Week Four

Occupational Health and Safety

Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could impair
the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the surrounding
communities and the general environment. Occupational safety and health is a key element in
achieving sustained decent working conditions and strong preventive safety cultures.

Occupational and industrial accidents are all caused by preventable factors which could be
eliminated by implementing available measures and methods. This is evident by the continuously
reduced accident rates in industrialised countries. The application of preventive strategies
therefore offers significant human and economic benefits

The means used by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) to promote occupational safety
and health include international labour standards, codes of practice, the provision of technical
advice and the dissemination of information. By these means it aims to increase the capacity of
member States to prevent occupational accidents and work-related diseases by improving
working conditions. One of the main functions of the ILO, from its foundation in 1919, has been
the development of international labour standards. These cover labour and social matters, and
take the form of Conventions and Recommendations.

Some workers have special occupational health needs. These may arise for a variety of reasons,
including age, physiological condition, social conditions and barriers to communication. The
special needs of such workers should be met on an individual basis with due concern to
protecting their health at work, making sure that there is no possibility of discrimination. These
persons include pregnant women and persons with disabilities.

Requirements and Considerations

The incidence of accidents and work-related diseases and injuries in most occupational sectors is
still regrettably high; there is therefore an urgent need for preventive and protective measures to
be instituted at workplaces in order to guarantee the safety and health of workers. Occupational
accidents and diseases not only cause great pain, suffering and death to victims, but also threaten
the lives of other workers and their dependents. Occupational accidents and diseases also result
in:

● loss of skilled and unskilled but experienced labour;

● material loss, i.e. damage to machinery and equipment well as spoiled products;
● high operational costs through medical care, payment of compensation, and repairing or
replacing damaged machinery and equipment.

Occupational health problems arise largely from hazardous factors in the working environment.
Since most hazardous conditions at work are in principle preventable, efforts should be
concentrated on primary prevention at the workplace, as this offers the most cost-effective
strategy for their elimination and control. The planning and design of workplaces should be
aimed at establishing working environments that are conducive to physical, psychological and
social well-being. This means taking all reasonable precautions to avoid occupational diseases
and injuries. Workplace safety and health programmes should aim at eliminating the unsafe or
unhealthy working conditions and dangerous acts which account for the majority of accidents.

Signage

Safety signs are used across industries to promote workplace safety. They reduce accidents and
injuries by serving as easily recognizable indicators of potential hazards. These signs are said to
be the silent universal language since they are the same worldwide.
Industry partners must ensure that proper and compliant signage is displayed according to the
appropriate standards.
There are generally four (4) categories of health and safety signs. These are:
1. Prohibition Signs (Red)
2. Warning Signs (Yellow)
3. Mandatory Signs (Blue)
4. Emergency Exit and First Aid Signs (Green)
Prohibition Signs

Prohibition signs are universal symbols designed to denote actions or behaviours that are not
allowed in a given area. The circular design is instantly recognizable, usually with a red border
and a diagonal line slashing through it.

It ensures quick comprehension even if the viewer doesn’t take the time to read the
accompanying text. For instance, a depiction of a smoking cigarette with a red slash would make
it clear that smoking is not permitted.
Warning Signs
Mandatory Signs

These signs convey certain actions or behaviours that are compulsory in a designated area. Their
blue and white combination stands out, ensuring they capture attention. For example, in a
laboratory setting, a mandatory sign might show an icon of a lab coat, indicating that all
personnel in the vicinity must adorn protective clothing before entering.

Personal Protective Equipment

Hazards exist in every workplace in many different forms: sharp edges, falling objects, flying
sparks, chemicals, noise and a myriad of other potentially dangerous situations. The
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that employers protect their
employees from workplace hazards that can cause injury. Controlling a hazard at its source is the
best way to protect employees. Depending on the hazard or workplace conditions, OSHA
recommends the use of engineering or work practice controls to manage or eliminate hazards to
the greatest extent possible. For example, building a barrier between the hazard and employees is
an engineering control; changing the way in which employees perform their work, (e.g., through
job rotations) is an administrative control. When engineering, work practice, and administrative
controls are not feasible or do not provide sufficient protection, employers must provide personal
protective equipment (PPE) to their employees and ensure its use. Personal protective equipment,
commonly referred to as “PPE”, is equipment worn to minimise exposure to a variety of hazards.
Examples of PPE include such items as gloves, foot and eye protection, protective hearing
devices (earplugs, muffs) hard hats, respirators and full body suits.

