• What are the plant tissues present in a plant ?

• What are the various tissues made up of ?

• What are the functions of plant tissues ?

• STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES,

STEMS AND ROOTS IN A PLANT

WHAT DID YOU LEARN ABOUT PLANTS

THAT YOU DID NOT KNOW BEFORE ?
 TOPICS REMAINING FOR PLANT
BIOLOGY
• Lecture week Plant P-2 February 11. Plant structure Plants are unique in that their morphology
and function (appearance) is unlike animals and humans.
• Lecture week Plant P-3 Plant transport (water and Plants have unique tissues and organs and the cells
nutrients) are different from animal cells.
• Lecture week Plant P-4 Plant reproduction Plant cells have rigid cells walls that contain
• Lecture week Plant P-5 How plants respond to the cellulose, making that one of the most abundant
environment plant-derived molecules on Earth
• Lecture week Plant P-6, P-7 Photosynthesis Plants cells also contain chloroplasts (with
• --------------------- THE END ------------------------------ chlorophyll) and have vacuoles not seen in animal
cells

CELL WALL + CHLOROPLASTS +

PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS VACUOLE

MAKE A LIST OF TERMS AND

CELL WALL STRUCTURE
DEFINITIONS AS WE GO
Cuticle. Outer waxy layer on leaves Reduces water
loss
Cell wall. Multi-layered structure. Protects cells
Middle lamella. Separates primary and secondary cell wall
Plasmodesmata. Cytoplasmic connections between cells
Cellulose. Glucose molecules forming a long chain

Final exam will have “Fill in the blanks” and “Provide a

definition of terms”.
Know the different terms by making a chart
 SO WHAT IS CELLULOSE MADE UP
OF ?

COMPONENTS OF THE CELL WALL

ARE CROSS-LINKED
The primary cell wall contains cellulose (long
chain of glucose molecules)
The secondary cell was has hemi-cellulose
and lignin, which provide cell wall strength and
thickening.
Secondary growth seen in trees is due to the
thickening of the secondary cell walls
Between individual cells is the middle lamella
that holds cells together. It contains pectin and
calcium

PLANT CELL WALL STRUCTURE CELL TO CELL COMMUNICATION

• Plant cells have

connections between
them called
“plasmodesmata”.
They allow
communications and
signals to occur
between cells, and
transport of materials
All plants have shoots that grow above ground BE ABLE TO
DRAW AND
and roots that grow below ground LABEL ALL
The shoots consist of a stem and leaves, and THE PARTS
OF A PLANT
bear flowers and seeds SEEN HERE
Roots may function as storage organs and are
most important for absorption of water and
nutrients. They create a large surface area.

FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES

• Leaves are the primary site for photosynthesis,

where sugar is formed from carbon dioxide and
water and oxygen is produced
• Leaves may be simple or compound in structure
• Leaves have an upper epidermis and a lower
epidermis. In between are mesophyll cells –
palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll
• Leaves have a cuticle on the surface that contain
waxes (hydrophobic) that reduces water loss
(transpiration)

ENGINEERING PLANTS TO EXPRESS

THE FIREFLY FLUORESCENCE GENE
 ADAPTATIONS OF LEAVES TO
CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS

FUNCTIONS OF STEMS
• Provide physical support to the plant and are
SHOOTS
also involved in movement of water and GROW
nutrients up the plant through the vascular THROUGH
system (xylem and phloem) APICAL
BUDS
• Allows for continued growth through the apical AND
meristem AXILLARY
BUDS
• Contain axillary buds that give rise to side shoots
• Can be used for storage of food and water
• Allow for lateral growth to increase width of the
stem
 MODIFICATIONS OF STEMS FOR
DIFFERENT PURPOSES

IN THE
SHOOT
TIPS IS THE
APICAL
MERISTEM,
A REGION
OF
ACTIVELY
DIVIDING • Rhizomes can be found in
CELLS ginger, turmeric, ginseng
plants. Used for storage of
nutrients.
 CONTINUED PLANT GROWTH MERISTEMS
OCCURS THROUGH MERISTEMS

There are 4 • Meristems are actively growing regions found

types of at the tips of shoots and roots of plants that
meristematic allow for continued growth
tissues – apical • Growth of side shoots from stems is also due
(shoot and
to axillary bud meristems
root), axillary,
and lateral • The expansion of width of stems (lateral
meristem growth) is also due to the activity of lateral
(vascular) meristems, especially cambium.

FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS

• To anchor the plant/tree in the soil

• To absorb water and nutrients from the soil
• Roots have a large surface area due to root
hairs
• Continued growth occurs through the root
meristems
• Roots can be used for storage of nutrients
 STRUCTURE OF A CARROT ROOT

TISSUE TYPES IN PLANTS

NOTE THE
DERMAL – Found on the outside layer of
ACTIVITY IN plant tissues, provides protection to the plant
THE ROOT eg. epidermis
APICAL
MERISTEM IN MERISTEMATIC – found at the growing tips
CAUSING
GROUND – there are 3 types = Parenchyma,
ROOTS TO
GROW Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma

VASCULAR – there are two types = xylem and

phloem
 TISSUE TYPES IN PLANTS

KNOW
THE FOUR
TISSUE
TYPES
AND WHAT
THEY DO

VASCULAR TISSUES – FOR

GROUND TISSUES
TRANSPORT
• Parenchyma. Most common type. These cells are
found in leaves, tubers. They constitute living cells.
They are involved in producing sugar during
photosynthesis and they can store food (starch) eg. in
roots, tubers, fruit. They have thin walls and large
vacuoles.
• Collenchyma. These cells do not store food. They
constitute living cells. They have a function that is part
of providing structural support to plants. They have
thick walls
• Sclerenchyma. These cells are non-living. They are
thick-walled. Their function in mainly in providing
support and rigidity to plants.

XYLEM AND PHLOEM – VASCULAR

TISSUES
• Xylem moves water and nutrients up the
plant, from roots through stems to leaves
• Phloem moves sugar and water solution
from leaves to other parts of the plant
• Xylem consists of cells called tracheids and
vessel elements which have pores in them.
These cells are non-living.
• Phloem consists of sieve tube elements and
companion cells and are living
 XYLEM PHLOEM
TISSUES TISSUES

VASCULAR CAMBIUM – PERMITS

VASCULAR CAMBIUM SECONDARY (LATERAL) GROWTH

• A ring of actively dividing cells found

separating the xylem and phloem. Cell
divisions result in the formation of
secondary xylem and secondary phloem
• Continuous division over the years caused
formation of secondary xylem (=wood) in
larger trees. These result in the formation
of “growth rings” seen in large trees
GROWTH RINGS IN TREES DUE TO
ACTIVITY OF VASCULAR CAMBIUM

STUDY OF TREE RINGS =

DENDROCHRONOLOGY
 Plants need water and nutrients in order to grow and
survive
They produce thier own carbon source (glucose)
through photosynthesis
They also need carbon dioxide from the air
Therefore, plants have evolved mechanisms to ensure
they can take up water and nutrients, and can be
adapted to survive under dry conditions
A large maple tree needs about 800 litres of water per
day !

WATER VS. “FORGOT TO” WATER

PLANTS
NEED
WATER,
NUTRIENTS,
LIGHT AND
CARBON
DIOXIDE
CONIFEROUS AND DECIDUOUS
TREES

WATER MOVEMENT FROM SOIL TO TOP

• Water from soil ends up in the xylem of the vascular bundle.

