Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory

The Study of Personality Consciousness, Watson said, cannot be seen or experimented upon.
Therefore, like the philosophers’ concept of the soul, consciousness is
Everybody Has One meaningless for science. Psychologists must deal only with what they can see,
manipulate, and measure—that is, external stimuli and the subject’s
Everybody has one—a personality, that is—and yours will help determine the
behavioral responses to them. According to Watson, whatever happens inside
boundaries of your success and life fulfillment. It is no exaggeration to say that
the person after the stimulus is presented and before the response is made
your personality is one of your most important assets. It has already helped
cannot be seen. Because we can only speculate about it, it is of no interest or
shape your experiences and will continue to do so for the rest of your life. All
value to science.
your achievements to date, your expecta- tions for the future, whether you will
be a good spouse or parent, even your health can be influenced by your Behaviorism presents a mechanistic picture of human beings as well-ordered
personality and the personalities of the people with whom you interact. Your machines that respond automatically to external stimuli. It has been said that
personality can limit or expand your options and choices, prevent you from behaviorists see people as a kind of vending machine. Stimuli are put in, and
sharing certain experiences, or enable you to take advantage of them. It appropriate responses, learned from past experience, spill out. In this view,
restricts or constrains some people and opens up the world to others. personality is nothing more than the accumulation of learned responses or
habit systems, a definition later offered by another American psychologist, B.
How often have you described someone as having a terrific personality? By
F. Skinner. Thus, behaviorists reduced per- sonality to what could be seen and
that you typically mean the person is affable, pleasant, nice to be around, and
observed objectively, and there was no place in their conception for
easy to get along with—the kind of person you might select for a friend,
consciousness or for unconscious forces. However, the more recent social-
roommate, or colleague at work. If you are a manager, you might choose to
learning theorists, who offer explanations derived from Watson’s and Skinner’s
hire this person. If you are ready to make a commitment to a personal
versions of behaviorism, have restored to personality some measure of
relationship, you might want to marry this person, basing your decision on your
consciousness.
perception of his or her personality. You have also known people you would
describe as having a terrible personality. Such persons may be aloof, hostile, If Watson and the early behavioral psychologists dismissed all those notions,
aggressive, unfriendly, unpleasant, or difficult to get along with. You would not feelings, and complexities that come to mind when we use the word
hire them or want to associate with them, and they may be similarly shunned, personality, then where were they? What happened to the consciousness you
rejected, and isolated by others. know you experience every moment you are awake? Where were those
unconscious forces that sometimes seem to compel us to act in ways over
While you are making judgments about the personalities of other people, they
which we feel we have no control?
are making similar judgments about you. These mutual decisions that shape
the lives of both the judged and the judges are made countless times, every The Study of the Unconscious
time we encounter a social situation that requires us to interact with new
people. Of course, the number and variety of social situations you willingly Those aspects of human nature were dealt with by a third line of inquiry, one
participate in are also determined by your personality—for example, your that arose independently of Wundt and Watson. Sigmund Freud, a physician
relative sociability or shyness. You know where you rate on that factor, just as in Vienna, Austria, started investigating them in the 1890s. Freud called his
you no doubt have a reasonably clear picture of your overall personality. system psychoanalysis.

The Place of Personality in the History of Psychology Psychoanalysis and psychology are not synonymous or interchangeable
terms. Freud was not a psychologist but was a physician in private practice,
Because the study of personality is so central to an understanding of human working with persons who suffered from emotional disturbances. Although
nature, you might assume it has always occupied a prominent position in trained as a scientist, Freud did not use the experimental method. Rather, he
psychology. For more than half of psychology’s history as a science, however, developed his theory of personality based on clinical observation of his
psychologists paid relatively little attention to personality. patients. Through a lengthy series of psychoanalytic sessions, Freud applied
his creative interpretation to what patients told him about their feeliings and
Psychology emerged as an independent and primarily experimental science
past experiences, both actual and fantasized. His approach was thus quite
from an amalgam of ideas borrowed from philosophy and physiology. The birth
different from the rigorous experimental laboratory investigation of the
of psychology took place in the late 19th century in Germany and was largely
elements of con scious experience or of behavior.
the work of Wilhelm Wundt, who established psychology’s first laboratory in
1879 at the University of Leipzig.

The Study of Consciousness Inspired by Freud’s psychoanalytic approach, a group of personality theorists
devel- oped unique conceptions of human nature outside the mainstream of
The new science of psychology focused on the analysis of conscious experimental psy- chology. These theorists, the neo-psychoanalysts, focused
experience into its elemental parts. The methods of psychology were modeled on the whole person as he or she functions in the real world, not on elements
on the approach used in the natural sciences. Physics and chemistry
of behavior or stimulus-response units as studied in the psychology laboratory.
appeared to be unlocking the secrets of the phys- ical universe by reducing all
The neo-psychoanalysts accepted the existence of conscious and
matter to its basic elements and analyzing them. If the physical world could be unconscious forces, whereas the behaviorists accepted the existence only of
understood by breaking it down into elements, why couldn’t the mind or the that which they could see. As a result, the early personality theorists were
mental world be studied in the same way?
specu- lative in their work, relying more on inferences based on observations
Wundt and other psychologists of his day who were concerned with studying of their patients’ behavior than on the quantitative analysis of laboratory data.
human nature were greatly influenced by the natural science approach, and
The Scientific Study of Personality
they proceeded to apply it to the study of the mind. Because these researchers
limited themselves to the experimental method, they studied only those mental It was not until the late 1930s that the study of personality became formalized
processes that might be affected by some external stimulus that could be and systematized in American psychology, primarily through the work of
manipulated and controlled by the experi- menter. There was no room in this Gordon Allport at Harvard University. Allport’s landmark book, Personality: A
experimental psychology approach for such a com- plex, multidimensional Psychological Interpretation, is generally considered to mark the formal
topic as personality. It was not compatible with either the subject matter or the beginning of the study of personality. Follow- ing his initial efforts, other
methods of the new psychology. professional books appeared, journals were founded, univer- sities offered
courses, and research was undertaken. These activities signaled a growing
The Study of Behavior recognition that some areas of concern to the psychoanalysts and neo-
In the early decades of the 20 th century, the American psychologist John B. psychoanalysts could be incorporated into psychology. Academic
Watson, at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, sparked a psychologists came to believe that it was possible to develop a scientific study
revolution against the work of Wilhelm Wundt. Watson’s movement, called of personality.
behaviorism, opposed Wundt’s focus on conscious experience. More devoted From the 1930s to the present day, a variety of approaches to the study of
than Wundt to a natural science approach, Watson argued that if psychology
personality have emerged. In this book, in addition to the psychoanalytic and
was to be a science, it had to focus only on the tangible aspects of human
behavioristic viewpoints noted above, we discuss several others. These
nature—that which could be seen, heard, recorded, and measured. Only overt include the life-span approach, which argues that personality continues to
behavior—not consciousness—could be the legitimate topic of psychology. develop throughout the course of our life; the trait approach, which contends

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
that much of our personality is inherited; the humanistic approach, which We saw earlier that one way of defining personality is in terms of the mask we
emphasizes human strengths, virtues, aspirations, and the fulfillment of our wear, the public face we display to the people around us. Increasingly, many
potential; and the cognitive approach, which deals with conscious mental of us display another face, not in person, but through the Internet on social
activities. networking Web sites such as Facebook. As a result, another definition of our
personality may be how others see us online.
Finally, we explore the work of theorists who have focused on narrower issues
in per- sonality such as locus of control, sensation-seeking behavior, learned But are they seeing us as we really are or are we creating online some
helplessness, and others. We conclude with some general observations about idealized self- image that we want to display to other people? Are we
the past, present, and future of the study of personality. pretending to be someone we are not, or are we conveying an accurate
description of our personality? Research shows that most people are honest
Definitions of Personality about their online faces. Studies conducted in the United States and in
Germany found that social networking sites do convey accurate images or
We often use the word personality when we are describing other people and
impres- sions of the personality profiles we offer. The researchers concluded
ourselves, and we all believe we know what it means. Perhaps we do. One
that depictions of personalities presented online are at least as accurate as
psychologist suggested that we can get a good idea of its meaning if we
those conveyed in face-to-face interactions (Gosling, Gaddis, & Vazire, 2007;
examine our intentions whenever we use the word I (Adams, 1954). When you
Back et al., 2010). Another study found that readers of blogs were able to
say I, you are, in effect, summing up everything about yourself—your likes and
consistently and accurately judge the personalities of those who posted entries
dislikes, fears and virtues, strengths and weaknesses. The word I is what
without ever meeting them (Li & Chignell, 2010).
defines you as an individual, separate from all others.
Of course, as you know, we are not always honest in how we depict ourselves
How Others See Us
in per- son, particularly when we meet new people we want to impress, such
In our effort to define the word more precisely, we can look to its source. as a date or an employer. With people we have known for a while, with whom
Personality derives from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used we feel secure, and who represent no threat, we may be less likely to pretend.
by actors in a play. It is easy to see how persona came to refer to outward
Perhaps the major difference with social networking sites is that there is a
appearance, the public face we dis- play to the people around us. Based on
wider audi- ence than in our everyday life, and greater potential consequences
its derivation, then, we might conclude that per- sonality refers to our external
to our career and our future.
and visible characteristics, those aspects of us that other people can see. Our
personality would then be defined in terms of the impression we make on Researchers have also shown that online social networking sites like
others—that is, what we appear to be. One definition of personality in a stan- Facebook can both shape and reflect our personalities. A study of Chinese
dard dictionary agrees with this reasoning. It states that personality is the adolescents ages 13 to 18 found that excessive time spent using the Internet
visible aspect of one’s character, as it impresses others. resulted in significant levels of anxiety and depression when compared to
teenagers who spent considerably less time online (Lam & Peng, 2010). Other
But is that all we mean when we use the word personality? Are we talking only
research found that high levels of Internet use can reduce psychological well-
about what we can see or how another person appears to us? Does
being and decrease the quality of relationships with friends and romantic
personality refer solely to the mask we wear and the role we play? Surely,
partners (Blais, Craig, Pepler, & Connolly, 2008; Huang, 2010).
when we speak of personality, we refer to more than that. We mean to include
many attributes of an individual, a totality or col- lection of various An online survey of American college students showed that those who spent
characteristics that goes beyond superficial physical qualities. The word time talking with their parents on the telephone had more satisfying personal
encompasses a host of subjective social and emotional qualities as well, ones and supportive relationships with them than students who kept in touch with
that we may not be able to see directly, that a person may try to hide from us, the parents through social networking sites. In addition, college students who
or that we may try to hide from others. communicated with their parents on social networking sites reported greater
loneliness, anxiety, and conflict in their relation- ships with their parents
Stable and Predictable Characteristics (Gentzler, Oberhauser, Westerman, & Nadorff, 2011).
We may also in our use of the word personality refer to enduring
In addition to affecting our personalities, social networking sites can also
characteristics. We assume that personality is relatively stable and
reflect them. A study of adolescents in Singapore found that those who were
predictable. Although we recognize, for example, that a friend may be calm
more extraverted and narcissistic (who had an inflated, unrealistic self-
much of the time, we know that he or she can become excitable, nervous, or concept) were much more likely to use Facebook than those who did not score
panicky at other times. Thus, our personality can vary with the situation. Yet high on those personality characteristics. The more narcissistic teenagers
although it is not rigid, it is generally resistant to sudden changes. In the 1960s
were also more likely to update their Facebook status more frequently (Ong et
a debate erupted within psychology about the relative impact on behav- ior of
al., 2011).
such enduring personal variables as traits and needs versus variables relating
to the situation (see Mischel, 1968, 1973). The controversy continued for some Other studies suggest that those who report high use of networking sites tend
20 years and concluded with the realization that the “longstanding and to be more extraverted, more open to new experiences, lower in self-esteem,
controversy-generating dichot- omy between the effect of the situation versus less conscientious, and to score lower on tests of emotional stability than those
the effect of the person on behavior … is and always was a fake” (Funder, who report lower levels of usage (Correa, Hinsley, & de Zuniga, 2010;
2001, p. 200). And so the issue was resolved by accept- ing an interactionist Mehdizadeh, 2010; Ross et al., 2009; Wilson, Fornasier, & White, 2010).
approach, agreeing that enduring and stable personal traits, chang- ing
aspects of the situation, and the interaction between them must all be A survey of college students ages 18 to 25 found that the majority of the
considered in order to provide a full explanation for human nature. personal photos they posted were posed and not candid and showed no other
people. They were careful to select appropriate pictures for their social media
Unique Characteristics pages, showing no drinking or drug use, nudity, or sexually suggestive content
(Hum et al., 2011).
Our definition of personality may also include the idea of human uniqueness.
We see similarities among people, yet we sense that each of us possesses Personality differences among cellphone users have also been studied.
special properties that distinguish us from all others. Thus, we may suggest Research involving teenagers and adults in Australia found that extraverts and
that personality is an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may those with a strong sense of self-identity spent much more time making calls
change in response to different situations. Even this, however, is not a and changing their ring tones and wallpaper than those scoring lower on these
definition with which all psychologists agree. To achieve more precision, we personality characteristics. The studies also found that those who were more
must examine what each personality theorist means by the term. Each offers neurotic and less conscientious and shy spent more time text messaging on
a unique version, a personal vision, of the nature of personality, and that their phones than those who were less neurotic and more consci- entious
viewpoint has become his or her definition. And that is what this book is all (Bardi & Brady, 2010; Butt & Phillips, 2008; Walsh, White, Cox, & Young,
about: reaching an understanding of the different versions of the concept of 2011). Research on American college students found that shy people were
personality and examining the various ways of defining the word I. more likely to text message, for the apparently obvious reason that it reduced
their feelings of loneliness (Bardi & Brady, 2010). An online survey of adults
Personality, the Internet, and Social Networking showed that Twitter was often used as a way to satisfy the need to connect
with other people (Chen, 2011). Both techniques

