Question one.

What are the lexical, phonological and grammatical structures in African English with

relevant examples

INTRODUCTION

African English refers to the distinct varieties of English spoken across the African continent,

shaped by interactions between English and indigenous languages. These varieties have

developed due to historical, cultural, and linguistic influences, particularly through colonial

education, trade, and globalization. African English differs from Standard British and

American English in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar, reflecting the linguistic

diversity of the continent.

•Lexical structures deal with vocabulary, including the meanings, origins, and usage of

words.

•Phonological structures focus on pronunciation, sound patterns, and speech rhythms.

•Grammatical structures refer to sentence construction, word order, and the use of tenses,

prepositions, and pronouns.

Lexical, Phonological, and Grammatical Structures in African English

1. Lexical Structures in African English

Lexical features of African English are influenced by local languages, cultures, and socio-

political contexts. Some key characteristics include:

a) Borrowing from Indigenous Languages

African English incorporates many words from native languages, reflecting local realities.

These borrowings often lack direct equivalents in Standard English.

•Kenyan English: Shamba (Swahili) → “We went to my grandmother’s shamba for the

holidays” (meaning farm).

•Nigerian English: Chop (Pidgin) → “Let’s go chop” (meaning to eat).

•South African English: Braai (Afrikaans) → “We had a braai last night” (meaning a

barbecue).

b) Semantic Shift

Words in African English often take on meanings that differ from Standard English.

•Extend: In Nigerian English, “Please extend the greetings to your mother” means “Pass my

greetings to your mother.”

•Balance: In Ghanaian English, “Give me my balance” means “Give me my change” (when

receiving money after a transaction).

•Take: In East African English, “I will take tea” means “I will drink tea.”

c) Coinage and Hybrid Words

New words and expressions emerge due to cultural and societal needs.
•Big manism (Nigerian English) – A term for the behavior of influential or wealthy people.

•Overstand (used in some West African Englishes) – Means to fully understand, beyond

“understand.”

•Yellow-yellow (Ghanaian/Nigerian English) – A light-skinned person.

d) Proverbs and Idioms

African English varieties frequently use proverbs and idioms influenced by local languages.

•“A goat that dies in a barn was already destined to die” (Ugandan English, meaning fate

cannot be avoided).

•“No condition is permanent” (Common in West African English, meaning situations change

over time).

•“Cut your coat according to your size” (meaning live within your means).

2. Phonological Structures in African English

Phonological features vary across different African countries, but some common patterns

emerge.

a) Vowel Substitution

Speakers often replace English vowels with those that exist in their native languages.

•East African English (Kenyan/Ugandan/Tanzanian)

•“Sit” → Pronounced as /siːt/ instead of /sɪt/

•“Sheet” → Pronounced as /ʃɪt/ instead of /ʃiːt/ (can lead to unintended

misunderstandings)
 •West African English (Nigerian/Ghanaian)

•“Bird” → Pronounced as /bɛd/ instead of /bɜːd/

•“Work” → Pronounced as /wɔk/ instead of /wɜːk/

b) Consonant Simplification

Certain English consonants do not exist in many African languages, leading to substitutions.

•“Th” Sound Replacement

•“This” → Pronounced as “dis” (/dɪs/)

•“Think” → Pronounced as “tink” (/tɪŋk/)

•Omission of Final Consonants

•”Help” → Pronounced as “hep”

•“Kept” → Pronounced as “kep”

c) Syllable-Timed Rhythm

African English tends to have a more syllable-timed rhythm compared to the stress-timed

nature of British English. Each syllable is given almost equal time, making speech sound

more rhythmic.

Example:

•“I am going to the market” → Spoken in evenly timed syllables, unlike in Standard

English where stress is placed on certain syllables.

d) Intonation and Tone Influence

Since many African languages are tonal, speakers often carry this feature into English.

•Nigerian English: Rising intonation on statements that are declarative in Standard

English.

•“You are coming tomorrow?” → Spoken with a rising tone as if it’s a question.

•South African English: A distinctive falling-rising intonation pattern, influenced by

Afrikaans.

3. Grammatical Structures in African English

African English displays distinct grammatical patterns influenced by indigenous languages

and Pidgin English.

a) Subject Pronoun Retention

Double pronouns are used for emphasis or clarity.