The next step is to move the water up the plant, against
gravity

MOVEMENT OF WATER INSIDE ROOT

 ROOTS TAKE UP WATER

• Roots take up water though osmosis – movement of water

from a concentration of low solute (soil) to one of higher
concentration of solute (cells).
• The roots hairs provide greatly increased surface area for
absorption of water and nutrients
• Once water enters the root, it can move in between cells
(through the apoplast) or through the cells themselves
(through the symplast)
• Once it reaches a layer of cells called the endodermis, the
water is re-directed to move via the symplast. This allows for
control of water uptake.
• Inside the, endodermis is the Casparian strip which is how
water movement is regulated

WATER MOVEMENT UP THROUGH THE

MOVEMENT OF WATER INSIDE ROOTS
XYLEM

WATER MOVEMENT

• Once inside the xylem tracheids and vessel

elements, water molecules adhere to each
other by hydrogen bonding as well as to the
walls of the xylem vessels
• This creates a column of water internally
• The water travels upwards to the leaves. The
rate of travel can be 15 metres per hour in a
large tree
IN THE LEAVES, THERE IS LOSS OF BRANCHED VEINS IN DICOT
WATER THROUGH TRANSPIRATION PLANTS

THE TRANSPIRATIONAL PULL

 TRANSPIRATION RESULTS IN WATER
WATER FLOW UP THE PLANT (TREE)
LOSS
• The loss of water due to transpiration (movement of
water out of leaf cells via the stomata) creates a “water
deficit” or negative water potential inside the leaf
• This causes a “pull” of water into the leaf from the
xylem. This in turn pulls water up the xylem from the
roots
• The “transpirational pull” is the main force that causes
water to move up the plant, from roots to leaves
• If you cover a plant for 24 hours inside a plastic bag, it is
easy to see how much water is released from the leaves
into the space in the bag

REAL-LIFE STOMATA
OPEN (LEFT) VS. CLOSED (RIGHT)
• Stomata need to stay
open to take up
carbon dioxide and
release oxygen during
photosynthesis

THE OPENING AND CLOSING OF THE FUNCTIONS OF STOMATA

STOMATA
• Stomata are found in the epidermal layer of leaf cells
• There are more stomata on the underside of leaves
compared to the upper surface as they as not exposed to direct
light and it is cooler
• The guard cells of the stomata regulate the stomatal opening
size. The larger the opening, the more water will be lost
• Stomata will open when there is lots of water, when there is
sunlight, and when potassium ion levels are high inside
guard cells. This causes water to flow in.
• Stomata will close when there is not enough water, when it
is dark, and when potassium levels are low. This causes
water to leave the guard cells
 HOW DO PLANTS SURVIVE IN DESERT SO WHAT ABOUT PLANTS ???? HERE IS
CLIMATES ? HOW THEY CAN ADAPT
• Plants have reduced leaf size and fleshy leaves to store
water
• During dry seasons, plants can dry down but grow again
when it rains
• Some plants close the stomata during the day, open them at
night when it is cooler
• Stomata may be located deeper inside the leaf than in the
• Camels store fat in their humps. The fat is a source of energy
epidermis
and regulates temperature in the rest of the body. Water is
stored in the blood and other tissues • The leaves have thick waxy cuticles to retain water
• Camels are very efficient in water use – during breathing, they • The plants have fewer stomata
don’t perspire, their excrement is dry, they have thick coats, • Plants that live in the desert are called “xerophytes”
they obtain water from eating leaves

ADAPTATIONS OF LEAVES

CALIFORNIA
HIGHWAYS
 FUNCTION OF THE PHLOEM

• During photosynthesis sugar is produced in the leaves that

must be transported to other parts of the plant
• This requires movement from the source i.e. leaves, to
where it is needed for growth i.e. sink. KNOW THE
• Sugar (sucrose) is “loaded” into the phloem cells by PROCESS OF
sucrose transporters. This causes a high osmotic pressure PHLOEM
which draws in water from the xylem SUGAR
• This causes pressure to build up, which forces the flow of LOADING AND
sugar down the plant UNLOADING
• The turgour pressure causes the sugar solution to move via
“bulk flow” to reach cells that need it eg. growing fruit, shoots,
roots, etc. The sugar is “unloaded” here.
 FROM SOURCE TO
FROM SOURCE TO SINK SINK
 NUTRIENTS IN SOIL END UP IN FOOD
XYLEM AND PHLOEM

• Xylem moves water and nutrients up the

plant, from roots through stems to leaves
• Phloem moves sugar and water solution
from leaves to other parts of the plant
• Xylem consists of cells called tracheids
and vessel elements which have pores in
them. These cells are non-living.
• Phloem consists of sieve tube elements
and companion cells and are living

WHAT IS MAPLE SYRUP ???