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
showed that women from both cultures displayed greater emotional com-
plexity and intensity than did men (Barrett, Lane, Sechrest, & Schwartz, 2000).
A study of more than 7,000 college students in 16 Islamic nations found that
women measured significantly higher in anxiety than men did in 11 of the 16
Seem to work well to achieve those goals. samples studied (Alansari, 2006).
An online survey of 18- to 70-year-old adults uncovered a variety of reasons A study of stress on the job found that women managers reported more
for creating and maintaining personal journal blogs (Hollenbaugh, 2011): frequent headaches, anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, and eating
disorders than did men managers. Women also reported a higher incidence of
• Exhibitionism
smoking and of alcohol and drug use in response to workplace stress (Nelson
• A way of organizing thoughts and ideas
& Burke, 2000).
• To get feedback or advice from others
• To pass the time Another study compared the death rates of men and women 45 years after
• A way to help and inform others by sharing knowledge they took various psychological tests. The tests, given in the year 1940,
measured vocational inter- ests, degree of masculinity-femininity, and
The survey also found that older people were more likely to blog to help and
occupational preferences. The average age of the subjects when they were
inform others; younger bloggers were frequently motivated by boredom.
tested was approximately 30. The results showed clearly that those who
Ethnic and Gender Issues in Personality selected occupations that in 1940 were considered “masculine,” such as
airline pilot, engineer, judge, chemist, or lawyer, had a higher mortality rate
The personality theorists we discuss in this book offer diverse views of the than those who selected other occupations. The researchers concluded that
nature of the human personality. Despite their disagreements and certain typical gender-related traits correlated highly with death rates (Lippa,
divergences, however, they share certain defining characteristics: All are Martin, & Friedman, 2000).
White, of European or American heritage, and almost all are men. There was
nothing unusual about this situation, given the period during which most of Cross-Cultural Psychology
these researchers and theorists were developing their ideas.
The influence of cultural forces on personality is widely recognized in
At the time, nearly all of the great advances in the arts, philosophy, literature, psychology. A spe- cialty area called cross-cultural psychology developed in
and the sciences, including the development of the scientific methods, were the late 1960s and fostered a great deal of research leading to the conclusion
propounded and pro- moted by White men of European or American that personality is formed by both genetic and environmental influences.
background. In most fields, educational and professional opportunities for “Among the most important of the latter are cul- tural influences” (Triandis &
women and for people of ethnic minority groups were limited. Suh, 2002, p. 135).

In addition, in the field of personality theory virtually all of the patients, clients This represents a major advance in recognizing the influence of cultural forces
and subjects on whom the earlier theories were based were also White. Even after years of neglect. However, comparatively less research has been
the laboratory rats were white. Further, the majority of the patients and conducted on personality in African and in South American nations than in
subjects were men. Yet the per- sonality theorists confidently offered theories English-speaking countries or many of the countries of Europe and Asia. Also,
that, by implication, were supposed to be valid for all people, regardless of much of the research that has been conducted among these populations has
gender, race, or ethnic origin. not been widely published in English-language sources. Another problem
limiting the applicability of cross-cultural personality research is that the
None of the theorists stated explicitly that his or her views applied only to majority of studies use college students as subjects; it is questionable whether
males or to Whites or to U.S. citizens, or that their ideas might not be useful we can generalize results obtained from college students in the United States
for explaining person- ality in people of other backgrounds. Although the to the popula- tion as a whole. However, in this book we offer research results
theorists accepted, to some degree, the importance of social and from a more diverse selection of people. Studies are cited from more than 40
environmental forces in shaping personality, they tended to ignore or minimize countries and from a variety of age groups, cultures, religions, and ethnic
the influence of gender and ethnic background. backgrounds.
Our own experiences tell us that our brothers and sisters were exposed to Assessment in the Study of Personality
different childhood influences than we were and that, as a result, they grew up
to have different personalities. We also know from research in social To assess something means to evaluate it. The assessment of personality is
psychology and sociology that chil- dren from different environments—such a major area of application of psychology to real-world concerns. Consider a
as a predominantly White Midwestern town, an Asian immigrant community, a few everyday examples. Clinical psychologists try to understand the
Los Angeles barrio, an Appalachian mountain village, a Native American symptoms of their patients or clients by attempting to assess their
reservation, or an affluent Black suburb—are exposed to vastly different social personalities, by differentiating between normal and abnor- mal behaviors and
and cultural influences. If the world in which people live and the factors that feelings. Only by evaluating personality in this way can clinicians diagnose
affect their upbringing are so different, then surely as a result their disorders and determine the best course of therapy. School psychologists
personalities can be expected to differ. evaluate the personalities of the students referred to them for treatment in an
attempt to uncover the causes of adjustment or learning problems.
They do, as demonstrated by a rapidly growing body of research. For example, Industrial/organizational psychologists assess personality to select the best
con- sider a classic study comparing the personalities of Chinese college candidate for a particular job. Counseling psychologists measure personality
students in Hong Kong with Chinese students in Canada. Those living in Hong to find the best job for a particular applicant, matching the requirements of the
Kong, an Eastern culture, were more introverted than those living in Canada, position with the person’s interests and needs. Research psychologists assess
a Western culture, a finding that supports earlier research showing that the personalities of their subjects in an attempt to account for their behavior in
Eastern societies, in general, are more introverted than Western societies. an experiment or to correlate their personality traits with other measurements.
In the same study, recent Chinese immigrants to Canada demonstrated a No matter what you do In your life or your working career, it is difficult to avoid
similarly low level of introversion as the Hong Kong Chinese. However, having your personality assessed in some way. Indeed, much of your success
Chinese immigrants who had lived in Canada at least 10 years and thus had in the work- place will be determined by your performance on various
greater exposure to Western culture, scored significantly higher in psychological tests. Therefore, it is important that you have some
extraversion than did more recent immigrants or the Hong Kong subjects. In understanding of what they are and how they work.
this instance, cultural forces had exerted an impact on this basic personality
characteristic (McCrae, Yi, Trapnell, Bond, & Paulhus, 1998). The Concepts of Reliability and Validity
Boys and girls are still typically reared according to traditional stereotypes, and Assessment techniques differ in their degree of objectivity or subjectivity;
this upbringing influences personality in different ways. Research has some techni- ques are wholly subjective and therefore open to bias. The
documented many instances of differences between men and women on results obtained by subjective techniques may be distorted by the personality
specific personality factors. Let us note a few examples. One large-scale study characteristics of the person making the assessment. The best techniques of
of the intensity of emotional awareness and expression compared male and personality assessment adhere to the principles of reliability and validity.
female college undergraduates at two U.S. universities and male and female
students at medical schools in the United States and in Germany. The results

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
Reliability Reliability involves the consistency of response to an assessment for people with limited reading skills. Research has shown that even minor
device. If you took the same test on two different days and received two widely changes in the wording of the questions or the response alternatives on self-
different scores, the test could not be considered reliable because its results report measures can lead to major changes in the results. For example, when
were so inconsistent. No one could depend on that test for an adequate adults were asked what they thought was the most important thing for children
assessment of your personality. It is common to find some slight variation in to learn, 61.5 percent chose the alternative “to think for themselves.”
scores when a test is retaken, but if the variation is large, then it is likely that
something is wrong with the test or with the method of scoring it. Projective Techniques

