INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SOLUTIONS

INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTERS

TRAINING NOTES
Introduction to Computers

In the Beginning, Prior to Computers…

As long as people have needed to count and calculate sums, they have been
inventing tools to help make these things easier and faster. Today’s powerful
computers can do ‘number crunching’ at lightening speed. What are some of
their ancestors?

Abacus: To help with arithmetic, beads are slid along parallel rods. This is one of
the oldest methods of carrying out calculations.

Early Calculators: Like the abacus, calculations were done by hand using a
system of interlocking cogs and pulley.

What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronics device operating under the control of instructions

stored in its own memory unit, accepts and stores data, performs arithmetic and
logical operations on that data (without human intervention) and produces
output.

Types of Computers

These are the present day computers given in the order of the most expensive to
the least expensive.

Super Computers: these are very expensive, very fast, and the most powerful
computers in the world. They are quite rare as they are mainly used in scientific
research stations i.e. nuclear stations and weather forecasting stations.

Mainframes: they are large and very powerful computers. They can serve
hundreds of people and do many jobs at the same time.

Mini-Computers: these are smaller and less powerful than mainframes.

Several people can also use them from different locations at the same time.

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Laptops, (Palmtops, Notebooks): an

extremely lightweight personal
computer. Notebook computers typically
weigh less than 3 kilograms and are
small enough to fit easily in a briefcase
and therefore easy to carry.
Laptop

Microcomputers (Personal Computers): these are made to fit on desktop for an

individual person’s use. Portable computers are powered by rechargeable batteries
and are smaller than desktop PCs. They range in size and can be called laptops,
Notebooks and Sub-notebooks. Palmtops are the smallest PCs and are only about
the size of a calculator.

An example of a Microcomputer

Advantages of Computers

Accurate – This is because written down instructions are followed when performing
a task.

Flexible – Can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined

procedure.

Efficient – Can tackle huge volumes of data effectively.

Available/Reliable – Its always available for duties, never gets bored because of
repetitive jobs.

Compact Storage – Saves a lot of space in terms of document storage and number
clerical staff.

Privacy – Most of the computer records are stored in invisible form.

Simple/Fast – Simplifies problems solving by using programs designed for the

purpose thereby saving a lot of time.

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Entertainment/Games – Offers wide range of computer games as well as interactive
TV and Radio.

Disadvantages of Computers

Cost – The initial cost of installation is very high.

Technology – Due to fast changes in technology there is no guarantee that already

bought machines could become obsolete in a couple of months.

Maintenance – The cost of maintenance is also high.

Social unrest – They need special training of staff and at times cause redundancy.

Components of a Computer

A computer can be thought of as having four main parts or elements.

The Input Devices i.e. keyboards for entering data and instructions.

The Processing Unit that processes the data.

The Storage Unit where information is stored for later use.

The Output Devices that output the results of the processing.

This can be shown diagrammatically as follows:

INPUT CENTRAL PROCESSING OUTPUT

UNIT

STORAGE

The arrows show the direction of flow of information.

1. Input Devices

Input devices are used to communicate with a computer. They offer an interface
between the user and the computer. They also let users enter information and
issue commands.

Examples include:
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Keyboard

Various keys on the keyboard let you enter information into a computer.

Mouse

A mouse is a hand-held device that lets you select and move items on your screen.
A mouse can come in various shapes, colors and sizes.

Joystick

Helps in controlling movement of people

and objects in many games. Used for
arcade type computer games because
they let you move quickly and
accurately in any direction. Game
controller & Joystick

Scanner

A device that reads graphics and text

into a computer. The resolution of the
scanner determines the amount of
detail a scanner can detect. Scanner
resolution is measured in dots per
inch (dpi). Color
Flatbed Scanner

Point of Sale (POS) Terminals

Used in retail or wholesale organizations e.g. supermarkets to serve customers.

Plastic Cards

Used as a means of identification especially by banks (as credit or debit cards) and
post offices e.g. phone cards.

Smart Card

This is a credit card with a built-in microprocessor and memory used for
identification or financial transactions. More secure than plastic cards and can be
programmed to self-destruct if the wrong password is entered too many times.

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Cash Dispensers (Automated Teller Machines – ATM)

Mainly used by banks. Customer or User is provided with a plastic emborsed card
with information encoded on a magnetic strip.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

This technology is mainly used by banks. Characters are printed in ink that can be
magnetized so that after being subjected to a magnetic field, they can be read and
decoded automatically. Read using a device called Magnetic Ink Character Reader
(MICR).

Others include:

Microphones – for voice recording and editing by the computer.

Optical Mark Readers – frequently used in forms, questionnaires and answer

sheets.

Tracker Ball – used on modern portable computers, where there may be no space
on which to use a mouse.

Touch Pad – stationary pointing device used mainly on laptop computers. Provide a
small, flat surface that you slide your finger over using the same movements as you
would use a mouse.