• Maple syrup is the sap from maple trees that is
concentrated to make maple syrup. It is boiled to
concentrate it to 66-67% sugar
• Maple syrup is taken as “xylem sap” from trees during early
spring (around this time)
• In the Fall, sugar is transported by the phloem to the roots
for storage. In early spring, when temperatures are above
freezing during the daytime, the sap is moved up through
the xylem to give energy for leaves to grow.
• Drilling holes in the trees allows xylem sap to drip due to
positive pressure flow.

MINERAL NUTRITION OF PLANTS

• Plants need nutrients and the amounts they

need are divided into macronutrients and
micronutrients
 ION CHANNELS ALLOW FOR NUTRIENTS
MACRO- AND MICRO-NUTRIENTS TO ENTER CELLS

NUTRIENTS CAN BE PROVIDED FROM SOME PLANTS CONSUME INSECTS

SOIL OR AS FERTILIZERS
 REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS HAS
GREAT OUTCOMES !!!!!

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF
PLANTS
The process by which plants can increase their
• From stems eg. strawberries that
numbers for the next generation. Plants
reproduce in order to survive.
produce stolons
Reproduction may be asexual (through • From tubers eg. axillary buds on
vegetative means) or sexual (involving male and potato tubers
female gametes)
In asexual reproduction, the offspring are all
• From young shoots on banana
genetically identical as this is clonal reproduction plants called suckers
(propagation) • From stems as in roses
In sexual reproduction, there is the advantage of
increasing genetic diversity
BANANAS HAVE
NO SEEDS
 PINEAPPLES

PINEAPPLE GROWS BY VEGETATIVE

PROPAGATION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Requires the fusion of male and female gametes to

produce a zygote (embryo) followed by seed
production
• Male gamete = pollen grains
• Female gamete = ovules
• These gametes are found in the flowers. For
reproduction, it requires the transfer of the male
gamete to the ovules to initiate fertilization.
• Roses are propagated • The male gametes are produced in anthers
from stem cuttings • The female gametes are found in the ovary
 POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

• The process of transfer of the male pollen to the

female stigma (receptive part of the female flower) is
called pollination
• Pollen can be transferred by wind eg. in grasses or
trees. This requires production of very large amounts of
pollen each spring
• Pollen can also be transferred by insects eg. bees and
wasps and moths, animals eg. bats and hummingbirds
• Insect pollinated flowers are attractive and produce
nectar to reward the pollinators

ALDER PRODUCES LOTS OF POLLEN

POLLINATORS ARE ENDANGERED
COCONUT IS A FRUIT WITH A LARGE AFTER POLLINATION, A FRUIT IS
SEED FORMED

• A plant structure that contains seeds is called a fruit

• Not all fruits have seeds eg . Bananas, strawberries, but
they need pollination to form a fruit

THERE ARE NO
SEEDS
 EACH CORN KERNEL COMES FROM
ONE OVULE, FERTILIZED BY A POLLEN
GRAIN
WHAT HAPPENS DURING
FERTILIZATION ? STEPS IN FERTILIZATION

• The pollen grain has 2 sperm nuclei

• The pollen grain germinates on the stigma of the same
plant specie and produces a germ tube
• The germ tube grown down the style
• When it reaches the ovary it seeks out the opening in
the ovule called a micropyle
• One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus inside
the ovule to form the zygote (2n)
• The second sperm nucleus fuses with the 2 polar nuclei
to form the endosperm (3n) which is the food storage
for the developing embryo
• This is called “double-fertilization”

DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE (EMBRYO)