Validity Validity refers to whether an assessment device measures what it is Clinical psychologists developed projective tests of personality for their work
intended to measure. Does an intelligence test truly measure intelligence? with emotionally disturbed persons. Inspired by Sigmund Freud’s emphasis on
Does a test of anxiety actually evaluate anxiety? If a test does not measure the importance of the unconscious, projective tests attempt to probe that
what it claims to, then it is not valid and its results cannot be used to predict invisible portion of our personal- ity. The theory underlying projective
behavior. For example, your score on an invalid intelligence test, no matter techniques is that when we are presented with an ambiguous stimulus, such
how high, will be useless for predicting how well you will do in college or in any as an inkblot or a picture that can be understood or interpreted in more than
other situation that requires a high level of intelligence. A personality test that one way, we will project our needs, fears, and values onto the stimulus when
is not valid may provide a misleading portrait of your emotional strengths and asked to describe it. Because the interpretation of the results of projective tests
weaknesses. is so subjective, these tests are not high in reliability or validity. It is not unusual
for different test administrators to form different impressions of the same
Methods of assessment. The personality theorists discussed in this book person, based on the results of a projective test; in such a case, the inter-
devised unique methods for assessing personality, ways that were appropriate scorer reliability of the test is considered to be low. Nevertheless, such tests
for their theories. By apply- ing these methods, they derived the data on which are widely used for assessment and diagnostic purposes. Two popular
they based their formulations. Their techniques vary in objectivity, reliability, projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Technique and the Thematic
and validity, and they range from dream interpre- tation and childhood Apperception Test (TAT).
recollections to paper-and-pencil and computer-administered tests. In
psychology today, the major approaches to personality assessment are: Rorschach Inkblot Technique The Rorschach was developed in 1921 by the
Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1884–1922), who had been
• Self-report or objective inventories fascinated by inkblots since childhood. As a youngster he had played a popular
• Projective techniques game called Klecksographie, or Blotto, in which children gave their
• Clinical interviews interpretations of various inkblot designs. Rorschach was known to be so
• Behavioral assessment procedures intensely interested in inkblots that as a teenager, he acquired the nickname
• Thought and experience sampling procedures Klecks, which means, in German, blot of ink. Later, when Rorschach was serv-
ing a hospital residency in psychiatry after receiving his M.D., he and a friend
It is important to note that assessment for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes played Blotto with patients to pass the time. Rorschach noticed consistent
should not be based solely on a single approach. Ideally, multiple assessment differences between the responses of patients and the responses offered by
measures are used to provide a range of information about a person. school children to the same inkblots.
Self-Report Personality Tests In developing his inkblot test, Rorschach created the inkblots by dropping
blobs of ink on blank paper and folding the paper in half (see Figure 1-1). After
The self-report inventory or test approach involves asking people to report on
trying numerous patterns, he settled on 10 blots because he could not afford
them- selves by answering questions about their behavior and feelings in
to have more than 10 printed. He wrote about his work with inkblots, but the
various situations. These tests include items dealing with symptoms, attitudes,
publication was a failure. Few copies were sold, and the few reviews it
interests, fears, and values. Test-takers indicate how closely each statement
received were negative. Although the test even- tually became immensely
describes their characteristics or how much they agree with each item. A
popular, Rorschach became depressed and died 9 months after his work was
widely used self-report inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
published.
Inventory (MMPI).

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) The MMPI has been

translated into more than 140 languages and is the world’s most widely used
psychologi- cal test (see Butcher, 2010; Cox, Weed, & Butcher, 2009). First
published in 1943, the MMPI was revised in 1989 to make the language more
contemporary and nonsexist. Items were also rewritten to eliminate words that
over the years had acquired alternative meanings or interpretations. The 1989
revision, the MMPI-2, is a true-false test that con- sists of 567 statements.
These items cover physical and psychological health; political and social
attitudes; educational, occupational, family, and marital factors; and neurotic
and psychotic behavior tendencies. The test’s clinical scales measure such
personality charac- teristics as gender role, defensiveness, depression,
hysteria, paranoia, hypochondriasis, and schizophrenia.

The MMPI-2 is used with adults in research on personality, as a diagnostic tool The inkblot cards (some black, others using color) are shown one at a time,
for assessing personality problems, and for vocational and personal and test- takers are asked to describe what they see. Then the cards are
counseling. In 1992, the MMPI-A was developed for use with adolescents. The shown a second time, and the psychologist asks specific questions about the
number of questions was decreased from 567 to 478, to reduce the time and earlier answers. The examiner also observes behavior during the testing
effort needed to administer it. session, noting test-takers’ gestures, reactions to particular inkblots, and
general attitude. Responses can be interpreted in several ways, depending on
Both forms of the test have their shortcomings, however, one of which is
whether the subject or patient reports seeing movement, human or animal
length. It takes considerable time to respond diligently to the large number of
figures, animate or inanimate objects, and partial or whole figures. Attempts
items. Some people lose interest and motivation long before they finish. Also,
have been made to standardize the administration, scoring, and interpretation
some of the items on this and other self-report personality tests deal with highly
of the Rorschach. The most successful of these, the Comprehensive System,
personal characteristics, and some people consider the questions an invasion
claims, on the basis of consid- erable research, to lead to improved reliability
of privacy, particularly when someone is required to take the test to get a job.
and validity (see Exner, 1993).
Nevertheless, despite the length and privacy issues, the MMPI-2 is a valid test
that discriminates between neurotics and psychotics and between emotionally It should be noted that there is not universal agreement about the Rorschach’s
healthy and emotionally disturbed persons. Thus, it remains a highly valuable useful- ness and validity, even with the Comprehensive System for scoring.
diagnostic tool. Some researchers have concluded that there is no scientific basis for the
Rorschach; others insist that the test is as valid as any other personality
Assessment of self-report inventories Although there are self-report
assessment measure. Nevertheless, the Rorschach continues to be a popular
inventories to assess many facets of personality, the tests are not always
assessment technique in personality research and clinical prac- tice
appropriate for people whose level of intelligence registers below normal, or

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
(Musewics, Marczyk, Knauss, & York, 2009). The Rorschach is also widely those areas in detail. Interpretation of interview material is subjective and can
used in research in Europe and South America. Overall, validity research is be affected by the interviewer’s theoretical orienta- tion and personality.
generally more sup- portive of the MMPI than of the Rorschach. Thus, the Nevertheless, clinical interviews remain a widely used technique for
MMPI can be used with greater confidence, especially for ethnic minority personality assessment and a useful tool when supplemented by more
groups and diverse cultural groups (see, for example, Wood, Garb, Lilienfeld, objective procedures.
& Nezworski, 2002).
Behavioral Assessment
In 2009, clinical psychologists were quite distressed to learn that Wikipedia
had reproduced all 10 of the clinical inkblots online along with the most In the behavioral assessment approach, an observer evaluates a person’s
frequent responses given to each. It is still an open question how the behavior in a given situation. The better the observers know the people being
widespread dissemination of this infor- mation will affect responses of people assessed and the more frequently they interact with them, the more accurate
being tested (Cohen, 2009). their evaluations are likely to be(Connelly & Ones, 2010). Psychologists Arnold
Buss and Robert Plomin developed a questionnaire to assess the degree of
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan various temperaments present in twins of the same sex (Buss & Plomin, 1984).
devel- oped the TAT (Morgan & Murray, 1935). The test consists of 19 The mothers of the twins were asked, on the basis of their observations of their
ambiguous pictures, showing one or more persons, and 1 blank card. The children, to check those items on the questionnaire that best described specific
pictures are vague about the events depicted and can be interpreted in several and easily discernible instances of their children’s behavior. Sample items
ways. A sample TAT picture and a possible interpretation are shown in Figure from the questionnaire are listed in Table 1-3.
1-2. Persons taking the test are asked to construct a story about the people
and objects in the picture, describing what led up to the situation shown, what As we noted in the section on clinical interviews, counselors routinely observe
the people are thinking and feeling, and what the outcome is likely to be. In their clients’ behavior—considering, for example, facial expressions, nervous
clinical work, psychologists consider several factors in interpreting these gestures, and general appearance—and use that information in formulating
stories, including the kinds of personal relationships involved, the motivations their diagnoses. Such observations are less systematic than formal behavioral
of the characters, and the degree of contact with reality shown by the assessment procedures, but the results can provide valuable insights.
characters.
Thought and Experience Samples
There are no objective scoring systems for the TAT, and its reliability and
In the behavioral approach to personality assessment described in the
validity are low when used for diagnostic purposes. However, the TAT has
preceding para- graphs, specific behavioral actions are monitored by trained
proven highly valid for research; for that purpose, scoring systems have been
observers. In the thought- sampling approach to assessment, a person’s
devised to measure specific aspects of personality, such as the needs for
thoughts are recorded systematically to pro- vide a sample over a period of
achievement, affiliation, and power.
time. Because thoughts are private experiences and cannot be seen, the only
Other projective techniques Word association and sentence completion are person who can make this type of observation is the individual whose thoughts
additional projective techniques that psychologists use to assess personality. are being studied. In this procedure, then, the observer and the person being
In the word-association test, a list of words is read to the subject, and he or observed are the same.
she is asked to respond with the first word that comes to mind. Response
The thought-sampling assessment procedure is typically used with groups, but
words are analyzed for their commonplace or unusual nature, for their possible
it has also been applied to individuals to aid in diagnosis and treatment. A
indication of emotional tension, and for their relationship to sex- ual conflicts.
client can be asked to write or record thoughts and moods for later analysis by
Speed of response is considered important. The sentence-completion test
the psychologist.
also requires verbal responses. Subjects are asked to finish such sentences
as “My ambition is …” or “What worries me …” Interpretation of the responses A variation of thought sampling is the experience sampling method. This is
with both of these approaches can be highly subjective. However, some con- ducted similarly to thought sampling, but the participants are asked also
sentence-completion tests, such as the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank, to describe the social and environmental context in which the experience being
provide for more objective scoring. sampled occurs. For example, subjects might be asked to note whether they
were alone or with other people when an electronic beeper sounded, alerting
them to record their experiences. Or they might be asked precisely what they
were doing or where they were. The goal of this method is to determine how
one’s thoughts or moods may be influenced by the context in which they occur.

Thought sampling research relies on technological developments such as

pagers and smart wristwatches that emit a signal when subjects are supposed
to record their thoughts, experiences, or moods. Hand-held devices such as
smartphones also allow par- ticipants to record their assessments quickly and
easily. Electronic entries can be timed and dated. Thus, researchers can
determine whether assessments are being recorded as requested; if they are
entered too late, they could be influenced by the vagaries of mem- ory (see,
for example, Bolger, David, & Rafaeli, 2003; Tennen, Affleck, & Armeli, 2005).
A comparison of electronic formats versus paper-and-pencil techniques for
thought and experience sampling found no differences in the data obtained
(Green, Rafaeli, Bolger, Shrout, & Reis, 2006).