The Requirement for PPE is to ensure the greatest possible protection for employees in the
workplace. The cooperative efforts of both employers and employees will help in establishing
and maintaining a safe and healthful work environment.

In general, employers are responsible for:

■ Performing a “hazard assessment” of the workplace to identify and control physical and health
hazards.
■ Identifying and providing appropriate and adequate PPE for employees.

■ Training employees in the use and care of the PPE.

■ Maintaining PPE, including replacing worn or damaged PPE.

■ Periodically reviewing, updating and evaluating the effectiveness of the PPE program

In general, employees should:

■ Properly wear PPE,

■ Attend training sessions on PPE,

■ Care for, clean and maintain PPE, and

■ Inform a supervisor of the need to repair or replace PPE

Employers should consult workers or their representatives on suitable personal protective

equipment and clothing, having regard to the type of work and the type and level of risks.
Furthermore, when hazards cannot be otherwise prevented or controlled, employers should
provide and maintain such equipment and clothing as are reasonably necessary, without cost to
the workers. The employer should provide the workers with the appropriate means to enable
them to use the individual protective equipment. Protective equipment and clothing should
comply with the standards set by the competent authority and take ergonomic principles into
account. Workers have the obligation to make proper use of and take good care of the personal
protective equipment and protective clothing provided for their use.

Training Employees in the Proper Use of PPE

Employers are required to train each employee who must use PPE. Employees must be trained
to know at least the following:

■ When PPE is necessary.

■ What PPE is necessary.

■ How to properly put on, take off, adjust and wear the PPE.

■ The limitations of the PPE.

■ Proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of PPE.

Employers shall make sure that each employee demonstrates an understanding of the PPE
training (i.e., in a language they understand) as well as the ability to properly wear and use PPE
before they are allowed to perform work requiring the use of the PPE. If an employer believes
that a previously trained employee is not demonstrating the proper understanding and skill level
in the use of PPE, that employee should receive retraining. Other situations that require
additional or retraining of employees include changes in the workplace or in the type of required
PPE that make the prior training obsolete.

All PPE clothing and equipment must be of safe design and construction, and be maintained in a
clean and reliable fashion. Employers shall take the fit and comfort of PPE into consideration
when selecting appropriate items for their workplace. PPE that fits well and is comfortable to
wear will encourage employee use. Most protective devices are available in multiple sizes and
care should be taken to select the proper size for each employee. If several different types of PPE
are worn together, make sure they are compatible. If PPE does not fit properly, it can make the
difference between being safely covered or dangerously exposed. It may not provide the level of
protection desired and may discourage employee use.

Eye and Face Protection

Employees can be exposed to a large number of hazards that pose danger to their eyes and face.
Employers must ensure that employees have appropriate eye or face protection when exposed to
eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids,
chemical gases or vapours, potentially infected material or potentially harmful light radiation.
Many occupational eye injuries occur because employees are not wearing any eye protection
while others result from wearing improper, inadequate, or poorly fitting eye protection.
Employers must be sure that their employees wear appropriate eye and face protection and that
the selected form of protection is appropriate to the work being performed and properly fits each
employee exposed to the hazard.

Prescription Lenses

Use of ordinary prescription corrective lenses will not provide adequate protection against most
occupational eye and face hazards, so employers must make sure that employees with corrective
lenses either wear eye protection that incorporates the prescription into the design of adequate
eye protection or wear eye protection that fits over their prescription lenses. It is important to
ensure that the protective eyewear fits properly, and does not disturb the proper positioning of
the prescription lenses so that the employee’s vision will not be inhibited or limited. In addition,
employees who wear contact lenses must wear eye or face PPE when working in hazardous
conditions.