Touch Screen – an input device that allows user to interact with the computer by
touching the display screen. Often this uses beams of infrared light that are
projected across the screen surface.

Light Pen – a light-sensitive stylus wired to a video terminal used to draw pictures
or select menu options. Provide a very precise pointing capability directly on the
screen.

2. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the main chip in a computer. It is housed inside the System Unit. It
processes instructions, performs calculations and manages the flow on information
through a computer system. It communicates with the input, output and storage
devices to perform tasks. The CPU is also called the microprocessor or processor.
There are several factors that determine the performance of a CPU.

Manufacturer
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CPUs for personal computers are made by companies such as Intel, AMD, Cyrix
and Motorola. Intel chips are the most popular.

Generation

Each new generation of CPU’s is more powerful than the one before. Newer CPU’s
can process more instructions at a time. CPU generations include the 486, Pentium
(586) and Pentium Pro (686). The older 386 and 486 generations are now obsolete
as they are not Y2K compliant.

Speed

Each CPU generation is available in several speeds. The CPU speed is a major
factor in determining how fast a computer operates. The faster the speed, the
faster the computer operates. The speed of the CPU is measured in megahertz
(MHz) or millions of cycles per second.

Note:

When buying a new computer do not consider anything less than a Pentium chip.

You can increase the processing power of a computer by replacing the CPU chip
with a new one i.e. only if they are compatible.

3. The Storage Unit

Storage refers to the semi-permanent or permanent holding place for digital data.
There are two kinds of storage in computers:

Primary or Main Storage

Secondary or Backing Storage

Primary storage stores data temporarily while secondary storage stores data
permanently. An example is the Computer Memory. Examples of secondary storage
are hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM e.t.c.

Bytes are used to measure the amount of information a device can store. One byte
is one character. A character can be a number, letter or symbol. One byte consists
of eight bits (binary digits). A bit is the smallest unit of information a computer can
process.

Kilobyte (K) – is equal to 1,024 bytes.

Megabyte (MB) – is equal to 1,048,576 bytes.

Gigabyte (GB) – is equal to 1,073,741,824 bytes.

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i) Primary (Main Storage)

This kind of storage is referred to as Random Access Memory (RAM)

It is used for temporary storage of data and instructions

Instructions are stored in the main memory and can be fetched from it. The
process of storing information in main memory is normally referred to as writing.
The process of getting instructions is normally referred to as reading. Therefore
RAM is a read/write memory.

It is volatile memory i.e. it retains information so long as power is on. When power
is turned off all the information in RAM is lost. This is why you always have to save
your work on disk as the data storage on dist does not depend on availability of
power. RAM allows performance to be optimum.

Cache Memory

This is a new development where a small and extremely fast “cache” memory is
use.

This memory is connected directly to the CPU.

Provides the fastest way for the computer to get data.

The memory cache is constantly updated i.e. it always contains the most recently

used data and programs.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is permanent and cannot be changed i.e. it is non-volatile memory.

ROM stores the instructions that help prepare the computer for use each time you
turn on the computer.

Program instructions are permanently “burnt in” at the manufacturing stage.

Computer reads these instructions and cannot save any information in this type of
memory.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

The user can “burn in” data as required i.e. you are allowed to write in your data-
once.

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Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

Similar to PROM but the “burning in” process is reversible. Erased by exposure to
Ultra-violet light. This means that you can write data into this type of disk and
erase this data whey you need to write some other data to it.

Notes:

Amount of memory determines the number of programs a computer can run at

once and how fast programs will operate.

Memory is measured in bytes. A computer with at least 64-MB of memory is

recommended.

You can improve the performance of a computer by adding more memory.

ii) Secondary (Backing Storage)

The common secondary storage devices are hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, tape
drive and CD-ROM drives.

Hard Drive, (Hard Disk), (Fixed Disk Drive)

It is the main device the computer uses to store

information.

Most computers have one hard drive, located inside

the System Unit. If its one drive it is called drive C.
If there are additional drives they are assigned the
subsequent letters i.e. D, E e.t.c.

The hard drive magnetically stores data on a stack

of rotating disks called platters.

A hard drive has read/write heads on each platter

Hard Disk without the cover that read and record data on the disks.

Floppy Drive

Stores and retrieves information on Back up data

floppy disks. The most common types
of floppy disks are 31/2 or 51/4 inch Increase space in the hard drive
floppy disks. They are usually used to:

Install new programs

Transfer data
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Floppy Disk Drive and a Diskette

Note:

Back up is the process where a copy of a file, folder, or volume is stored on a

separate storage device from the original, for the purpose of retrieval in case the
original is accidentally erased, damaged, or destroyed.

Protecting a Floppy Disk:

You can prevent erasing and recording information on a diskette by sliding the tab
to the write-protected position.

Keep diskettes away from magnets as they can damage the information stored.

Do not store in extremely hot or cold conditions.

Do not spill liquids such as coffee of soda on the disks.

CD-ROM Drive

Reads information stored on a compact disks (CD).

CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory. Read Only means that you
cannot change the information stored on a disk.

A single CD-ROM disk can store more than 600 MB of data. This is equivalent to
over 600 floppy diskettes.

Advantages of a CD

The large storage capacity makes installing new programs on the computer easier.

It can store multi media presentations.

You can play music on the drive while you work.

There are thousands of educational titles, games and encyclopedias on CD-ROM

disks.

Handling a CD-ROM Disk

When handling a CD-ROM disk, hold the disk around the edges.

Always place the disk back in its protective case.

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Do not stack disks on top of each other.

Do not remove the disk or move the computer when the light on the CD-ROM drive
in on.

Factors to consider when choosing a CD-ROM

Speed – Its also called the data transfer rate. The speed of the CD-ROM determines
how fast a disc spins. With faster speeds, a disk can transfer information to the
computer more quickly, which results in better performance. The available speeds
are:

Single (1X) 150 Kb/s

Double (2X) 300 Kb/s

Triple (3X) 450 Kb/s

Quad (4X) 600 Kb/s

Six (6X) 900 Kb/s

Eight (8X) 1,200 Kb/s

Average Access Time – the average access time indicates how quickly a CD-ROM
drive can find information stored on a disk.

DVD-ROM Drive

A Digital Video Disk-ROM (DVD-ROM) drive is similar to a CD-ROM drive. A DVD-

ROM disk has a storage capacity starting as 4.7 gigabytes, which equals over six
CD-ROM disks. It can hold a two-hour full screen movie with better quality than an
ordinary VHS tape. A DVD-ROM drive is able to read CD-ROM disks.

Zip Disk

A zip disk holds 100MB and suitable for backup, mass storage or for moving files
between computers. The drive is bundled with software that can catalog the disks
and lock files for security.

Tape Drive

It is a device tat copies the files stored on a The most common

computer onto tape cartridges similar to applications for tape drives
audiocassettes. Also called tape backup units. are:
Can be inside the system unit or connected to
the computer by a cable. - To back up data.
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- To archive data, old or rarely used files.

- To transfer data, large amounts of information

between computers.

Tape Drive and a Tape /Cassette

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Storage capacity of drives

Type of Drive Capacity

Hard disk 10 GB – 120 GB

Floppy (31/2) – Double Density 720 KB

Floppy (31/2) - High Density 1.44 MB

CD – ROM Approx. 1 GB

Zip drive > 1 GB

DVD-ROM 4.7 GB

Tape Drive 4 – 10 GB

Data access times

For a drive to read data from a disk, the read/write head must move in or out
to align with the correct track. Then it must wait until the correct sector
approaches the head. The time it takes to do both these things is called the
disk or data access time. Floppy disks rotate more slowly than hard disks i.e.
only six revolutions per second. Therefore floppy disks and CD-ROMs have
longer access times than hard disks.

4. Output Devices

They let the computer communicate with the user. Once information has
been input within the computer it is in electronic form. This is in a form that
can be handled and understood only by the computer. But the information is
in a form that human beings cannot understand. The information will
therefore need to be converted into a form that is understood by the human
being. This is mostly done in two ways.

By printing out the information.

by displaying the information on the Visual Display Unit (VDU)

If you are using a machine with multimedia, you can have sound as an
output. The sound emitted on speakers.

Peripheral devices are additional devices that can be connected to increase

the functionality of the PC.

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i) Visual Display Unit (Monitor), (Screen)

There are several types of monitors in use today. They come in color or
monochrome (one color). They are referred to as monochrome as the text
they display is not always white. The other difference in screens are their
sizes.

Resolution

Determines the amount of information a monitor can display. Measured by

the number of horizontal and vertical pixels. A pixel is the smallest element
of the screen. Pixel is short for picture element (the size of dots used to
make up characters and graphics). Lower resolutions display larger images
so you can see information more clearly.

Video Card

The video card is a circuit board that plugs into an expansion slot inside the
computer. The video card does the following:

It translates instructions from the computer to a form the monitor can

understand.

It determines the number of colors a monitor can display. The more colors
displayed, the more realistic the resulting images.

A video card is also called a video adapter, graphics adapter or graphics

card.

Types of Video Cards Available

VGA (Video Graphics Adapter or Video Graphics Array)

The monitors display 16 colors at a resolution of 640 x 480. This is the

minimum standard for computers systems.

SVGA (Super Video Graphics Adapter/Array)

These monitors display more colors and higher resolutions than VGA
monitors. Most new computer systems offer SVGA. The colors offered by
SVGA are 256 colors, High color, and True color. This setting is called True
Color because it displays more colors than the human eye can distinguish.

Dot Pitch

The dot pitch is the distance between tiny dots on a screen. The dot pitch
determines the sharpness of images on the screen. The smaller the dot pitch,
the crisper the images.

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ii) Printers

Printers are the main output devices used to produce paper copies (hard-
copies) of the information on the screen. You can buy a printer that produces
black-and-white or color images.