Let us consider an example of the experience sampling approach to

Clinical Interviews personality assess- ment. A group of college students kept a daily Internet
diary for 28 days, describing their moods as well as stressful events and how
In addition to the specific psychological tests used to measure an individual’s they coped with these difficulties. The primary type of negative event related
personality, the assessment procedure often includes clinical interviews. After to academic matters. The second most reported type of negative issue dealt
all, it is reasonable to assume that valuable information can be obtained by with interpersonal issues—getting along with others (Park, Armeli, & Tennen,
talking to the person being evalu- ated and asking relevant questions about 2004). Other approaches to personality assessment might not have uncovered
past and present life experiences, social and family relationships, and the this information so easily.
problems that led the person to seek psychological help. A wide range of
behaviors, feelings, and thoughts can be investigated in the interview, A possible limitation of the experience sampling approach is that subjects
including general appearance, demeanor, and attitude; facial expressions, might be so busy doing other things that they forget or fail to respond and
posture, and gestures; preoccupations; degree of self-insight; and level of record their activities when signaled to do so. As a result, the useful data might
contact with reality. be restricted only to the most conscientious research participants. It is also
possible that emotions or moods—such as anger or sadness—affect the
Armed with the results of psychological tests such as the MMPI, which are nature of the information reported (Scollon, Kim-Prieto, & Diener, 2009).
usually administered before or during a series of interview sessions, the Overall, however, the method is useful to researchers and provides data
psychologist can focus on problems indicated by the test results and explore comparable to those from self-report inventories.

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
Gender and Ethnic Issues in Assessment A review of related research supported the contention that Western peoples,
in gen- eral, and Americans, in particular, exhibited greater optimism and
Gender The assessment of personality can be influenced by a person’s viewed themselves and their future more positively. They even considered
gender. For example, women tend to score lower than men on tests measuring their sports teams, cities, and friends to be superior, when compared to those
assertiveness, a differ- ence that may result from sex-role training that of Asian cultures (Endo, Heine, & Lehman, 2000). Thus, whether personality
traditionally teaches girls and young women in some cultures not to assert was assessed by self-report inventory, question- naire, self-rating, or
themselves. Whatever the cause, personality test data do show differences laboratory experiment, the personality variable of self-enhancement was
between males and females on a number of characteristics and at every age. consistently related to cultural differences.
For example, a study of 474 children, median age 11, reported that girls
showed a higher level of depression and a greater concern with what other Anxiety and other negative emotions may also be related to cultural
people thought of them than boys did (Rudolph & Conley, 2005). differences. When the experiences of Asian-American students were
compared with those of European-American students in a daily diary study, it
In addition, considerable data from personality tests, clinical interviews, and was found that the Asian Americans reported a far greater number of negative
other assessment measures indicate differential rates of diagnosis based on emotions in social situations than the European- Americans did (Lee, Okazaki,
gender for various emotional disorders. Women are more often diagnosed with & Yoo, 2006).
and treated for depression, anxiety, and related disorders than are men.
Several explanations have been offered. There actually may be a higher Asian Americans tend to view any form of mental disorder as a shameful
incidence of these disorders among women, or the differ- ential rate may be condition that they are embarrassed to admit and thus they are less likely to
related to gender bias or gender stereotyping in interpreting the assessment seek treatment from a therapist or counselor for emotional problems.
results. Also, the therapists who recommend treatment options based on the Research consistently shows that Asian Americans, particularly first-
assessment results may exhibit a bias against women. The average course of generation immigrants, underutilize mental health treat- ment services. Those
therapy for women tends to be longer than that for men, and doses of born in the United States are almost twice as likely to seek treat- ment than
psychoactive medications pre- scribed for women tend to be higher than those those born outside the United States (Meyer, Zane, Cho, & Takeuchi, 2009).
for men. First-generation Chinese students in the United States were found to be
significantly less likely to seek treatment for emotional issues than first-
Asians The Asian-American population in the United States is a complex, generation European students in the United States (Hsu & Alden, 2008). Asian
heterogeneous group and includes people of Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Americans also tend to wait until the dis- turbance is severe before seeking
Thai, Korean, and Vietnamese extraction, among others. A psychological test help and less likely to benefit from it (Hwang, 2006).
such as the MMPI, which has been validated in a major city in China, may not
be valid for Chinese people living in the United States, or even for Chinese A psychologist in New York City reported that her immigrant Chinese patients
people living in other parts of China. Although the MMPI and other personality ini- tially complained only about physical symptoms such as backache or
tests have been translated into Asian languages, little research has been stomachache, and never about depression. Several sessions were required
conducted on their reliability and validity for use with Asian Americans. before they built up sufficient trust to venture to describe a problem such as
depression. Some Asian languages, such as Korean, do not have a specific
We know there are substantial and consistent cultural differences between word for depression. The psychologist reported that one Korean client finally
people of Asian and non-Asian background. For example, research has shown struck his chest with his fist and said he had a “down heart,” thus describing
that people of Asian heritage tend to hold strong beliefs about the common the mental condition in physical terms (Kershaw, 2003). Asian Ameri- cans are
good of society as a whole. When 108 American and Chinese adults, ages 30 also far less likely to take antidepressant medications as compared to Whites
to 60, were asked to recall events in their past, Americans remembered more (Gonzalez et al., 2010).
individual or personal experiences and focused more on their own behaviors
and feelings. The Chinese adults, in contrast, reported more memories of With such contrasting beliefs about the nature of a particular disorder, it is easy
group and historical events and focused more on the roles of other significant to understand why people of diverse cultural backgrounds may score
people in these situations rather than on themselves (Wang & Conway, 2004). differently on tests of personality variables. In addition, the practice of using
American values, beliefs, and norms as the standard by which everyone is
Individual competitiveness and assertiveness are often seen as undesirable judged may help explain much research that shows that Asian Americans tend
and con- trary to Asian cultural standards. Western cultures are typically to receive different psychiatric diagnoses than Ameri- can patients of
depicted as the opposite. For example, when college students in Australia European heritage.
were compared with college students in Japan, the Australians were found to
emphasize the importance of individuality much more than the Japanese, Blacks Research conducted in the 1990s showed generally consistent
whereas the Japanese students were more oriented toward the collective or differences between Black and White subjects on self-report personality tests.
the group (Kashima et al., 2004). In another example, an Asian-American job Based on such test score differences, some psychologists concluded that
applicant who is a recent immigrant to the United States and not yet fully popular and frequently used per- sonality tests, such as the MMPI, are biased
acculturated to American values and beliefs is likely to score low on a against African Americans and should not be used to assess their
personality test measuring such factors as competitiveness, assertiveness, personalities.
and self-promotion. This person would probably be judged as deficient—as
not measuring up to American standards—and thus unlikely to be offered a Evidence to support this viewpoint was contradicted by later research using
job. the MMPI. For example, in a study of psychiatric patients (both Blacks and
Whites) who were hospitalized at a Veterans Administration (VA) center, no
Research on the personality factors of self-effacement and self-enhancement significant differences were found on any of the test’s scales (Arbisi, Ben-
sup- ported such ethnic differences. Self-enhancement was defined as the Porath, & McNulty, 2002). However, Black and White college students were
tendency to pro- mote oneself aggressively and make one conspicuous. Self- found to differ on a test designed to measure paranoia. Black students scored
effacement, the opposite of self-enhancement, is considered to be more in significantly higher on items measuring a lack of trust in other people, a
agreement with the cultural values of Asian societies. This was supported in a suspicion of their motives, and a tendency to be on guard with others. Do these
laboratory study comparing Canadian and Japanese college students. Self- findings mean that Blacks are more paranoid than Whites? No. We must
enhancement was far more prevalent among the Canadian students; self- evaluate and interpret these and similar findings within the appropriate racial
criticism was significantly more evident among the Japanese students (Heine, and ethnic context. Thus, the researchers noted that “the group differences
Takata, & Lehman, 2000). may reflect mistrust or interpersonal wariness caused by pervasive
discrimination and perceived racism” (Combs, Penn, & Fenigstein, 2002, p. 6).
Similar results were obtained in two additional studies comparing self-ratings
and questionnaire responses in collectivist versus individualistic cultures. The A study of veterans seeking treatment for substance abuse found that African-
subjects in these instances were Japanese college students compared with American patients obtained higher scores on most of the MMPI-2 scales than
American college students, and Chinese high school and college students in White patients. The researchers concluded that such pronounced racial
Singapore compared with Jewish high school and college students in Israel. differences raised concerns about the MMPI-2 as a diagnostic tool among
The results from both studies showed that those from collectivist cultures Black veterans (Monnot, Quirk, Hoerger, & Brewer, 2009).
(Japan and China) showed significantly greater self-criticism and significantly
lower self-enhancement than those from individualistic cultures (the United A similar conclusion was reached In interpreting the higher than usual scores
States and Israel) (Heine & Renshaw, 2002; Kurman, 2001). on some MMPI-2 scales for members of two American Indian tribes. The
researchers concluded that these results for Native Americans may reflect “the

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
possibility of psycho- logical distress spurred by historical oppression and Cross-cultural issues Hermann Rorschach was one of the first to recognize
present adversity” (Pace et al., 2006, p. 320). the effects of cultural differences in performance on personality assessment
techniques. In 1921 he recorded differences in responses to his Inkblot Test
from people living in two culturally distinct areas of Switzerland. He wrote that
Other research found that African-American college students who identified such responses “should be very different in various people and races” (quoted
strongly with Black cultural values had lower levels of depression and in Allen & Dana, 2004, p. 192). A study of American Indians using the MMPI-
hopelessness than those without a strong cultural identification (Walker, Alabi, 2 demonstrated how responses to test questions reflected behav- ior that was
Roberts, & Obasi, 2010). How- ever, Black teenagers who scored high in considered normal in that culture but pathological in the mainstream White
perceived discrimination reported greater depression and lower self-esteem culture (Hill, Pace, & Robbins, 2010). Other research reinforces this idea that
and life satisfaction than teens who scored low in per- ceived discrimination cultural fac- tors can affect or even distort personality assessment; what is
against them (Seaton, Caldwell, Sellers, & Jackson, 2010). normal in one culture may be judged undesirable, wrong, sick, or just plain
weird in other cultures (Cheung, 2009).
Research on the effects of counseling and therapy conducted with two groups
of Black college students showed that they rated Black therapists more
favorably than they did. White therapists. The students were also more
accepting and understanding of the treat- ment options when they were
presented by Black therapists and more likely to believe that the therapy would
benefit them (Thompson & Alexander, 2006; Want, Parham, Baker, &
Sherman, 2004).