Eye Protection for Exposed Employees

Eye protection should be used by carpenters, electricians, machinists, mechanics, millwrights,

plumbers and pipefitters, sheet metal employees and tinsmiths, assemblers, sanders, grinding
machine operators, welders, labourers, chemical process operators and handlers, sawyers, timber
cutting and logging workers. Employers of employees in other job categories should decide
whether there is a need for eye and face PPE through a hazard assessment.
Examples of potential eye or face hazards include:
■ Dust, dirt, and metal chips contacting or entering the eye from activities such as chipping,
grinding, sawing, hammering, using power tools, or from sources such as strong winds.
■ Chemical splashes from corrosive substances, hot liquids, solvents or other hazardous
solutions.
■ Radiant energy from welding, harmful rays from the use of lasers or other radiant light (as well
as heat, glare, sparks, splash and flying particles).
Some of the most common types of eye and face protection include the following:
■ Safety spectacles. These protective eyeglasses have safety frames constructed of metal or
plastic and impact-resistant lenses. Side shields are available on some models.
■ Goggles. This tight-fitting eye protection completely covers the eyes, eye sockets, and the
facial area immediately surrounding the eyes and provides protection from impact, dust and
splashes. Some goggles will fit over corrective lenses.
■ Welding shields. Constructed of vulcanised fibre or fibreglass and fitted with a filtered lens,
welding shields protect eyes from burns caused by infrared or intense radiant light; they also
protect both the eyes and face from flying sparks, metal spatter and slag chips produced during
welding, brazing, soldering and cutting operations.
■ Laser safety goggles. These specialty goggles protect against intense concentrations of light
produced by lasers. The type of laser safety goggles an employer chooses will depend upon the
equipment and operating conditions in the workplace.
■ Face shields. These transparent sheets of plastic extend from the eyebrows to below the chin
and across the entire width of the employee’s head. Some are polarised for glare protection. Face
shields protect against potential splashes or sprays of hazardous liquids, droplets, and particles
but will not provide adequate protection against impact hazards. Face shields used in
combination with goggles or safety spectacles will provide additional protection against splash
and impact hazards.
Each type of protective eyewear is designed to protect against specific hazards. Employers can
identify the specific workplace hazards that threaten employees’ eyes and faces by completing a
hazard assessment as outlined in the earlier section.
Head Protection
Protecting employees from potential head injuries is a key element of any safety program. A
head injury can impair an employee for life or it can be fatal. Wearing a safety helmet or hard hat
is one of the easiest ways to protect an employee’s head from injury. Hard hats can protect
employees from impact and penetration hazards as well as from electrical shock and burn
hazards. Employers must ensure that their employees wear head protection if any of the
following apply:
■ Objects might fall from above and strike them on the head;
■ They might bump their heads against fixed objects, such as exposed pipes or beams;
■ There is a possibility of accidental head contact with electrical hazards.
Some examples of occupations in which employees should be required to wear head protection
include construction workers, carpenters, electricians, linemen, plumbers and pipefitters, timber
and log cutters, and welders. Whenever there is a danger of objects falling from above, such as
working below others who are using tools or working under a conveyor belt, head protection
must be worn.
Respiratory protective equipment
When choosing breathing protection consider in detail the job to be done. For example, are the
insides or undersides of large articles to be sprayed? It is likely that the ventilation will be less
effective in these areas. Different types of RPE offer different levels of protection and the correct
type has to be matched to the job and the wearer. For most spray jobs with the sprayer inside the
booth, compressed airline breathing apparatus with a full face piece or air fed equipment may be
most suitable. Before choosing, assess the work carefully and consult your suppliers of paint and
protective equipment.

Hand and Arm Protection

If a workplace hazard assessment reveals that employees face potential injury to hands and arms
that cannot be eliminated through engineering and work practice controls. Employers must
ensure that employees wear appropriate protection. Potential hazards include skin absorption of
harmful substances, chemical or thermal burns, electrical dangers, bruises, abrasions, cuts,
punctures, fractures and amputations. Protective equipment includes gloves, finger guards and
arm coverings or elbow-length gloves.