•“My mother, she is a teacher.”

•“John, he said he will come.”

b) Lack of Tense Markers or Overgeneralization

Some varieties omit tense markers, or apply them differently.

•“Yesterday, he go to school” (instead of “Yesterday, he went to school”).

•“I am coming” (commonly used instead of “I will be right back”).

c) Reduplication for Emphasis

Words are repeated to strengthen meaning.

•“Come small small” (meaning “Come slowly” in Nigerian English).

•“He is my brother brother” (meaning “He is my close brother”).

d) Omission of Articles

The definite and indefinite articles (“a,” “an,” “the”) are sometimes omitted.

•“She is teacher” (instead of “She is a teacher”).

•“I went to market” (instead of “I went to the market”).

e) Unique Question Forms

Some African English varieties structure questions differently.

•“What is your good name?” (Common in Nigerian English, meaning “What is your

full name?”).

•“You are going where?” (Instead of “Where are you going?”).

f) Different Use of Prepositions

Prepositions are used differently in African English.

•“He entered inside the room” (instead of “He entered the room”).

•“She is married with three children” (instead of “She is married and has three

children”).
 •“We discussed about the matter” (instead of “We discussed the matter”).

g) Use of Serial Verbs

Serial verb constructions are common, influenced by African language structures.

•“He came and took the book and went away.”

•“She went to the market and bought food and came back.”

Lexical, Phonological, and Grammatical Structures in Australian English

Australian English (AusE) exhibits distinctive lexical, phonological, and grammatical

characteristics that differentiate it from other English varieties such as British and American

English. These features have been shaped by historical influences, including British

colonization, indigenous languages, and sociolinguistic evolution. Over time, Australian

English has developed into a unique linguistic system that reflects both its colonial past and

its modern cultural identity.

1. Lexical Features (Vocabulary)

The vocabulary of Australian English reflects influences from British English, Aboriginal

languages, and local innovations. The integration of slang and diminutives is a defining

characteristic, shaping everyday communication.

Examples:

 Colloquial and Slang Expressions:

o "G'day" (Good day, Hello)

o "Arvo" (Afternoon) – I'll see you this arvo.

 o "Mate" (Friend) – How ya goin', mate?

o "Fair dinkum" (Genuine, authentic) – He's a fair dinkum bloke.

o "Bogan" (A person of an unsophisticated background) – That guy’s a real

bogan.

o "Barbie" (Barbecue) – Let's throw some snags on the barbie!

 Borrowings from Aboriginal Languages:

o "Billabong" (A waterhole)

o "Kangaroo," "Koala," "Boomerang"

o "Yakka" (Hard work) – That was a lot of hard yakka!

 Diminutive Formations: Australians frequently truncate words and append "-ie," "-

y," or "-o" suffixes:

o "Brekkie" (Breakfast)

o "Footy" (Football)

o "Servo" (Service station)

o "Maccas" (McDonald's)

o "Sunnies" (Sunglasses)

o "Postie" (Postal worker)

Australian English also incorporates many words and phrases that are not commonly used in

other varieties of English. Expressions such as "she'll be right" (meaning everything will be

fine) and "no worries" (a phrase used to express reassurance or gratitude) are emblematic of

the relaxed and informal nature of Australian communication.

2. Phonological Features (Pronunciation)

The phonetic structure of Australian English is marked by vowel shifts, elision, and non-

rhoticity (where "r" is not pronounced at the end of syllables unless followed by a vowel).
These phonological characteristics contribute to the distinctive Australian accent, which

varies across different regions and social groups.

Key Phonological Features:

 Non-Rhoticity:

o The final /r/ is typically omitted unless a linking or intrusive "r" is required:

 Car → /ka:/

 Mother → /ˈmʌðə/

 Accent Variation:

o Broad Australian: Exhibits the most distinct pronunciation, often associated

with rural speakers.

o General Australian: The most widely spoken and neutral form, common in

media.

o Cultivated Australian: Closely resembles Received Pronunciation (RP) and

is associated with upper socio-economic classes.