Hispanics Studies show that scores obtained on the MMPI by people of

Hispanic origin are similar to those obtained by Whites (see, for example,
Handel & Ben-Porath, 2000). With projective techniques, however, the
situation is different. Rorschach scores for sub- jects from Mexico and from
Central American and South American countries differ signif- icantly from the
norms of the comprehensive scoring system. Thus, it is questionable whether
these norms should be used with Hispanic populations (Wood et al., 2002).

Hispanics are less likely than other minority groups to seek psychological
Although some personality tests have been translated for use in other cultures,
counseling or treatment. Among Hispanics who do seek counseling, half never
there are potential problems with their cross-cultural application (see, for
follow up on their first visit by returning for additional sessions (Dingfelder, example, Gudmundsson, 2009). This is particularly crucial when a test
2005). A study of White and Hispanic adolescents found that significantly more designed for the population of a Western culture is administered to people in
Whites received adequate mental health care than Hispanics (Alexandre, a non-Western culture, such as Chinese or Filipino. For example, among
Martins, Silvia, & Richard, 2009). Foreign-born Hispanics are far less likely to
traditional Chinese people, important personal- ity characteristics include
use mental health services than Hispanics born in the United States (Bridges,
being gracious, having a family orientation, emphasizing harmony with others,
deArellano, Rheingold, Danielson, & Silcott, 2010). Hispanic ado- lescents and showing frugality in everyday behavior. None of these factors is typical of
who do seek mental health treatment are typically seen by clinicians for shorter those measured by American personality inventories.
periods of time than White adolescents (Edman, Adams, Park, & Irwin, 2010).
However, a study of Mexican-American college students found that as they When the MMPI-2 was translated into Arabic, the issue arose of how to treat
became more inte- grated in the mainstream U.S. culture, their attitudes questions about one’s sex life. In Arab countries, any open discussion of sex
toward counseling became more favorable (Ramos-Sanchez & Atkinson, is considered inappropriate, even offensive. The researchers decided to retain
2009). One confounding factor may be the short- age of Spanish-speaking the sex questions in the test but to specify in the instructions that the subjects’
clinical psychologists and other mental health personnel. Approximately 40 responses to these items were optional. A study of college students in Iran
percent of the Hispanic population in the United States is not fluent in the showed that more than 90 percent chose not to respond to items relating to
English language. sex (Nezami, Zamani, & DeFrank, 2008).

Studies show that Hispanic Americans are more satisfied with mental health The TAT cannot be used In Islamic cultures because of the Muslim prohibition
personnel who understand their culture, which typically is highly collectivist in against representing humans in pictorial form. When groups of European
nature and thus more group-oriented than individual-oriented (see, for women and Muslim women were asked to make up stories in response to the
example, Malloy, Albright, Diaz- Loving, Dong, & Lee, 2004). And they are TAT pictures, the European women did so readily and easily whereas the
more likely to benefit from therapy with His- panic psychologists, who, Muslim women hesitated. The researcher noted that the Muslim women
unfortunately, account for only 1 percent of the psychologists in the United “consistently refused to give coherent interpretations. They refused to invent
States. That may explain why older Hispanic people (ages 65 and up) pre- fer or fictionalize [the pictures]” (Bullard, 2005, p. 235).
to seek mental health advice from their family physician rather than
counselors, psychologists, or psychiatrists who are not likely to speak Spanish Translators of American personality tests for use in other cultures also face
(Dupree, Herrera, Tyson, Jang, & King-Kallimans, 2010). the problem of American slang and colloquial expressions. Phrases such as “I
often get the blues,” or “I like to keep up with the Joneses” might have little
The collectivist orientation may help explain the higher rates of post-traumatic meaning or relevance when translated into another language. Some test
stress disorder (PTSD) found in a study of Hispanic police officers when questions will also be meaningless because they lack reference to everyday
compared to Black officers and non-Hispanic White officers. The Hispanic experience. The phrase “I like to ski fast” would have no personal meaning to
officers reported receiving signif- icantly less social support following critical people who have always lived in the desert or the tropics and therefore would
incidents on the job that lead to PTSD. The researchers noted that for the reveal little about their personality.
Hispanic officers, “their culturally valued collectiveness may have left these
officers particularly sensitive to social isolation, thus exacerbating their Even the manner in which people in the United States answer test questions
symptoms” (Pole, Best, Metzler, & Marmar, 2005, p. 257). A study of civilian may differ from other cultures. Responding to items in a true-false format or
survivors with physical injuries also found a higher rate of PTSD symptoms multiple-choice format seems natural to American college students, who have
among Hispanics as compared to Whites (Marshall, Schell, & Miles, 2009). been taking these types of tests since childhood. To others, it may be an
awkward and alien way of answering questions. When the MMPI was first
It Is apparent, then, that in the development of personality assessment introduced in Israel in the 1970s, many people there found it difficult to respond
techniques, cultural differences must be considered. Yet until recently, because they were unfamiliar with the true-false answer format. The test
relatively few personality tests, other than the MMPI, had been published in instructions had to be rewritten to explain to the respondents how they were
Spanish-language versions. That situ- ation is changing as specific tests to supposed to record their answers (Butcher, 2004). The reworking of
assess anxiety, panic, phobias and fears, and PTSD are now available. The personality tests to ensure that they accurately reflect and measure relevant
English and Spanish versions of these tests, as well as the MMPI, have been personality variables is difficult and requires knowledge of and sensitivity to
shown to correlate highly with each other (see, for example, Scott & Mamami- cultural differences.
Pampa, 2008; Zapata-Sola, Kreuch, Landers, Hoyt, & Bucher, 2009).
Research in the Study of Personality

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
One criterion for a useful personality theory is that it must stimulate research. An experiment is a technique for determining the effect of one or more
In other words, a theory must be testable. Psychologists must be able to variables or events on behavior. We are constantly exposed to stimuli in our
conduct research on its pro- positions to determine which to accept and which everyday world, such as lights, sounds, sights, odors, instructions, demands,
to reject. Ideally, a theory will be shaped, modified, and elaborated on—or and trivial conversations. If a psychologist wants to determine the effect of just
discarded—on the basis of the research it generates. one stimulus variable, he or she can arrange an experimental situation in
which only that variable is allowed to operate. All other variables must be
eliminated or held constant during the experiment. Then, if the behavior of the
Psychologists study personality in different ways. The method used depends subjects changes while only the stimulus variable is in operation, we can be
on the aspect of personality under investigation. Some psychologists are certain that it alone is responsible for any change in behavior. The change
interested only in overt behavior— what we do and say in response to certain could not have been caused by another variable because no other variable
stimuli. Other psychologists are concerned with feelings and conscious was allowed to influence the subjects during the experiment.
experiences as measured by tests and questionnaires. Such self-report Scientists distinguish two kinds of variables in an experiment. One is the
inventories are among the most frequently used research techniques. Still independent or stimulus variable, which is manipulated by the experimenter.
other investigators try to understand the unconscious forces that may motivate The other is the dependent variable, which is the subjects’ behavior or
us. A method useful for exam- ining one aspect of personality may be response to that manipulation. To be sure no variable other than the
inappropriate for another aspect. independent variable can affect the results, researchers must study two
The major methods used In personality research are the clinical method, the groups of subjects: the experimental group and the control group. Both groups
experi- mental method, the virtual research method, and the correlational are chosen at random from the same population of subjects.
method. Although dif- ferent in their specifics, these methods rely to different The experimental group includes those subjects to whom the experimental
degrees on objective observation, which is the fundamental defining treatment is given. This is the group exposed to the stimulus or independent
characteristic of scientific research in any discipline. variable. The control group is not exposed to the independent variable.
Measures of the behavior being studied are taken from both groups before
The Clinical Method
and after the experiment. In this way, researchers can determine if any
The primary clinical method is the case study or case history, in which additional variables have influenced the subjects’ behavior. If some other
psychologists search their patients’ past and present for clues that might point variable was operating, then both groups would show the same changes in
to the source of the patients’ emotional problems. Undertaking a case study is behavior. But if no other variable was in operation—if the independent variable
similar to writing a mini- biography of a person’s emotional life from the early alone influenced the subjects—then only the behavior of the experimental
years to the present day, including feelings, fears, and experiences. group would change. The behavior of the control group would remain the
same.
Freud used case studies extensively in developing his theory of
psychoanalysis. He probed into his patients’ childhood years, seeking those Applying the experimental method Let us follow the experimental method in
events and conflicts that may have caused their present neuroses. One such action, using data from psychologist Albert Bandura’s social-learning theory of
patient was Katharina, an 18-year-old woman suf- fering from anxiety attacks personality. Bandura wanted to determine whether children would imitate the
and shortness of breath. In reconstructing what he considered to be the aggressive behavior they observed in adults. What was the best way to study
relevant experiences in her childhood, Freud traced Katharina’s symptoms to this problem? Bandura could have observed children on neighborhood streets
several early sexual experiences she reported, including a seduction attempt or at a playground, hoping to catch their reactions if they happened to witness
by her father when she was 14. With another patient, Lucy, Freud linked her a violent incident. He could then have waited to see whether the children would
reported hallucinations to events in her past that related to her love for her imitate the aggressive behavior they had seen.
employer, a love that had been rebuffed.
This approach is unsystematic and uncontrolled, and it does not allow for
It was through such case studies t”at Freud developed his theory of duplication and verifiability; it is unlikely that the identical conditions would
personality, with its focus on sexual conflicts or traumas as causal factors in recur. Also, observing children who happened to be present on a street corner
neurotic behavior. Freud and later theorists who used the case study method would not necessarily provide an appropriate sample of subjects. Some of
searched for consistencies in their patients’ lives. On the basis of what they these children might already possess the ten- dency to behave aggressively,
perceived as similarities among the reports of their patients, these theorists regardless of the adult behavior they observed. Therefore, it would be
generalized their findings to everyone. impossible to decide whether their behavior resulted from witnessing a vio-
lent act or from some factor that had long been part of their personality.
To investigate personality, psychologists use a variety of clinical methods in
addition to case studies. These methods include tests, interviews, and dream Further, observing children at random would not allow the researcher to control
analysis, all of which can also be used for assessment. Although the clinical the type of aggressive act to which the subjects might be exposed. Children
method attempts to be scientific, it does not offer the precision and control of see many kinds of violence—television actors in a gun battle, teenagers in a
the experimental and correlational methods. The data obtained by the clinical fistfight, drive-by shootings, parental brawling, action figures in video games.
method are more subjective, relating to mental and largely unconscious events Each form of aggression would have to be studied individually before its effects
and early life experiences. Such data are open to different interpreta- tions that on behavior could be determined reliably. For Bandura to study the
may reflect the therapist’s personal biases, more so than data obtained by phenomenon, then, it was necessary that all the children he observed be
other methods. Further, memories of childhood events may be distorted by exposed to the same instance of aggressive behavior. He approached the
time, and their accuracy cannot easily be verified. However, the clinical problem systematically by designing an experiment in which children whose
method can provide a window through which to view the depths of the pre-experiment levels of aggression had been measured were exposed to the
personality, and we shall see many examples of its use, especially by the same display of adult aggression. Children in the control group wit- nessed
psychoanalytic and neo-psychoanalytic theorists. nonaggressive adults in the same setting. Both groups of children were
watched by trained observers to see how they would behave.
The Experimental Method
Children who watched the aggressive adult behaved aggressively; children in
As we noted, the fundamental defining characteristic of research in any the control group exhibited no change in aggressiveness. Bandura concluded
scientific discipline is objective observation. The clinical method does not meet that aggressiveness can be learned by imitating the aggressive behavior of
that requirement very well. Two other requirements of scientific research are others.
even more difficult to fulfill by using the clinical method but are satisfied by the
experimental method. One of these requirements is that observations be well Limitations of the experimental method The experimental method, whether
controlled and systematic. Such control is not possible when dealing with a applied online or in a laboratory, has the potential for being the most precise
person’s past life events or unconscious phenomena. The other requirement research method, but it has several limitations. There are situations in which it
involves duplication and verification. With careful control of experi- mental cannot be used; some aspects of behavior and personality cannot be studied
conditions, a researcher working at another time and in another place can under rigorously controlled labo- ratory conditions because of safety and
duplicate precisely the conditions under which the earlier research was ethical considerations. For example, psychologists might be better able to treat
conducted. Events in a person’s life cannot be repeated or duplicated so emotional disturbances if they had data from controlled experiments on
exactly. different child-rearing techniques to determine what kinds of early experiences
might lead to problems in adulthood. Obviously, however, we cannot take