• The zygote divides several times to form an embryo

• The embryo differentiates to form a root and shoot
apex
• The ovary expands and the wall becomes the seed
coat
• Each fertilized ovule forms one seed. Plants can have
one seed eg. avocado, or multiple seeds eg. peas
• The ovary wall can also be fleshy eg. peach
• Each seed has one or cotyledons. Depending on if it is
a monocot or dicot plant species
• Seeds will germinate to form a root and shoot and the
plant has now been propagated sexually.
 SELF-POLLINATION VS. CROSS- HOW CAN PLANTS INCREASE CROSS-
POLLINATED POLLINATION ?
• Self pollination is where pollen from the same flower
• 1. Involve more than one method of pollen transfer eg.
fertilizes ovules from the same flower (selfing)
wind and insects seen in coconuts
• Cross-pollination is where pollen from one flower • 2. Make the male and female flowers separate on the
fertilizes ovules from a different flower (crossing) same plant eg. alder, pine trees, corn. All use wind
• Self-fertilization is more efficient, as the pollen and pollination. These are called monoecious (one house)
ovules are found in the same flower. • 3. Make the male flowers mature earlier than female
• Cross-fertilization is less efficient but evolutionary flowers
more advantageous as more genetic diversity is • 4. Produce male and female flowers on different plants
created eg. fig, cannabis. This is called dioecious (two houses)
• Plants have developed mechanisms to try and • 5. Make the male pollen incompatible with stigmas of
increase cross-pollination the same plant eg. genetic incompatibility
ALDER TREES PRODUCE MALE AND
FEMALE FLOWERS

PINE TREES PRODUCE MALE AND

FEMALE FLOWERS (CONES)
 CORN IS
MONOECIOUS

CANNABIS HAS MALE AND FEMALE

PLANTS = DIEOCIOUS
 HOW TO SPREAD SEEDS FAR AND WIDE

• For survival plants must be able to produce lot’s of seeds

and spread them as far as possible
• This allows opportunity for survival in a different
environment
• Plants have evolved different methods to spread seeds.
• 1. Make lots of seeds that spread by wind
• 2. Make seeds float on water
• 3. Make seed spiny so that catch on to animals, humans
• 3. Make seeds aerodynamic
• 4. Make fruits attractive so seeds inside them are spread
• 5. Make fruits fleshy and attractive for animals to eat

DISPERSAL BY WATER
DISPERSAL METHODS FOR SEEDS FROM
TREES

COTTONWOOD TREES IN JUNE

 WHY DO SOME PLANTS NOT PRODUCE
SEEDS ?

• Most plants are diploid like in humans, allowing

normal meiosis to occur and gamete production
• But some plants are polyploid, with greater than 2
sets of chromosomes
• These plants cannot pair chromosomes in meiosis,
causing no gametes to form. Therefore, no seeds
are produced
• Banana is a triploid (3 sets)
• Potato is a tetraploid (4 sets)
• Strawberry is an octaploid (8 sets)
 WILD DIPLOD
STRAWBERRIES
PRODUCE SEEDS
 RESPONSE TO WOUNDING

How do plants respond to their environment ?

How do they know there are changes occurring ?
How can they react in a manner to allow survival ?

Plants respond to the following :

DAMAGE – Wounding response
LIGHT – Phototropism and photoperiod
HEAT – Thermal response
CHEMICALS – Hormonal response

PLANT RESPONSES TO PHYSICAL

INJURY
• Injury causes cells to
break and release
contents
• Enzymes are produced to
heal the injury
• Oxidative reactions cause
browning that helps heal
the wound
• Other chemical reactions
occur to start the process
of cell division

GROWTH AND GREENING IN RESPONSE

TO LIGHT
Environmental or biological stresses will cause plants
to express genes to produce chemical products to
deal with the stress
The response may occur in a matter of minutes
Chemical signals are produced eg. Jasmonic acid,
which signal other parts of the plant that something is
going on
This in turn can cause other changes to help the plant
recover from the stress
So plants DO RESPOND to their environment
SUN TRACKER PLANTS
 FACING EAST IN THE MORNING FACING WEST IN THE EVENING

GOING FROM EAST (RIGHT) TO WEST

(LEFT)