 Vowel Shifts:

o "Face" /feɪs/ → /fæɪs/

o "Goat" /goʊt/ → /gɐʉt/

 Flapping of /t/:

o The phoneme /t/ is often realized as a soft /d/ in intervocalic positions:

 Butter → Budder

 High-Rising Terminal (HRT):

o Declarative statements frequently take on a rising intonation pattern, akin to a

question:

 I went to the shop? And I bought some milk?

 Elision and Assimilation:

 o "Good day" → G’day

o "Going to" → Gonna

o "Would have" → Woulda

o "What do you reckon?" → Whaddaya reckon?

3. Grammatical Features

Although Australian English generally follows Standard English grammatical conventions, it

incorporates several unique syntactic and morphological elements that distinguish it from

other English varieties.

Key Grammatical Features:

 Informal Contractions and Colloquialisms:

o "Dunno" (Don’t know) – I dunno what happened.

o "Gonna" (Going to) – I’m gonna head out.

o "Wanna" (Want to) – Do you wanna come?

 Tag Questions and Discourse Particles:

o Used frequently to foster conversational engagement:

 Nice weather, eh?

 You’re coming, aren’t you?

 Double Negatives in Informal Speech:

o While considered non-standard, double negatives occur in colloquial usage:

 I didn’t do nothing.

 Variation in the Past Tense of "Get":

o British English: He has got it.

o Australian English: He’s gotten it.

 Use of "As" for Intensification:

 o Hot as! (Extremely hot)

o Funny as! (Very funny)

 Pluralization of "You":

o "Youse" is sometimes employed as a plural form of "you" in informal speech:

 Youse guys coming? (Analogous to "y'all" in American English)

 Use of Present Perfect and Past Simple Tense:

o In some cases, Australians prefer the past simple tense over the present

perfect:

 Did you eat yet? instead of Have you eaten yet?

Another notable feature of Australian English grammar is the frequent omission of the subject

pronoun in casual speech, particularly in spoken interactions. For example:

 Reckon it’ll rain later instead of I reckon it’ll rain later.

African English and Australian English have distinct lexical differences due to historical,

cultural, and social influences. Here are some key differences with relevant examples:

1. Vocabulary

African English

"Nyama Choma" A popular Swahili term in East Africa meaning "grilled meat."

- Example: "Let's go out for some nyama choma this evening."

"Matatu": A term used in Kenya and Uganda for minibuses or shared taxis.

- Example: "I took a matatu to get to the market."

"Bakkie"A term used in South Africa for a pickup truck.

- Example: "We loaded the bakkie with supplies for the trip."

"Kikoi"A type of traditional cloth worn around the waist in East Africa.
 - Example: "He wrapped a colorful kikoi around his waist."

Australian English

- "Arvo" Australian slang for "afternoon."

- Example: "Let's meet up in the arvo for a coffee."

"Esky" : A portable cooler used to keep drinks and food cold.

- Example: "Don't forget to bring the esky to the beach."

"Bogan" : A slang term for an unsophisticated person.

- Example: "He's a bit of a bogan but has a good heart."

"Thongs" : In Australia, "thongs" refer to flip-flops or sandals.

- Example: "I wear thongs to the beach."

2. Idiomatic Expressions

African English

"To eat one's money" : To spend someone's money wastefully.

- Example: "He's always eating his parents' money instead of saving."

"To finish one's food" : To have plenty of food.

- Example: "We finished the food at the party."

"To catch feelings" : To develop romantic feelings for someone.

- Example: "I think she's starting to catch feelings for him."

Australian English

"Flat out like a lizard drinking" : Extremely busy.

- Example: "I've been flat out like a lizard drinking all week."

"Fair dinkum" : Genuine or real.

- Example: "He's a fair dinkum Aussie."

"To crack the shits" : To become angry or annoyed.

- Example: "She cracked the shits when she found out about the mistake."

3. Pronunciation Differences

While lexical differences are prominent, pronunciation also varies significantly:

African English

- African Englishes often incorporate local language phonetic influences, resulting in unique

pronunciations.

- Example: "Three" may be pronounced more like "tree."

Australian English

- Australian English is known for its distinct vowel sounds and the use of a non-rhotic accent

(dropping the 'r' sound in words).