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
groups of children from their parents at birth and expose them to various child- observing the effects, researchers can study people who already function in
rearing manipulations to see what happens. stressful situations—such as police officers, race car drivers, or college
students suffering from test anxiety.
Another difficulty with the experimental method is that the subjects’ behavior
may change not because of the experimental treatment (the manipulation of Another way the correlational method differs from the experimental method is
the independent variable) but because the subjects are aware that they are that in the correlational approach subjects are not assigned to experimental
being observed. They might behave differently if they thought no one was and control groups. Instead, subjects who differ on an independent variable—
observing their responses. When people know they are participating in an such as age, gender, order of birth, level of aggressiveness, or degree of
experiment, they sometimes try to guess the purpose and behave accordingly, neuroticism—are compared with their performance on some dependent
either to please or to frustrate the experimenter. This kind of response defeats variable, such as personality test responses or job performance measures.
the purpose of the experiment because the resulting behavior (the depen- dent
variable) has been influenced by the subjects’ attitudes rather than by the Applying the correlational method Researchers applying the correlational
experimental treatment. This is quite a different response from what the method are interested in the relationship between the variables—in how
researcher intended to study. behavior on one variable changes or differs as a function of the other variable.
For example, is birth order related to aggressiveness? Do people who score
Experimental research has its limitations, but when it is well controlled and high on an IQ test make better computer scien- tists than people who score
systematic, it provides excellent data. We will see examples throughout the low? Do people who score high in optimism process certain stimuli differently
book of how the experimental method applies to understanding aspects of from people who score high in pessimism? The answers to such ques- tions
personality. are useful not only in research but also in applied situations where predictions
must be made about a person’s chances of success. The college entrance
The Virtual Research Method examinations you took are based on correlational studies that show the
relationship between the vari- ables of standardized test scores and classroom
Psychologists routinely conduct research online, including administering
success.
psychological tests, taking opinion surveys, and presenting experimental
stimuli and recording the sub- jects’ responses. A review of articles published A great deal of correlational research has been conducted on various facets
in journals of the American Psychological Association over a 2-year period of the human personality. Consider the need for achievement, a concept
found that the majority of studies on our sample were straightforward formulated by Henry Murray and subsequently studied by David McClelland.
translations of the traditional psy- chological measures and methods for use Much of the research on that topic compared the measured level of the
on the Web. These studies were designed to ask the same kinds of questions achievement need with performance on a number of other variables.
and to employ methods that one typically uses in the psychological laboratory.
(Skitka & Sargis, 2006, p. 535) Let us say, for example, that researchers want to determine whether people
high in the need for achievement earn higher grades in college than people
Virtual research offers certain advantages over traditional experimental low in the need for achievement. The researchers could apply the
research. Studies conducted on the Web produce faster responses, are less experimental method and design an experiment in which children would be
costly, and have the potential to reach a broader range of subjects of different separated from their parents and reared by adults specially trained in
ages, levels of educa- tion, types of employment, income levels, social class, techniques known to increase the motivation to achieve. Years later, when the
and ethnic origin. Thus, in the- ory, broader populations can be sampled than children attended college, the grades of those high in the achievement need
are typically found on a college campus. could be compared with the grades of those low in the achievement need. You
can see, of course, that such an experiment is too ridiculous to contemplate.
However, this research method also has disadvantages. Web users tend to be
younger, more affluent, and better educated than nonusers, thus limiting the But using the correlational method, psychologists can measure the
chances that an online sample will be truly representative of the population as achievement-need levels of a group of college students and compare them
a whole (though still likely to be more representative than a typical group of with their grades. The indepen- dent variable (the different levels of the need
college student subjects). Those not likely to be represented in online research for achievement, from high to low) was not manipulated or changed in this
include older adults, low-income persons, peo- ple with visual impairments, case. These researchers worked with existing data and found that students
and people who do not speak or read English (Suarez-Bal- cazar, Balcazar, & high in the need for achievement did earn higher grades than stu- dents low
Taylor-Ritzler, 2009). in the need for achievement (Atkinson, Lens, & O’Malley, 1976).
People who respond to online research may also differ from nonresponders We will see many examples of the correlational method in personality research
on important personality characteristics. Research conducted in Germany throughout the book, especially in discussions of the development and
found that people who failed to respond to an online survey were judged—on application of assessment techniques. The reliability and validity of
the basis of their personal Web sites—to be more introverted, disagreeable, assessment devices are typically determined through the correlational
and less open to new experiences than those who did respond to the survey method. In addition, many facets of personality have been studied by
(Marcus & Schutz, 2005). correlating them with other variables.
Contradictory findings emerged from a study of American college students The correlation coefficient The primary’statistical measure of correlation is the
given the choice of participating in psychological research online or in person. correlation coefficient, which provides precise information about the direction
The more extra- verted chose to participate in person and the more introverted and strength of the relationship between two variables. The direction of the
chose the online method (Witt, Donnellan, & Orlando, 2011). Other research relationship can be positive or negative. If high scores on one variable
found no significant differences between online and telephone survey accompany high scores on the other variable, the direction is positive. If high
respondents in their willingness to disclose sensi- tive personal information. scores on one variable accompany low scores on the other variable, the
The average response rate for online participants was approx- imately 10 direction is negative (see Figure 1-3). Correlation coefficients range from
percent lower than for telephone or mail surveys. Also, some 10 percent of +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to —1.00 (a perfect negative correlation).
online survey participants were found to engage in excessive clicking and The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1.00 or —1.00, the stronger the
mouse move- ments when responding (Fan & Yan, 2010; Hines, Douglas, & relationship and the more confidently we can make predictions about one
Mahmood, 2010; Siteger & Reips, 2010). variable from the other.
It Is difficult to determine how honest and accurate online subjects will be when Cause and effect The primary limitation of the correlational method relates to
they provide personal information on factors such as age, gender, ethnic cause and effect. Just because two variables show a high correlation, it does
origin, edu- cation, or income. Nevertheless, a significant number of studies not necessarily fol- low that one has caused the other. There may indeed be
comparing online and traditional laboratory research methods show that the such a relationship, but researchers cannot automatically conclude that one
results are, in general, consistent and similar. exists, as they can with a well-con- trolled, systematic experiment.

The Correlational Method Suppose a psychologist applied the correlational method and found a strong
negative relationship between the two personality variables of shyness and
In the correlational method, researchers investigate the relationships that exist
self-esteem: The higher the level of shyness, the lower the level of self-
among variables. Rather than manipulating an independent variable, the
esteem. Conversely, the lower the level of shyness, the higher the level of self-
experimenters deal with the variable’s existing attributes. For example, instead
esteem. The relationship is clear: People who are shy tend to score low on
of experimentally creating stress in subjects in the psychology laboratory and

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
measures of self-esteem. We cannot conclude with certainty, how- ever, that A second characteristic is that formal theories are likely to be more objective
being shy causes people to have low self-esteem. It could be the other way because scientists’ observations are, ideally, unbiased by their needs, fears,
around—that low self-esteem causes people to be shy. Or some other desires, and values. In contrast, our personal theories are based as much on
variable, such as physical appearance or parental rejection, could cause both observations of ourselves as of others. We tend to interpret the actions of other
shyness and low self-esteem. This restriction on drawing conclusions from people in terms of our thoughts and feelings, evaluating their reactions to a
correlational research presents difficulties for researchers, whose goal is to situation on the basis of what we would do or how we would feel. We view
identify specific causes. However, for practitioners, whose goal is to predict others in personal and subjective terms, whereas scientists try to observe
more objectively and dispassionately.