The following characteristics are used to classify printers:

Speed

Print quality

Cost

Printers can also be classified according to how they print. That is whether
they are Impact or Non-Impact printers.

Laser Cartridges
Ribbon Cartridge Toner Cartridge

Impact Printers

This kind of printer “physically strikes” the paper through an inked ribbon to
produce the desired output, just like a typewriter does. They print one
character at a time and are used for low volume printing jobs. The printers
in this category include Dot-matrix printers and Daisy-wheel printers. Other
less common types are Drum printers and Chain/band printers.

Dot Matrix Printers

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 Is the least expensive type of printer. This
type of printer works by impact.
Characters printed by dot-matrix printers
appear to be composed of a combination
of dots. Such printers are mainly used to
print internal documents. They are faster
than daisy wheels but do not have a good
print quality. They are also loud.

Daisy Wheel Printers

It resembles a typewriter. Characters are embossed on a radiating spoke of a

plastic “daisy wheel”. When printing the “daisy wheel” rotates until the
selected character is in position and is then struck by a hammer. Daisy
wheel printers usually give a better quality of print but are more expensive
than dot matrix printers. For this reason they are used for external
documents.

Non-Impact Printers

These include Thermal printers, Ink-jet printers and Laser printers.

Thermal Printers

These are character matrix printers which print onto special paper using a
heated print head. As the paper passes through the printer, heat is
generated by rods that melt small dots of ink on to the paper. By selective
heating of rods, characters can be formed from the matrix. They produce
high quality color images.

Ink-Jet Printers

An Ink-jet printer has a print head that sprays ink through small holes onto a
page. They produce good quality copies and are much slower than laser but
can print in color at much lower cost. They are very quiet and are ideal for
routine business and personal documents. Though affordable and quite
popular ink jet printers do not provide the color quality or text resolution of
color laser printers.

Laser Printers

A laser printer works like a photocopier to produce high-quality images on a

page. The image to be printed (text or graphic) is exposed to a high-powered

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laser beam. The exposed image is then “developed” on a rotating drum,
which is inked by the toner (roughly equivalent to the ribbon cartridge). The
developed image is then “printed” on paper as it passes over the drum. They
are fast and ideal for business and personal documents however they are
expensive. Color laser printers are considerably slower than monochrome
lasers, in terms of the pages per minute (ppm) that they can handle.

Plotters

A plotter is a graphics printer that draws images with ink pens. The plotter
was the first computer output device that could print graphics as well as
accommodate full-size engineering and architectural drawings and is
therefore an appropriate output from a CAD (Computer-Aided design)
package. Pen plotters are still the most affordable printing device for CAD
use and offer resolution unlike any other printer. The lines are not made up
of dots. They are actually drawn, providing finite resolution. We have drum
and flatbed plotters.

iii) Speakers

A sound card lets a computer play and record high quality sound. It is a
circuit board that plugs into an expansion slot in the computer. A sound card
is also called a soundboard or audio card. You need speakers to hear sound
generated by a sound card. The best speakers have built-in amplifiers, which
should be between 10 and 30 watts.

Benefits of having a sound card and speakers

A sound card lets you hear music, speech and sound effects during games
and multimedia presentations

You can use a sound card to record music, speech and sound effects. You can
then add the sounds to documents and presentations. You can also use a
sound card to compose music on your computer.

You can use a computer to have conversation over the internet.

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 Software

These are programs with their associated documentation that are found on a
computer system. They facilitate the use of a computer (hardware) by the
user installation.

Software extends the capabilities of the computer and is therefore critical to

the effectiveness of the computer as hardware.

SOFTWARE

SYSTEM SOFTWARE APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Language Operating Application User System

Translators System Packages

Interpreters Single User & Spreadsheets Programming

compilers Multi user O/S Languages
Word Processors
Assemblers
Accounting Packages
Graphics Packages
Database Management Packages
Computer Aided Design
Computer Aided Manufacture

System Software

These are programs that control the various hardware parts and make them
available to the user. They also control the various programs that we use to
achieve a particular kind of work i.e. application software. Within the set of
system software for a given computer there is usually a program or a suite of
programs that are called the operating systems.

The O/S controls the performance of the computer by doing a variety of jobs
to ensure the proper, orderly and efficient use of hardware by application
programs.

Most application programs can only work in conjunction with the operating
systems.

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Some extend the capabilities of the O/S further e.g. by providing programs
that monitor how efficiently the hardware is being utilized by the software.

Some of them allow the resource of a single computer to be utilized by

multiple users, each with his/her terminal to communicate with a central
computer. In this way each of them appears to have the computer to
themselves.

Examples of system software include: Windows 95, Windows 98, Unix, MS-
DOS, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows Me, Windows XP, Be Os,
Mackintosh, Solaris, Linux

Application Software

This is the software in a computer we use to type letters, do calculations,

draw pictures etc. as the name suggests, this type of software is limited by
application. The software we use for drawing cannot be used for out
calculations and vice versa. We must be clear about what we want to do
before we choose the application software to use.