- Example: "Car" may be pronounced more like "cah."

4. Loanwords and Influence of Local Languages

African English

- African English incorporates many loanwords from local languages.

- Example: "Ubuntu" (a South African philosophy) means "humanity."

- Example: "Jollof" (a West African dish) refers to a popular rice dish.

Australian English

- Australian English includes Aboriginal words and terms.

- Example: "Kangaroo" and "boomerang" are borrowed from Aboriginal languages.

- Example: "Didgeridoo" refers to a traditional Aboriginal wind instrument.

PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES

The phonological differences between African English and Australian English are influenced

by the distinct linguistic backgrounds, cultural contexts, and historical developments of each

region. Here are some key phonological differences with relevant examples:

1. Pronunciation of Vowels

African English

- "Influence of Local Languages": The pronunciation of vowels in African English often

reflects the phonetic patterns of indigenous languages. For example, many African languages

have a simpler vowel system compared to English, leading to variations in vowel sounds.

Example: The word "sit" may be pronounced with a short [ɪ] sound similar to "seat" in some

African Englishes.

Example: The word "bed" might be pronounced as [bɛd], where the vowel sound is more

open than in standard British or American English.

Australian English

"Distinct Vowel Sounds": Australian English is known for its distinct vowel sounds, including

diphthongs and monophthongs.

Example: The word "face" is pronounced as [faɪs] in Australian English, with a noticeable

diphthong.

Example: The word "mate" is often pronounced [maɪt], reflecting the distinct Australian

diphthong.

2. Rhotic vs. Non-Rhotic Accent

African English
Rhotic Accent: Many varieties of African English are rhotic, meaning that the "r" sound is

pronounced in all positions.

Example: The word "car" is pronounced with a clear [r] sound, as in [kɑr].

Example: The word "better" is pronounced with a pronounced [r] at the end, as in [bɛtər].

Australian English

Non-Rhotic Accent: Australian English is generally non-rhotic, meaning that the "r" sound is

not pronounced at the end of words or before a consonant.

Example: The word "car" is pronounced [kɑː], without the [r] sound.

Example: The word "better" is pronounced [bɛtə], dropping the final [r].

3. Consonant Clusters

African English

Simplification of Consonant Clusters: Consonant clusters (two or more consonants together)

are often simplified in African English, influenced by local language phonotactics.

Example: The word "street" may be pronounced as [sɪˈtrit] or [stɪˈrit], with a simplification

of the consonant cluster.

Example: The word "friend" might be pronounced as [fɹɛnd], sometimes with a less

pronounced consonant cluster.

Australian English

Retention of Consonant Clustester:

Consonant clusters are typically retained in Australian English.

Example : The word "street" is pronounced [strit], maintaining the consonant cluster.

Example : The word "friend" is pronounced [fɹɛnd], retaining the full consonant cluster.

4. Intonation and Stress Patterns

African English
Influence of Tonal Languages : Many African languages are tonal, and this influence can

affect the intonation and stress patterns in African English.

Example : The sentence "She is coming" may have a rising intonation influenced by tonal

patterns.

Example : The word "banana" might be pronounced with varying tones, reflecting tonal

influences from local languages.

Australian English

Rising Intonation in Statements : Australian English often features a rising intonation at the

end of statements, sometimes referred to as the "Australian Question Intonation" (AQI).

Example : The statement "I'm going to the store" might be pronounced with a rising

intonation, making it sound like a question.

Example : The phrase "That's interesting" might be pronounced with a rising intonation,

giving it a questioning tone.

5. Influence of Indigenous Languages

African English

Code-Switching and Borrowing : African English often incorporates code-switching and

borrowing from local languages.

Example : A speaker might switch between English and a local language within a sentence:

"I need to buy some unga (flour) for dinner."

Example : The word "nyama" (meat) from Swahili might be used in an English sentence:

"We're having nyama for dinner."

Australian English
Incorporation of Aboriginal Words : Australian English includes words borrowed from

Aboriginal languages.

Example : Words like "kangaroo," "boomerang," and "billabong" are integrated into

Australian English with their original pronunciations.

Example : The term "corroboree" refers to an Aboriginal ceremonial gathering and is used in

Australian English.