AT NIGHT TIME, THE PLANTS SWITCH BACK SO

THEY ARE READY TO FACE EAST AGAIN

TURN EAST AT NIGHT, FACE WEST IN

THE DAY – INTERNAL CLOCK
• Stem growth occurs
on the west side at night
• Causes flowers to turn
to east – waiting for the
sun to rise
• Stem growth occurs
on west side in daytime
• Causes flowers to
bend east in the day –
waiting for sun set
SUNFLOWER
SEEDS
PRODUCE OIL
 PHOTOPERIOD = PLANT RESPONSES TO
DIFFERENT LENGTHS OF TIME OF EXPOSURE
TO LIGHT
 FLOWERING RESPONSE TO LIGHT FLOWERING RESPONSE TO LIGHT

PHYTOCHROME PROTEIN SENSES PHYTOCHROME IS ACTIVATED BY RED

LIGHT LIGHT

SUMMARY THE SPRING GROWTH RESPONSE

• Plants respond to light by growing towards it

(phototropism) so they get maximum exposure
• Plants respond to gravity and touch in different
ways
• In these movements, auxin production (a hormone
that increase cell elongation) is responsible
• Plants respond to changes in daylength
(photoperiod) in being short-day or long-day or
neutral. A hormone called phytochrome is involved.
SEED RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE
 HORMONES RESPOND TO
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
 THE TRUMP
EFFECT !

• https://www.thespruce.
com/should-you-talk-to-
your-plants-3972298
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• The production of sugar in plants using carbon dioxide and

What is photosynthesis ? water in the presence of light. Solar energy is used to produce
chemical energy which is used to produce organic molecules
The role of chlorophyll in plants
The light reactions
The electron transport chain
The Calvin cycle
Adaptations in plants to grow in hot
climates

• Takes
place in
plants
and trees,
algae
and kelp,
and
photosynt
-hetic
bacteria

LIGHT ABSORBING COMPOUNDS IN

CHLOROPHYLL AND PIGMENTS
LEAVES
• Plants only respond to light in the visible spectrum
• There are two forms of chlorophyll – ‘a’ and ‘b’
• There are also other pigments that are orange and yellow
called carotenoids. They absorb light around 480-500 nm
wavelength
• Chlorophyll ‘a’ absorbs light around 440 nm wavelength
(blue color) and also at 680-700 nm (red color)
• The carotenoid pigments show up when chlorophyll is
broken down in the Fall season to produce vivid colors of
leaves
• They also are anti-oxidants that reduce oxidative damage
due to sunlight and UV rays
 FEATURES OF CHLOROPLASTS

• Chlorophyll is contained within chloroplasts

• Chloroplasts are found in the mesophyll cells of leaves
• They are surrounded by a double layer of cell membranes
• Inside the chloroplasts are stacks of granum (pancake
shaped)that are surrounded by the thylakoid membrane
• The space around the granum is called stroma
• Light is absorbed by the granum, except for green
wavelength which is transmitted
• Light energy is packaged into photons which strike the
chlorophyll and cause it to emit higher energy level
electrons

PHOTOSYNTHETIC REACTIONS

• During the light reactions, ADP and NADP are combined

with P to form ATP and NADPH. This provides energy for
the next step in photosynthesis. Oxygen is released from
water.
• The next step is the Calvin cycle which is light-independent
in which energy from the light reactions is used to drive the
formation of carbon molecules from CO2
• The chlorophyll and pigment molecules are arranged in a
light-harvesting complex called a Photosystem. Inside is a
primary electron acceptor called pheophytin
• The Photosystem I and Photosystem II are embedded in the
thylakoid membrane
 THE PHOTOSYSTEMS
• Photosystem I absorbs light in the range of 700 nm
(P700). Photosystem II absorbs light in the range of
680 nm (P680).
• • Electrons released from the splitting of water by light
photons reach P680 first and the chlorophyll energizes
electrons to the primary electron acceptor
• • The electrons are transferred down an “electron
transport chain” to Plastoquinone (Pq), then to
Cytochrome complex (Cc) and then to Plastocyanine
(Pc)
• • At the point of reaching Cc, energy from the
electrons is used to generate ATP