A computer can function without application software but one will not be
able to do much with it. The type of software one needs depends on the kind
of work that needs to be done.

Application software can be further classified as follows

Word-Processors – a word processor is an application that enables us to use

textual data and perform tasks of typing nature. Examples include Microsoft
word, WordPerfect, Lotus WordPro etc.

Features of a Word Processor

You can create tables to organize information. You can also add colors and
borders to enhance the appearance of a table.

You can create documents such as letters, reports, manuals, newsletters and
brochures. You can style the document or add pictures to make them
attractive.

You can quickly produce personalized letters, envelopes and mailing labels
for each person in a mailing list using a feature called ‘merge’.

Spreadsheets – a spreadsheet application lets you enter predominantly

numerical data. This package is also suitable for accounts oriented work
since it has built in formulas that enable users to perform complex
calculations. Financial projections are difficult without the help of a
spreadsheet application. Examples include Microsoft Word, Lotus, Quattro
Pro, Vici Calc etc.

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Features of a Spreadsheet

You can use a spreadsheet program to perform calculations, analyze data

and present information.

You can be able to create charts that let you display the data in a
spreadsheet for easy analysis.

Databases – a database tool that is used to store large volumes of data in a

compact and well organized manner. Consequently, retrieval of part of that
data and consolidating parts of that data to produce reports is simplified.
Examples include Microsoft Access, Fox Pro, Dbase, Oracle etc.

Features of a Database

You can use the database program to keep large collections of information
organized and up-to-date.

You can use the information in the database to create reports and
presentations.

You can locate specific information in a database. i.e. searching for the name
of a particular employee.

Graphics Software – a graphics package is designed to help the user produce

artistic presentations e.g. company logos, brochures, business cards,
letterheads, complimentary slips etc. because graphics programs
incorporate many of the features that were traditionally done by professional
publishers, using these programs is referred to as ‘desktop publishing’.

Features of Graphics Software

You can enter text directly into a desktop publishing document. You can also
add text into a word processor and then place the text into the document.
Graphics can also be created in a separate program then incorporated into a
desktop publishing program.

You can use a scanner (a device that reads text and images into a computer)
to copy images, such as photographs and drawings, into a desktop
publishing document.

A DTP gives you control over the graphics in a document i.e. you can move
(change the position of a graphic on a page), size (make a graphic larger or
smaller), rotate (turn or spin a graphic) and crop (trim part of a graphic).

Presentation Tools – presentation programs let you design or create slides to

be used in presentations. Examples include PowerPoint, Harvard Graphics
and Freelance Graphics.

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Features of a Presentation Tools

You can create slides, which can be used in a slide show.

You can also incorporate ClipArt (already made graphics you can add to your
presentation) pictures in a slide.

You can draw maps and decorate them to your satisfaction using the
drawing tools available.

The list on Application Programs is endless as different users have different

preferences and needs. Others not mentioned might include: - Accounting
Software, Computer Aided Design, Project Management Software, Web
Design etc.

Hardware
The hardware are the parts of computer itself including the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) and related microchips and micro-circuitry, keyboards, monitors,
case and drives (floppy, hard, CD, DVD, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts
called peripheral components or devices include mouse, printers, modems,
scanners, digital cameras and cards (sound, colour, video) etc... Together they
are often referred to as a personal computers or PCs.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) - Though the term relates to a specific chip or the
processor a CPU's performance is determined by the the rest of the computers
circuitry and chips.
Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel, is the most common CPU
though there are many other companies that produce processors for personal
computers. One example is the CPU made by Motorola which is used in Apple
computers.

With faster processors the clock speed becomes more important. Compared to
some of the first computers which operated at below 30 megahertz (MHz) the
Pentium chips began at 75 MHz in the late 1990's. As of mid 2003 speeds now
exceed 3000+ MHz or 3 gigahertz (GHz) (check your local computer store for the
latest speed). It depends on the circuit board that the chip is housed in, or the
motherboard, as to whether you are able to upgrade to a faster chip. The
motherboard contains the circuitry and connections that allow the various
component to communicate with each other.

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Though there were many computers using many different processors previous to
this I call the 80286 processor the advent of home computers as these were the
processors that made computers available for the average person. Using a
processor before the 286 involved learning a proprietary system and software. Most
new software are being developed for the newest and fastest processors so it can be
difficult to use an older computer system.
Keyboard - The keyboard is used to type information into the computer or input
information. There are many different keyboard layouts and sizes with the most
common for Latin based languages being the QWERTY layout (named for the first 6
keys). The standard keyboard has 101 keys. Notebooks have embedded keys
accessible by special keys or by pressing key combinations (CTRL or Command and
P for example). Ergonomically designed keyboards are designed to make typing
easier.
Some of the keys have a special use. There are referred to as command keys. The
3 most common are the Control or CTRL, Alternate or Alt and the Shift keys though
there can be more (the Windows key for example or the Command key). Each key
on a standard keyboard has one or two characters. Press the key to get the lower
character and hold Shift to get the upper.
Disk Drives - All disks need a drive to get information off - or read - and put
information on the disk - or write. Each drive is designed for a specific type of disk
whether it is a CD, DVD, hard disk or floppy. Often the term 'disk' and 'drive' are
used to describe the same thing but it helps to understand that the disk is the
storage device which contains computer files - or software - and the drive is the
mechanism that runs the disk.