Another characteristic is that formal theories are tested repeatedly against

reality, often by a scientist other than the one who proposed the theory. A
formal theory may be put to many objective experimental tests and, as a
consequence, be supported, modi- fied, or rejected in light of the results.
Personal theories are not so tested by us or by a neutral party. Once we
develop a personal theory about people in general or about one person in
particular, we tend to cling to it, perceiving only those behaviors that confirm
behavior in the real world, the correlational method is more satisfactory. To be our theory and failing to attend to those that contradict it.
able to predict success in college on the basis of the need for achievement,
In principle, scientists can recognize and evaluate data that do not support
for exam- ple, we need only establish that the two variables have a high
their theories. Unfortunately, in reality, this is not always true. Many examples
correlation. If a college appli- cant scores high on a test of the need for
exist in both the history of science and the history of psychology of scientists
achievement, we can predict that he or she will earn good grades in college.
who were so prejudiced by their theory, so emotionally committed to it, that
In this case, we are not concerned with determining whether the level of the
their objectivity was compromised. However, the ideal of objectivity remains
achievement need causes good academic performance, only with whether the
the goal toward which scientists strive.
two variables are related and whether one can be predicted from the other.
The Person in Personality Theories

We noted that the intent of formal theories is greater objectivity and that
Theory in the Study of Personality personal theories tend to be more subjective. We might assume that
Theories are sometimes referred to in contemptuous terms. “After all,” people personality theories, because they belong to a discipline that calls itself a
may say, “it’s only a theory!” It is popular to assume that a theory is vague, science, are exclusively of the formal and objective variety but that is not
abstract, and speculative—really no more than a hunch or a guess and quite always the case. Psychologists recognize that some personality the- ories
the opposite of a fact. It is true that a theory without research evidence to have a subjective component and may reflect events in the theorist’s life as a
support it is speculation. However, a mass of research data can be sort of disguised autobiography. The theorist may draw on these events as a
meaningless unless it is organized in some sort of explanatory framework or source of data to describe and support his or her theory. No matter how hard
context. A theory provides the framework for simplifying and describing scientists try to be impartial and objective, their personal viewpoint is likely to
empirical data in a meaningful way. A theory can be considered a kind of map influence their perception to some degree. This should not surprise us.
that represents the data in their interrelationships. It attempts to bring order to Personality theorists are human, too, and like most of us they sometimes find
the data, to fit them into a pattern. it difficult to accept ideas that diverge from their own experience.

Theories are sets of principles used to explain a particular class of phenomena The distinction between formal and personal theories may not be as
(in our case, the behaviors and experiences relating to personality). If pronounced in personality as it is in other branches of psychology. This does
personality theories are to be useful, they must be testable, capable of not mean that all personality theories are personal theories. Personality
stimulating research on their various propositions. Researchers must be able theories have the characteristics of formal theories. Some are based on the
to conduct experiments to determine whether aspects of the theory should be observation of a large number and variety of persons. Some are tested against
accepted or rejected. Personality theories must be able to clarify and explain reality either by the theorist who proposed it or by others. These scientists
the data of personality by organizing those data into a coherent framework. attempt to be objective in making their observations and in analyzing their
Theories should also help us understand and predict behavior. Those theories data, which may or may not support the theory. Ultimately, the theories are as
that can be tested and can explain, understand, and predict behavior may then objective as their subject matter—the complex human personality—permits,
be applied to help people change their behaviors, feelings, and emotions from but their propositions may owe much to the personalities and life experiences
harmful to helpful, from undesirable to desirable. of their originators. The first stage in constructing a theory may be based
primarily on intuition, but in later stages these intuitively based ideas may be
Formal Theories and Personal Theories modified and refined by the theorist’s rational and empirical knowledge. Thus,
through the application of reason and data analysis, what began as a personal
Scientists are not the only people who use theories; nor are all theories formal theory assumes the characteristics of a formal theory. Whatever level of
proposals containing numerous postulates and corollaries. We all use implicit objectivity is found in personality theories (and we will see that some are more
personal theories in our everyday interactions with other people. We have objective than others), there is no denying that they are also partly subjective,
some idea of the concept of per- sonality, and we make suppositions about
the personalities of those with whom we inter- act. Many of us speculate about Reflecting the experiences and needs of the theorist.
human nature in general. For example, we may believe that all people are
If we want to understand a theory fully, we should learn as much as we can
basically good or that people care only about themselves.
about the person who proposed it. It is important to consider how the
These suppositions are theories. They are frameworks within which we place development of a theory may have been influenced by specific events in a
the data of our observations of others. We usually base our personal theories theorist’s life. In cases where sufficient biographical information is available,
on data that we col- lect from our perceptions of the behavior of those around we suggest how a theory reflects those events. At least initially, the theorist
us. In that respect—that our theories derive from our observations—personal may have been describing himself or herself. Later, the theorist may have
theories are similar to formal theories. sought appropriate data from other sources to support the generalization of
that personal view to others.
However, formal theories in psychology, as well as in other sciences, have
certain characteristics that set them apart from our personal theories. Formal The significance of personal events In a theorist’s life has long been
theories are based on data from observations of large numbers of people of recognized, as we noted. William James, who is considered by many scholars
diverse natures, whereas personal theories are derived from our observations to have been the greatest American psychologist, believed that biography was
of a limited number of persons— usually our small circle of relatives, friends, a crucial subject for anyone who attempts to study human nature. He argued
and acquaintances, as well as ourselves. Because a broader range of data that it was even more important to under- stand eminent persons’ lives than it
supports formal theories, they are more comprehensive. We can generalize was to know their theories or systems if we wanted to learn about the different
more effectively from formal theories to explain and predict the behavior of ways people approach human experience. One historian noted:
more kinds of people.

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
More than any other professional discipline, psychologists have sought to more than an elaboration of the basic themes laid down in the early years of
publish biographical and autobiographical sketches of those in their calling…. life. This view is known as historical determinism. Our per- sonality (so this line
At some level, at least, they seem to have acknowledged that their lives and of thought goes) is mostly fixed by the age of 5 or so and is subject to little
values are the key to their “scientific knowledge.” (Friedman, 1996, p. 221) change over the rest of our life. The adult personality is determined by the
nature of these early experiences.
We shall see throughout this book many examples of the autobiographical
nature of per- sonality theory, but we must also introduce a note of caution into The opposite position considers personality to be more independent of the
this intriguing relationship between theory and real life. Perhaps it is not the past, capable of being influenced by events and experiences in the present as
life experiences that influence the develop- ment of the theory. Instead, maybe well as by our aspirations and goals for the future. An intermediate position
the theory influences what the theorists recall and choose to tell us about their has also been proposed. We might assume that early experiences shape
lives. Much of our information about a theorist’s life comes from personality but not rigidly or permanently. Later experiences may act to
autobiographical recollections. These accounts are usually written late in life, reinforce or modify early personality patterns.
after the person has proposed and defended the theory. The time spent
developing the theory and affirming a commitment to it may distort the Is Human Nature Unique or Universal?
theorist’s memories of earlier years. Does the person recall only those events Is human nature unique or universal? This is another issue that divides
that support the theory? Are contradictory or troublesome events conveniently personality theorists. We may think of personality as so individual that each
forgotten? Are experiences invented to enhance a theory’s credibility? person’s action, each utterance, has no counterpart or equivalent in any other
Although we cannot always answer these questions, we should keep them in
person. This obviously makes the comparison of one person with another
mind while we explore the notion that personality theory may be partly meaningless. Other positions allow for unique- ness but interpret this within
autobiographical. overall patterns of behavior accepted as universal, at least within a given
culture.
Questions about Human Nature
Our Life Goals: Satisfaction or Growth?
An important aspect of any personality theory is the image of human nature
formulated by the theorist. Each theorist has a conception of human nature A fifth issue involves what we might call our ultimate and necessary life goals.
that addresses the basic issues of what it means to be human. For centuries, Theorists differ on what constitutes our major motivation in life. Do we function
poets, philosophers, and artists have phrased and rephrased these questions, like machines, like some sort of self-regulating mechanism, content as long as
and we see their attempts at answers in our great books and paintings. some internal equilibrium or balance is maintained? Do we act solely to satisfy
Personality theorists, too, have addressed these troubling questions and have physical needs, to obtain pleasure and avoid pain? Is our happiness totally
reached no greater consensus than artists or writers. dependent on keeping stress to a minimum? Some theorists believe that
people are little more than tension-reducing, pleasure-seeking animals. Others
The various conceptions of human nature offered by the theorists allow for a
consider us to be motivated primarily by the need to grow, to realize our full
meaningful comparison of their views. These ideas are not unlike personal
potential, and to reach for ever-higher levels of self-actualization and
theories; they are frameworks within which the theorists perceive themselves
development.
and other people and then construct their theories. The issues that define a
theorist’s image of human nature are described below. As we discuss each Our Outlook: Optimism or Pessimism?
theory, we will consider how the theorist deals with these fundamental issues.
One additional issue reflects a theorist’s outlook on life. We may call it
Are We in Charge of Our Lives” Free Will versus Determinism optimism versus pessimism. Are human beings basically good or evil, kind or
cruel, compassionate or merciless? Here we are dealing with a question of
A basic question about human nature concerns the age-old controversy
morality, a value judgment, which supposedly has no place in the objective
between free will and determinism. Theorists on both sides of the issue ask,
and dispassionate world of science. However, several theorists have dealt with
do we consciously direct the course of our actions? Can we spontaneously
the question and, as we shall see, it has spawned a vital body of research.
choose the direction of our thoughts and behavior, rationally selecting among
Some theorists’ views of the human personality are positive and hope- ful,
alternatives? Do we have a conscious awareness and a measure of self-
depicting us as humanitarian, altruistic, and socially conscious. Other theorists
control? Are we masters of our fate or are we victims of past experi- ence,
find few of these qualities in human beings, either individually or collectively.
biological factors, unconscious forces, or external stimuli—forces over which
we have no conscious control? Have external events so shaped our Other Influences: Effects of Ethnic and Cultural Background
personality that we are incapable of changing our behavior? Some personality
theorists take extreme positions on this issue. Others express more moderate We noted that cultural differences affect personality development and
views, arguing that some behaviors are determined by past events and some assessment. It should come as no surprise, then, to learn that cultural factors
can be spontaneous and under our control. influence our image of human nature and the questions we may ask about it.
Consider the concept of karma, which for centuries has shaped the outlook of
What Dominates Us? Our Inherited Nature or Our Nurturing the peoples of India and other countries that accept Hinduism or Buddhism. It
Environment? may be seen as a fatalistic and deterministic view of human nature. The
A second issue has to do with the nature-nurture controversy. Which is the consequences of our present and past actions are believed to determine our
more important influence on behavior: inherited traits and attributes (our destiny or fate, our happiness or unhappiness in the future. In other words,
nature or genetic endow- ment) or features of our environment (the nurturing events don’t occur because we make them happen but because they were
influences of our upbringing, education, and training)? Do the abilities, destined to happen.
temperaments, and predispositions we inherit determine our personality, or Thus, in this view, our fortune or misfortune, health or sickness, are
are we shaped more strongly by the conditions under which we live? preordained and independent of our own actions. This belief may lead to a
Personality is not the only topic affected by this issue. Controversy also exists passive, resigned personality type, accepting of whatever comes one’s way
about the question of intelligence: Is intelligence affected more by genetic and not motivated to take action to change. Contrast this with a view more
endowment (nature) or by the stimulation provided by home and school typical of U.S. culture that emphasizes free choice and action, and the role of
settings (nurture)? personal effort and initiative in engendering personal success or failure.
As with the free will–determinism issue, the alternatives are not limited to Research shows substantial cultural differences between East and West in
extreme positions. Many theorists assume that personality is shaped by both this notion of fate attribution or destiny (Norenzayan & Lee, 2010). However,
sets of forces. To some, inheritance is the predominant influence and there is also evidence that as Eastern cultures such as China modernize and
environment of minor importance; others hold the opposite view. thus become more Westernized, that cultural belief is reduced (Wong, Shaw,
Are We Dependent or Independent of Our Past? & Ng, 2010).