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

• Light energy then strikes PS I (P700) and electrons

are transferred to the primary electron acceptor
• The electrons continue down the electron transport
chain to the next molecule which is Ferredoxin (Fd)
• The energy from the electrons creates the formation
of NADPH using the enzyme NADP reductase
• The end result of electrons being released from
water is the production of ATP and NADPH and the
production of oxygen
 NONCYCLIC (LINEAR) ELECTRON FLOW

CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW

• Cyclic electron flow occurs when electrons from Ferredoxin

are transferred back to Cytochrome complex instead of
moving on to NADP reductase
• This results in no NADPH being formed but ATP is still
produced
• The cells would undergo cyclic electron flow if there was
sufficient NADPH present or if the cells needed more ATP
to be produced.
• ATP production occurs via ATP synthase, which is driven by
a flow of protons through the thylakoid membrane and into
the stroma of the chloroplast. This process is called
chemiosmosis.

SUMMARY OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CALVIN CYCLE

• Also called the C3 cycle

• Named after Melvin Calvin who discovered the cycle
in plants
• Results in the conversion of carbon dioxide to sugar
(sucrose) using energy (ATP, NADPH) from the light
reactions
• Also called “carbon fixation”. About 160 x1012 kg/yr is
fixed by plants
• Occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts
Reaction starts with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)adding one CO2
molecule to form (2X) 3-phosphoglycerate.

The enzyme involved here is called Rubisco = ribulose-1,5-

bisphosphate carboxylase. This is the most abundant enzyme on
Earth.
The next step is a requirement for ATP to produce 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate (3C).
Then NADPH is required to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. This
goes on to form sugar.
And RuBP is reformed to continue the cycle. Energy in the form of ATP
is required here.

• Total energy required for producing a 6C sugar

molecule is 18 ATP molecules and 12 NADPH

PLANTS GROWING IN HOT CLIMATES THE C4 PATHWAY IN PLANTS

• They use a molecule of malate (C4) instead of
• Plants growing in deserts will close their stomata during the phosphoglycerate (C3)
day to conserve water • This is produced in mesophyll cells by adding CO2 to a molecule
• This causes CO2 levels in leaf cells to decline, and oxygen of phospho-enol-pyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate which is
builds up converted to malate.
• The Calvin cycle slows down as there is less CO2 • The enzyme involved is PEP carboxylase, which has a higher
• Plants then undergo “photorespiration” where in the affinity for CO2 than Rubisco and so can capture lower
presence of oxygen, the phosphoglycerate molecule is concentrations of CO2 in hot climates
oxidized to release CO2 • These plants also have specialized cells called “bundle sheath
• This can cause up to 50% of the carbon to be lost cells”. These cells break down malate to release CO2 and form
pyruvate.
• To avoid this loss, plants have evolved a C4 pathway to fix
• This CO2 molecule is used in the Calvin cycle to form sugar.
carbon in hot climates
This allows plants to grow in hot climates eg. sugarcane
 HOW TO REDUCE PHOTORESPIRATION
OTHER ADAPTATIONS TO HOT CLIMATES

• Another adaptation is found in CAM plants

• These are Crassulacean Acid Metabolism plants
• They occur in plants such as cactus and pineapple
• During the day, stomata are closed
• CO2 is taken up at night to produce organic acids eg.
crassulacean acid
• This is stored in mesophyll cells at night
• In the day time, light reactions continue, and ATP and NADPH
are produced
• Then Crassulacean acid is broken down to release CO2
• This is used in the Calvin cycle which can operate while the
stomata are closed during the day

SUMMARY
• The product of photosynthesis (sugar) is used in the plant
to form cellular structures and tissues
• Some of it is stored in roots and tubers as starch
• Other uses are for fruits and seeds
• Photosynthesis requires the following :
• light energy, chloroplasts, water, electrons, photosystems,
electron transport, Calvin cycle
• Some plants need to have adaptations to survive in hot
climates to reduce photorespiration
• These include C4 and CAM plants
• Carbon fixation is a very important process for planet
Earth.