Mouse - Most modern computers today are run using a mouse

controlled pointer. Generally if the mouse has two buttons the left
one is used to select objects and text and the right one is used to
access menus. If the mouse has one button (Mac for instance) it
controls all the activity and a mouse with a third buttons can be
used by specific software programs.
One type of mouse has a round ball under the bottom of the mouse
that rolls and turns two wheels which control the direction of the
pointer on the screen. Another type of mouse uses an optical system to track the
movement of the mouse.

Note: It is important to clean the mouse periodically, particularly if it

becomes sluggish. A ball type mouse has a small circular panel that
can be opened, allowing you to remove the ball. Lint can be remove
carefully with a tooth pick or tweezers and the ball can be washed with
mild detergent. A build up will accumulate on the small wheels in the
mouse. Use a small instrument or finger nail to scrap it off taking care
not to scratch the wheels. Track balls can be cleaned much like a
mouse and touch-pad can be wiped with a clean, damp cloth. An
optical mouse can accumulate material from the surface that it is in
contact with which can be removed with a finger nail or small
instrument.

Monitors - The monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is
called outputting information. When the computer needs more information it will
display a message on the screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in
many types and sizes from the simple monochrome (one colour) screen to full
colour screens.

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 22

Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube and most notebooks
use a liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor.
To get the full benefit of today's software with full colour graphics and animation,
computers need a color monitor with a display or graphics card.
Printers - The printer takes the information on your screen and transfers it to
paper or a hard copy. There are many different types of printers with various levels
of quality. The three basic types of printer are; dot matrix, inkjet, and laser.
 Dot matrix printers work like a typewriter transferring ink from a ribbon to
paper with a series or 'matrix' of tiny pins.
 Ink jet printers work like dot matrix printers but fires a stream of ink from a
cartridge directly onto the paper.
 Laser printers use the same technology as a photocopier using heat to
transfer toner onto paper.

Modem - A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone

lines or cable.
The term stands for modulate and demodulate which changes the signal from
digital, which computers use, to analog, which telephones use and then back
again. A high speed connection also requires a modem but because the information
is transferred digitally it isn't required to change the signal from digital to analog
but is used to create the connection between your computer and the computer you
are connecting with.
Modems are measured by the speed that the information is transferred. The
measuring tool is called the baud rate. Originally modems worked at speeds below
2400 baud but today analog speeds of 56,000 are common. Cable, wireless or
digital subscriber lines (DSL) modems can transfer information much faster with
rates of 300,000 baud and up.
Modems also use Error Correction which corrects for transmission errors by
constantly checking whether the information was received properly or not and
Compression which allows for faster data transfer rates. Information is transferred
in packets. Each packet is checked for errors and is re-sent if there is an error.
Anyone who has used the Internet has noticed that at times the information travels
at different speeds. Depending on the amount of information that is being
transferred the information will arrive it's destination at different times. The
amount of information that can travel through a line is limited. This limit is called
bandwidth.
There are many more variables involved in communication technology using
computers, much of which is covered in the section on the Internet.
Scanners- Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your
computer. A scanner 'scans' the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time
and transfers it to the computer as a series of bits or a bitmap. You can then take
that image and use it in a paint program, send it out as a fax or print it. With
optional Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software you can convert printed
documents such as newspaper articles to text that can be used in your word
processor. Most scanners use TWAIN software that makes the scanner accessable
by other software applications.
Digital cameras allow you to take digital photographs. The images are stored on a
memory chip or disk that can be transferred to your computer. Some cameras can
also capture sound and video.
Case - The case houses the microchips and circuitry that run the computer.
Desktop models usually sit under the monitor and tower models beside. They come
in many sizes, including desktop, mini, midi, and full tower. There is usually room
inside to expand or add components at a later time. By removing the cover off the

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 23

case you will may find plate covered, empty slots that allow you to add cards. There
are various types of slots including IDE, ASI, USB, PCI and Firewire slots.
Notebook computers may have room to expand depending on the type of computer.
Most Notebooks also have connections or ports that allows expansion or connection
to exterior, peripheral devices such as monitor, portable hard-drives or other
devices.
Cards - Cards are components added to computers to increase their capability.
When adding a peripheral device make sure that your computer has a slot of the
type needed by the device.

Sound cards allow computers to produce sound like music and voice.
The older sound cards were 8 bit then 16 bit then 32 bit. Though
human ear can't distinguish the fine difference between sounds
produced by the more powerful sound card they allow for more
complex music and music production.