A third issue involves the relative importance of past events, such as our early There may also be cultural differences in the extent of the use of information
childhood experiences, compared with events that occur later in life. Which is technology. A study comparing Chinese and American children (average age
the more powerful shaper of personality? If we assume, as some theorists do, 12) with access to computers found that the American children used
that what happens to us in infancy and childhood is critical to personality computers more and spent more time on the Internet than Chinese children
formation, we must consequently believe that our later development is little (Jackson et al., 2008). U.S. college students were found to be more likely to

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
post personal information about substance abuse and sexual behavior on between European cultures, such as Spain and the Netherlands. A
social networking sites than college students in Germany (Karl, Peluchette, & comparison using a self-report inventory of people in these countries
Schlaegel, 2010). confirmed earlier findings. The Spanish people were more concerned with
matters of honor and family-related values, such as family security, respect for
Large-scale cultural differences in brain activity and genetic makeup have parents, and recognition from others. In contrast, the Dutch people scored
been demonstrated in the relatively new field of cultural neuroscience (Azar, higher on individualistic values such as ambition, capability, and
2010). Using measures of brain wave activity, researchers found differences independence (Rodriguez-Mosquera, Manstead, & Fischer, 2000).
in brain function between people in Eastern and Western cultures when
responding to the same stimuli (Park & Huang, 2010). One study found brain Nordic cultures such as Norway, Sweden, and Denmark provide an example
wave activity of Japanese and Americans to differ in reaction to the same of yet another type of influence. The cultural concept of Janteloven enjoins
visual stimuli; the differences paralleled each culture’s measured level of people not to place their own interests above those of their community and to
submissiveness or dominance (Freeman, Rule, & Ambady, 2009). show humility in the presence of others. A comparison of college students in
the United States and Norway found that the Americans rated themselves
Consider the impact of the emphasis on individualism in the United States and significantly higher than average on positive personality traits and lower than
on collectivism in Asian countries such as China and Japan, as noted in some average on negative traits than the Norwegian students did. This tendency to
research stud- ies described earlier in this chapter. In an individualistic society, self-enhancement among the U.S. students, which was not found to the same
the life view is on per- sonal freedom, choice, and action. In a collectivist degree among the Norwegian students, appears to be culturally induced,
society, the focus is on group norms and values, group role expectations, and determined by the values taught in the different countries (Silvera & Seger,
other cultural constraints on behavior. People in individualistic cultures have 2004).
shown greater extraversion, self-esteem, happiness (or sub- jective well-
being), optimism about their future, and a belief in their ability to control and Self-enhancement (the belief that our skills and abilities are better than those
direct it. Genetic differences between people in collectivistic versus of other people) is sometimes referred to as the “Lake Wobegon Effect,” after
individualistic cultures have been linked to lower levels of anxiety and the famous Garrison Keillor radio program A Prairie Home Companion. Lake
depression in collectivistic cul- tures and higher levels in individualistic cultures Wobegon is the fictional rural Minnesota community where, as Keillor says,
(Chiao & Blizinsky, 2010). “all the women are strong, all the men are good looking, and all the children
are above average.” It is noteworthy that Lake Wobegon is inhabited by people
College students in the United States scored significantly higher than college whose ancestors immigrated from Norway, home of the concept of Janteloven.
students in Japan on measures of self-efficacy—the feeling of being adequate,
efficient, and com- petent in coping with life and in exerting control over life These basic values help determine our general image of human nature, that
events (Morling, Kitayama, & Miyamoto, 2002). College students in Australia is, the lens through which we perceive, judge, and interact with other people
were found to be significantly more agreeable, conscientious, optimistic, and in our culture. The significance of this discussion is to point out to you that
satisfied with their lives than students in Singa- pore (Wong, Lee, Ang, Oei, & there are many sources of influence on the growth and development of the
Ng, 2009). Other research found differences in subjective well-being between human personality, and diverse ways of explaining its nature. Perhaps one or
Asian-American students and European-American students at the same more of the explanations we describe in this book will be congenial to you, or
university in the United States. The European-American students attained perhaps they will clash with your views and your image of human nature. Few
their feeling of well-being by pursuing goals for the purpose of personal of us can approach this topic without preconceptions because it is, after all,
satisfaction. The Asian-American students seemed to “attain and maintain the study of ourselves.
their well-being by achieving goals that they pursue to make important others
[such as their parents] happy and [to] meet the expectations of others” (Oishi Chapter Summary
& Diener, 2001, p. 1680). Thus, the motivations and satisfactions of these
Wilhelm Wundt, who used the methods of natural sci- ence to analyze
students and their corresponding images of human nature dif- fered with their
conscious experience into elemental parts, formally founded psychology in
cultural backgrounds. In addition, a comparison of Japanese and Ameri- can
1879. Early in the 20 th century, John B. Watson developed the behav- ioral
college students revealed that the American students were far more likely to
approach to psychology to protest Wundt’s focus on conscious experience.
use positive terms to describe themselves. The Japanese students were more
Watson argued that psycholo- gists should study only overt behavior.
likely to use neg- ative terms (Kanagawa, Cross, & Markus, 2001).
Psychoanalysis, developed by Sigmund Freud, used clinical observation to
The impact on behavior and personality of cultural differences in child-rearing probe the unconscious mind. The formal study of personality began in
prac- tices has also been studied. In the individualistic culture of the United American psychology in the 1930s. Personality can be defined as an enduring,
States, parents tend to be noncoercive, democratic and permissive in their unique cluster of characteristics that may change in different situations.
child-rearing techniques. In collectivist cultures in predominantly Arab Differences in gender, ethnicity, and cultural background can influence
societies, parental practices tend to be more authoritarian, restrictive, and personality development. Interest in cross-cultural psychology dates from the
controlling. 1960s. The Internet shapes and reflects personality pri- marily through social
networking sites such as Facebook. Techniques for assessing or measuring
Studies of adolescents in several Arab countries showed that they felt a personality must be reliable (defined as the consistency of responses on a
greater con- nection with their parents than did American adolescents. The test) and valid (the degree to which the test measures what it is intended to
researchers noted that Arab adolescents. Follow their parents’ directions in all measure). The resulting assessment of personality can be influ- enced by the
areas of life, such as social behavior, interpersonal rela- tionships, marriage, subject’s gender and ethnic identity and by the test administrator’s attitudes
occupational preference, and political attitudes…. They do not feel that they and beliefs.
suffer from their [parents’] authoritarian style and are even satisfied with this
way of life. (Dwairy, Achoui, Abouserie, & Farah, 2006, p. 264). Self-report inventories, in which people report on their own behavior and
feelings in various situations, are objective in that scores are not influenced by
The study concluded that these authoritarian parental practices did not per- sonal or theoretical biases. Most self-report inventories can be
adversely affect the mental health and emotional well-being of the Arab administered online. Projective techniques attempt to probe the unconscious
teenagers as they would in more liberal Western cultures. by having people project their needs, fears, and values into their interpre-
tation of ambiguous figures or situations. Projective techniques are subjective,
Chinese mothers living in Canada were found to be more authoritarian in
low in reliability and validity, and usually poorly standardized.
raising their children than non-Chinese mothers in Canada (Liu & Guo, 2009).
Turkish mothers living in Germany who were more assimilated into the Clinical interviews are used to assess personality, but the interpretation of
German culture emphasized indi- vidualistic goals for their children much more interview results is subjective. In Behavioral assessment, an observer
than Turkish mothers who were not so assimilated (Durgel, Leyendecker, evaluates a subject’s responses in specific situations. In thought and experi-
Yagmurlu, & Harwood, 2009). Clearly, these differ- ences in child-rearing ence sampling, people record their thoughts, feelings, and experiences over a
practices and their resulting values will help determine a person’s image of period of time.
human nature.
People from collectivist societies, such as Asian countries, tend to score lower
We have seen that the impact of cultural forces is significant and even applies on factors such as self- enhancement and higher on pessimism, negative
to cultures that might appear similar and homogeneous. One might reasonably affectivity, and psychological distress than people from more individualistic
expect differences between Eastern cultures such as Japan and Western societies such as the United States. Studies of the responses of Blacks and
cultures such as the United States. But differences have also been reported Whites on the MMPI reveal no significant differences as a function of race.

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Chapter 1: Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory
Hispanics tend to obtain scores similar to those of Whites on the MMPI but not
on projective techniques. Translations of personality tests must take into
account the nature of other cultures with regard to the ques- tions that may be
asked, the translated wording, and the way in which the questions are to be
answered.

Psychological research methods include the clinical, experimental, virtual, and

correlational approaches. Research requires objective observation, controlled
and systematic conditions, and duplication and verifi- ability. The clinical
method relies on case studies, in which psychologists reconstruct patients’
lives to find clues to their present emotional problems. The clinical approach
does not satisfy the requirements of psycho- logical research as well as the
experimental and correlational methods do.

The experimental method Is the most precise research method. Using this
method, psychologists can determine the effect of a single variable or stimulus
on the subjects’ behavior. The variable being studied (that is, the stimulus to
which the subjects are exposed) is the independent variable; the subjects’
responses or behavior is the dependent variable. Internet research offers a
faster and less expensive alternative as well as access to a broader range of
subjects. Online research has limitations but studies show that it produces
results similar to those of laboratory research. In the correlational method,
psychologists study the relationship between two variables to determine how
behavior on one variable changes as a function of the other. The correlation
coefficient, the primary statistical measure of correlation, indicates the
direction and intensity of the relationship.

A theory provides a framework for simplifying and describing data in a

meaningful way. Personality theories must be testable, must clarify and
explain the data of personality, and must be useful in understanding and
predicting behavior. Formal theories are based on data from observation of
large numbers and diverse kinds of people. These theories are objective and
are repeatedly tested against reality. Some personality theories may be partly
autobiographical, reflecting a theorist’s life experiences. The first stage in
theory construction may be intuitive; ideas based on intuition may later be
modified by rational and empirical knowledge.

Personality theorists present different images of human nature. Some of the

issues on which they differ are: free will versus determinism, nature versus
nurture, the importance of the past versus the present, unique- ness versus
universality, equilibrium versus growth, and optimism versus pessimism.
Cultural factors such as child-rearing practices can lead to different images of
human nature.

- S.A.M 13