Body Protection

There are varieties of protective clothing available for specific hazards. Employers are required
to ensure that their employees wear personal protective equipment parts of the body exposed to
possible injury. Examples of body protection include laboratory coats, coveralls, vests, jackets,
aprons, surgical gowns and full body suits.

If a hazard assessment indicates a need for full body protection against toxic substances or
harmful physical agents, carefully inspect the PPE before each use, ensure proper fit and that it
properly functions for the purpose for which it is intended. Protective clothing comes in a variety
of materials, each effective against particular hazards.

Foot and Leg Protection

Employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from falling or rolling objects or from crushing
or penetrating materials should wear protective footwear. Also, employees whose work involves
exposure to hot substances or corrosive or poisonous materials must have protective gear to
cover exposed body parts, including legs and feet. If an employee’s feet may be exposed to
electrical hazards, non-conductive footwear should be worn.

Examples of situations in which an employee should wear foot and/or leg protection include:

■ When heavy objects such as barrels or tools might roll onto or fall on the employee’s feet;

■ Working with sharp objects such as nails or spikes that could pierce the soles or uppers of
ordinary shoes;

■ Exposure to molten metal that might splash on feet or legs;

■ Working on or around hot, wet or slippery surfaces;

■ Working when electrical hazards are present.

Safe Work Practices

The main goal of safety and health programs is to prevent workplace injuries, illnesses, and
deaths, as well as the suffering and financial hardship these events can cause for workers, their
families, and employers. The recommended practices use a proactive approach to managing
workplace safety and health. Traditional approaches are often reactive –that is, problems are
addressed only after a worker is injured or becomes sick, a new standard or regulation is
published, or an outside inspection finds a problem that must be fixed. These recommended
practices recognize that finding and fixing hazards before they cause injury or illness is a far
more effective approach.

The idea is to begin with a basic program and simple goals and grow from there. If you focus on
achieving goals, monitoring performance, and evaluating outcomes, your workplace can progress
along the path to higher levels of safety and health achievement.

Employers will find that implementing these recommended practices also brings other benefits.
Safety and health programs help businesses:

● Prevent workplace injuries and illnesses

● Improve compliance with laws and regulations
● Reduce costs, including significant reductions in workers' compensation premiums
● Engage workers
● Enhance their social responsibility goals
● Increase productivity and enhance overall business operations

Risk Management

Risk management: all actions taken to achieve, maintain or improve the safety of an installation
and its operation. Risk management is the process of formulating and implementing a course of
action to mitigate the hazards determined in the risk-assessment process to be important

Recognized hazards can be managed with a variety of adjustments in work practices, equipment,
and facilities. In some cases, key modifications focus on engineering controls (facilities and
equipment), in others on administrative changes (such as delegation of decision-making authority
to the right level or revision of established safety procedures), and in still others on adoption of
new safety-related devices, protective equipment, or research methods. Training programs must
be adjusted in concert with these changes to ensure their effectiveness.

It is important to recognize that many factors influence risk management. Public values, politics,
economics, legal issues, and technical concerns can all influence the risk-management process
locally (as in adjusting standard operating procedures) or nationally (as in adjusting guidelines
and regulations). In some cases, external influences force over-conservative risk-management
decisions and actions; more often, these influences, especially fiscal constraints, lead to less than
optimal risk-management decisions and actions.

To be effective, risk management must have two elements: a specific occupational health and
safety plan and an appropriate safety culture and working environment. Safety culture is often
taken for granted, although it is critical in building an effective risk-management system and a
healthful overall work environment. At a basic level, safety culture is the way the institutional
administration and workers in an organisation feel about risk; feelings, attitudes, and perceptions
about risk will influence how it is managed. The safety culture sets the tone of an organisation,
influencing the consciousness of its people as they conduct their daily activities. The safety
culture encompasses an organisation's tolerance of risk in its daily operating activities and
decision-making processes. The greater the degree to which the administration recognizes the
need for effective risk management in the organisation, the greater will be its commitment to the
establishment of standards and protocols for identifying, assessing, and managing risks, and the
more beneficial the risk-management program will be.