés por Nicolás
González Ruiz. Tres pesetas.
H. S. Harrison.—Queed, el doctorcillo.—Trad. del
inglés por Juan de Castro.—Dos tomos. Cada uno
tres pesetas cincuenta céntimos.
Eugenio Heltai.—«Family Hotel» y Mi segunda
mujer.—Traducido del húngaro por Andrés Révész.
Cuatro pesetas.
—— Manuel VII y su época.—Trad. del húngaro por
Andrés Révész. Tres pesetas cincuenta céntimos.
Gómez de la Serna.—Disparates.—Cuatro pesetas.
Pedro Veber.—Los cursos.—Trad. del francés por José
A. Luengo. Tres pesetas.
Antón Chejov.—Historia de una anguila, y otras
historias.—Trad. del ruso por Saturnino Ximénez.
Tres pesetas cincuenta céntimos.
Esteban Szomahazy.—El dramaturgo misterioso.—
Trad. del húngaro por Andrés Révész. Tres pesetas.

PRÓXIMAMENTE
Humoristas húngaros (Antología de).—Trad. del
húngaro por Andrés Révész.
Kálmán de Mikszáth.—Gente de rumbo, y El caftán
del sultán.—Trad. del húngaro por Andrés Révész.
Eugenio Heltai.—Los siete años de hambre, y
Cuentos.—Traducido del húngaro por Andrés
Révész.
Gómez de la Serna.—El Incongruente.
 LIBROS DE LA NATURALEZA

El contenido de las obras que forman esta serie

de libros editados por Calpe es rigurosamente
científico y está al corriente de los últimos
progresos de las ciencias naturales. Garantía de
ello son los autores de esas obras, todos los
cuales figuran entre los naturalistas de mayor
autoridad en nuestro país.

VAN PUBLICADOS
Los animales familiares, por Angel Cabrera, profesor
en el Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Un
volumen de 96 páginas, 42 dibujos y 6 láminas fuera
de texto, con 13 fotograbados en papel estucado.
La vida de la Tierra, por J. Dantín Cereceda, profesor
en el Instituto de San Isidro de Madrid. Un volumen
de 96 páginas, 21 dibujos y 6 láminas fuera de texto,
con 10 fotograbados en papel estucado.
El mundo alado, por Angel Cabrera, profesor en el
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Un volumen
de 96 páginas, 27 dibujos y 6 láminas fuera de texto,
con 11 fotograbados en papel estucado.
El mundo de los minerales, por Lucas Fernández
Navarro, profesor en la Universidad de Madrid y en el
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Un volumen
 de 96 páginas, 43 dibujos y 6 láminas fuera de texto,
con 10 fotograbados en papel estucado.
El mundo de los insectos, por Antonio de Zulueta,
profesor en el Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales.
Un volumen de 96 páginas, 41 dibujos y 6 láminas
fuera de texto, con 12 fotograbados en papel
estucado.
Los animales salvajes, por Angel Cabrera, profesor
en el Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Un
volumen de 96 páginas, 24 dibujos y 6 láminas fuera
de texto, con 10 fotograbados en papel estucado.
Peces de mar y de agua dulce, por Angel Cabrera,
profesor en el Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales.
Un volumen de 96 páginas, 40 dibujos y 6 láminas
fuera de texto, con 11 fotograbados en papel
estucado.
La vida de las plantas, por J. Dantín Cereceda,
profesor en el Instituto de San Isidro de Madrid. Un
volumen de 96 páginas, 31 dibujos y 6 láminas fuera
de texto, con 11 fotograbados en papel estucado.
Los animales microscópicos, por Angel Cabrera,
profesor en el Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales.
Un volumen de 96 páginas, 42 dibujos y 6 láminas
fuera de texto, con 10 fotograbados en papel
estucado.
La vida de las flores, por J. Dantín Cereceda, profesor
en el Instituto de San Isidro de Madrid. Un volumen
de 96 páginas, 31 dibujos y 6 láminas fuera de texto,
con 11 fotograbados en papel estucado.

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