Colour cards allow computers to produce colour (with a colour

monitor of course). The first colour cards were 2 bit which produced 4
colours [CGA]. It was amazing what could be done with those 4
colours. Next came 4 bit allowing for 16 [EGA and VGA ] colours Then
came 16 bit allowing for 1064 colours and then 24 bit which allows for
almost 17 million colours and now 32 bit is standard
allowing monitors to display almost a billion separate
colours.

Video cards allow computers to display video and

animation. Some video cards allow computers to display
television as well as capture frames from video. A video
card with a digital video camera allows computers users to produce
live video. A high speed or network connection is needed for effective
video transmission.

Network cards allow computers to connect together to communicate

with each other. Network cards have connections for cable, thin wire
or wireless networks. For more information see the section on
Networks.

Cables connect internal components to the Motherboard, which is a board with

series of electronic path ways and connections allowing the CPU to communicate
with the other components of the computer.
Memory - Memory can be very confusing but is usually one of the easiest pieces of
hardware to add to your computer. It is common to confuse chip memory with
disk storage. An example of the difference between memory and storage would be
the difference between a table where the actual work is done (memory) and and a
filing cabinet where the finished product is stored (disk). To add a bit more
confusion, the computer's hard disk can be used as temporary memory when the
program needs more than the chips can provide.
Random Access Memory or RAM is the memory that the computer uses to
temporarily store the information as it is being processed. The more information
being processed the more RAM the computer needs.
One of the first home computers used 64 kilobytes of RAM memory (Commodore
64). Today's modern computers need a minimum of 64 MB (recommended 128 MB
or more) to run Windows or OS 10 with modern software.

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 24

RAM memory chips come in many different sizes and speeds and can usually be
expanded. Older computers came with 512 KB of memory which could be
expanded to a maximum of 640 KB. In most modern computers the memory can be
expand by adding or replacing the memory chips depending on the processor you
have and the type of memory your computer uses. Memory chips range in size from
1 MB to 512 MB. As computer technology changes the type of memory changes as
well making old memory chips obsolete. Check your computer manual to find out
what kind of memory your computer uses before purchasing new memory chips.

Software
The software is the information that the computer uses to get the job done.
Software needs to be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used
for process of accessing software including running, executing, starting up,
opening, and others.
Computer programs allow users to complete tasks. A program can also be referred
to as an application and the two words are used interchangeably.
Examples of software programs or applications would be the Operating System
(DOS, Windows 9x/Millenium/XP, O/S2, UNIX, MacOS 9.x/10.x and various others),
Wordprocessor (typing letters), Spreadsheet (financial info), Database
(inventory control and address book), Graphics program, Internet Browser,
Email and many others.
As well any document that you create, graphic you design, sound you compose, file
you make, letter you write, email you send or anything that you create on your
computer is referred to as software. All software is stored in files.
Software is stored on a disk or tape whether that disk is a floppy, hard disk, CD,
tape or one of the dozens of other storage devices available.
There are millions of different pieces of software available for almost
every conceivable need. Software is available commercially through
stores and mail order and also available on the Internet. Software is also
available through an Open Source license which allows anyone to use the
Open Source software free of charge as long as the license is maintained.
If you can't find the application that you need software development
companies can custom design software for you.
The largest software companies offer packages of software or suites that include
many of the programs that the average person or business needs. Software
packages or suites contain programs that work together and share information,
making it easier to combine that information in versatile ways. For example when
writing a letter you can get the mailing address from an address book, include a
letterhead from a graphics program and included a financial chart from a
spreadsheet and combine this collection of information in the body of the letter.
The three basic types of software are; commercial, shareware and open
source software. Some software is also release into the public domain without a
license.

Commercial software comes prepackaged and is available from

software stores and through the Internet.

Shareware is software developed by individual and small companies

that cannot afford to market their software world wide or by a
company that wants to release a demonstration version of their
commercial product. You will have an evaluation period in which you

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 25

 can decide whether to purchase the product or not. Shareware
software often is disabled in some way and has a notice attached to
explain the legal requirements for using the product.

Open Source software is created by generous programmers and

released into the public domain for public use. There is usually a
copyright notice that must remain with the software product. Open
Source software is not public domain in that the company or individual
that develops the software retains ownership of the program but the
software can be used freely. Many popular Open Source applications
are being developed and upgraded regularly by individuals and
companies that believe in the Open Source concept.