African English and Australian English have distinct grammatical differences due to their

different linguistic influences, that is, African is shaped by indigenous languages, British

colonial English and the local patterns while Australian English follows British grammar with

it's own informal and slang elements. They include;

1.) Tense and Aspect

African English sometimes uses the present perfect where Australian English uses the simple

past.

Example: I have seen him yesterday -African English

Example: I saw him yesterday - Australian English

2.) Prepositions

Some prepositions differ in African English and Australian English.

Example: He is married with her- African English

Example: He is married to her - Australian English

3.) Pronouns and Emphasis

African English often duplicates pronouns for emphasis unlike Australian English.

Example: Me, I don't know - African English

Example: I don't know - Australian English

Reduplication for emphasis is common in African English .

Example: He is running fast fast - African English

Example: He is running very fast - Australian English

4.) Use of articles ( "a" vs "the" )

African English sometimes omits or misuse definite and indefinite articles unlike Australian

English.

Example: He is in hospital - Australian English

Example: He is in the hospital - African English

5.) Collective Nouns

Australian English treats collective nouns as plural while African English treats collective

nouns as singular.

Example: The team are winning - Australian English

Example: The team is winning - African English

6.) Pluralization and Countability

African English pluralizes some uncountable nouns while Australian English does not.

Example: She gave me many advices - African English

Example: She gave me some advice - Australian English

7.) Informal grammar and slang

Australian English uses many diminutives an contractions than African English.

Example: I'll grab a cuppa - Australian English

Example: I'll grab a cup of tea - African English

Pidgins are simplified languages that emerge when speakers of different native languages

need to communicate but don't share a common language. They are often formed in situations

like trade or colonization, where speakers from diverse linguistic backgrounds come together,

typically with English (or another dominant language) as the base.

Here are some notable English-based pidgins, along with examples:

1. Hawaiian Pidgin (Hawaiian Creole English)

- Origin

Developed in Hawaii during the 19th century, primarily among immigrant workers who

came from China, Japan, the Philippines, and other countries, mixing their native languages

with English.

- Example

- Standard English "What are you doing?"

- Hawaiian Pidgin*m: "Wat you stay doin'?"

2. Tok Pisin (Papua New Guinea)

- Origin

A pidgin language developed in Papua New Guinea, stemming from English, with influences

from various local languages.

- Example

- Standard English: "I am going to the market."

- Tok Pisin "Mi go long maket."

3. West African Pidgin English

- Origin
A pidgin that emerged in West Africa, primarily in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Cameroon, as a

result of English influence mixed with African languages during the colonial period.

- Example

- Standard English:"What is your name?"

- West African Pidgin: "Wetin be your name?"

4. Pidgin English (Caribbean)

- Origin:

English-based pidgins emerged in the Caribbean, particularly in the slave trade era, as

enslaved people from different African linguistic backgrounds had to communicate with

English-speaking slave owners and traders.

- Example

- Standard English: "How are you?"

- Caribbean Pidgin "How yuh do?"

5. Krio (Sierra Leone)

-Origin

A Creole language based on English, it developed in Sierra Leone during the 18th and 19th

centuries from English, African languages, and Portuguese.

- Example:

- Standard English: "I am not feeling well."

- Krio "A no de fine."

6. Singlish (Singapore)

- Origin: A variety of English spoken in Singapore, influenced by Chinese dialects, Malay,

Tamil, and other languages.

- Example
 - Standard English: "Are you coming with us?"

- Singlish: "You coming or not?"

Each of these pidgins incorporates English but has been adapted with local elements, creating

a simplified, unique structure that reflects the cultural and linguistic influences of the

communities using them.

A Creole is a fully developed language that emerges from the mixing of different languages,

often in colonial or trade settings. Creoles typically evolve from pidgins, which are simplified

languages used for communication between groups that don’t share a common tongue. Over

time, a pidgin can develop into a Creole when it becomes the native language of a community

and expands in complexity.

Key Features of Creoles

1. Origins in Pidgins – Creoles often begin as pidgins but become full-fledged languages over

generations.

2. Stable Grammar – Unlike pidgins, Creoles have consistent grammar rules.

3. Influence from Multiple Languages – Most Creoles blend elements from European

languages (English, French, Spanish, Portuguese) with indigenous or African languages.

4. Native Speakers – Unlike pidgins, Creoles have native speakers who learn them as a first

language.
Creoles derived from English are known as English-based Creoles and have developed in

regions where English interacted with local languages, often due to colonialism, trade, or

slavery.

Examples of English-Based Creoles

1. Jamaican Patois (Jamaican Creole) – Spoken in Jamaica, blending English with West

African languages. Example: Mi a go a town (I am going to town).

2. Gullah (Sea Island Creole) – Spoken by African American communities in the southeastern

U.S. Example: E bin dey long time (He has been there a long time).

3. Krio (Sierra Leone) – Used widely in Sierra Leone, influenced by English and African

languages. Example: Ah go mek am (I will make it).

4. Tok Pisin (Papua New Guinea) – A national language of Papua New Guinea. Example: Mi

laikim yu (I like/love you).

5. Bislama (Vanuatu) – Spoken in Vanuatu, related to Tok Pisin. Example: Yu stap we?

(Where are you?).

6. Singlish (Singapore) – A mix of English with Malay, Tamil, and Chinese influences.

Example: Can lah! (Yes, it’s possible!).

These Creoles have distinct grammar and vocabulary while retaining English roots. Want

more details on any?

Pidgins and creoles are languages that arise in multilingual contact situations, often where

speakers of different native language need to communicate for trade, work or social

interaction.

1. Pidgins are simplified languages that develop as a means of communication between

speakers of different native language. They typically have limited vocabulary and simplified

grammar. English-based pidgins often borrow vocabulary from English but modify it to fit

the phonological and grammatical systems of the speaker’s native languages.

Example: Nigerian pidgin English

Sentence in standard English : where are you going? wia you de do?(Nigerian pidgin)

2. Creoles develop when pidgins become stable and are learned as native language by a new

generation of speakers. They have more complex grammatical structures and expanded

vocabulary compared to pidgins. English-based creoles often show significant influence from

other languages and can develop unique grammatical rules.

Example:Jamaican creole

I am going to the market(standard English)………Mi a go a di market (sentence in Jamaican

creole)

3. Unique linguistic features of pidgins and creoles.

Phonology: pidgins and creoles often simplify the phonological systems of lexifier language

(in this case English) to match the sound patterns of the speaker’s native languages.

Standard English : This is a beautiful place

Hawaiian pidgin: Dis stay one nice place.

Grammar: pidgins and creoles develop unique grammatical structures that may differ

significantly from English .

Example in tok pisin (papua New Guinea pidgin):

Standard English: He went to the store

Top pisin: Em I go long stoa

Vocabulary: while pidgins and creoles borrow a significant portion of their vocabulary from

English, they often incorporate words from other languages and create new terms.

Example in Gullah (creole language spoken in the sea islands):

Standard English : They are very happy .

Gullah: Dey plenty happy. Dey is derived from “they” and “plenty” is used to intensify

“happy”

Cultural and social social context: The development and use of pidgins and creoles are

deeply rooted in their cultural and social context. They often arise in situations of

colonization, slavery and migration where diverse linguistic communities come into contact.

Example in Haitian creole:

Standard English : we are finally here

Haitian creole: Nou tout se fanmi isit…….nou means “we”tout “means “all” se is copula and

“fanmi” means “family”.

Lexical, Phonological, and Grammatical Structures in African English

Introduction

African English refers to the distinct varieties of English spoken across the African continent,

shaped by interactions between English and indigenous languages. These varieties have

developed due to historical, cultural, and linguistic influences, particularly through colonial

education, trade, and globalization. African English differs from Standard British and

American English in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar, reflecting the linguistic

diversity of the continent.

To understand these differences, it is essential to examine the lexical, phonological, and

grammatical structures of African English:

• Lexical structures deal with vocabulary, including the meanings, origins, and usage

of words.

• Phonological structures focus on pronunciation, sound patterns, and speech rhythms.

 • Grammatical structures refer to sentence construction, word order, and the use of

tenses, prepositions, and pronouns.

This paper explores these aspects in detail, highlighting the unique features of African

English with relevant examples.