Operating Systems
All computers need some sort of Operating System (OS). The majority of modern
home computers use some form of Microsoft's operating systems. The original
Microsoft operating system was called DOS (Disk Operating System) though most
computers use Windows. Windows comes in various versions beginning with version
3.x then 95, 98, ME and currently XP. A few computers use IBM's O/S2. Apple's
Mac use their own operating system beginning with OS 1 though most modern
Macs use version 8.x or 9.x. Apple's latest version is OS 10.1.x. In the past large
companies and institutions would have an operating system design exclusively for
them but as the commercial operating systems become more sophisticated the
benefits of this practice is becoming less apparent. Some computer professionals,
Internet Service Providers (ISP) and mainframe computer users use an
operating system such as UNIX (or a variant such as Linux), Windows NT or 2000
(Win2k) or one of the other network or server based operating systems.
There are many smaller operating systems out there. The problem is that software
is currently being developed only for the main operating systems and only the
newest versions of these OS. Many older computers with unique operating systems
have lots of software already developed for them but there is very little new
software being developed for the older computers. The older proprietary operating
systems are less likely to offer technical support than the more modern operating
systems.
The operating system controls the input and output or directs the flow of
information to and from the CPU. Much of this is done automatically by the system
but it is possible to modify and control your system if you need to.
When you turn your computer on it first needs to load the operating system
sometimes referred to a booting up. Basically the computer starts from scratch
every time you turn the power on.
It checks all its components and will usually display a message if there is a problem.
Loading the system is usually automatic.
Once the system is loaded the user can start the application or program that they
are going to use.
Most computer users will run Microsoft Windows, Mac OS or Linux as their
operating system. These OS are Graphic User Interface (GUI) which allows the
user to control or run the computer using a Mouse and Icons. The user simply
moves the mouse on a flat surface, rolls the trackball, or moves their hand over the
touchpad to control a pointer. They then choose the option they want by pressing a
button or touching the pad.

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 26

Without a GUI the user controls the computer using the keys on the keyboard. This
is referred to as a Command Line Interface (CLI)

Disk and Storage

Disks are used to store information. All information on computers are stored in
files. The size of a file is measured in bytes.
A byte is approximately one character (letter 'a', number '1', symbol '?' etc....).
 About a thousand bytes is a kilobyte (KB).
 About a million bytes is a megabyte (MB).
 About a billion bytes is a gigabyte (GB).

A byte is made up of 8 bits. A bit is simply an on or an off signal which passes

through the computers circuitry. Every piece of software can be broken down into a
series of on or off signals or it's Binary Code.

* Editor's Note: I say 'about' because everything in computers must

be divisible by 8 so a kilobyte is actually 1,024 bytes. The reason for
this goes beyond the scoop of an introductory level document but as it
can cause some confusion I thought it should be mentioned.

Floppy disk are still a common way of transporting information (such as bringing
files home from work) but compact disks (CDs) and Digital Video Devices (DVDs)
are becoming more popular. Most software is sold on a CD. Hard disks are the
most common storage device.

Compact disks or CDs can store large amounts of information. One disk will store
650 Mb or about 70 or 80 minutes of music. One type is a CD-ROM which stand for
Compact Disk Read Only Memory. Another type is a CD-RW
which stands for Compact Disk - Read/Write. CD drives can
copy information or burn information on to a blank CD. Common
Read Only CD blanks can only be written to once though more
expensive Read/Write CD's can be used over and over again.
DVD disks can store over 4 gigabytes. DVD recorders allow you
to store large files, such as movies, on a single disk.

Hard disks store the majority of information on today's modern

computer. My first hard disk stored 52 Mb, 12 more than my colleague's 40 Mb.
Today the standard hard disk stores 30 GB or more (this number is constantly
increasing). Like a floppy disk information can be stored and deleted as necessary.
As files get larger the speed that hard disks can read and write become more
important.

Floppy disk or diskette comes in two basic sizes; 5.25 inch (almost obsolete) and
3.5 inch. Both have a low and high density versions though 3.5 inch high density
disks are the most common.

Amount of Approximate printed

Disk size
storage 8.5 x 11 inch pages
5.25 low density 360 Kb 180 pages
3.5 low density 720 Kb 360 pages
5.25 high density 1.2 Mb 600 pages

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 27

3.5 high density 1.44 Mb 720 pages
CD 650 MB a small library
DVD 4.5 GB a feature length movie

There are many other storage devices including tapes, Panasonic's LS120 3.5
inch diskettes, Iomega's Zip & Jazz disks, VCR tape and many others.
Innovation in storage technology is currently advancing rapidly.
Information is stored in an electromagnetic form much like a cassette or video
tape.

Note: Keep disks away from strong electric or magnetic fields including x-
rays. Be aware of high electromagnetic areas in the room such as televisions,
speakers, high tension wires, etc... Use disks only at room temperature and
keep them out of direct sunlight. If possible avoid passing electromagnetic
storage devices through airport x-rays. In theory information stored on a disk
will last indefinitely but the physical storage device will wear out with usage
and time so be sure to back up (copy) your important files to a second disk.

Basic Computer Operations

How Computers Work

Input: Information and programs are entered into the computer through Input
devices such as the keyboard, disks, or through other computers via network
connections or modems connected to the Internet. The input device also retrieves
information off disks.

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 28

Output: Output Devices displays information on the screen (monitor) or the
printer and sends information to other computers. They also display messages
about what errors may have occurred and brings up message or dialog box
asking for more information to be input. The output device also saves information
on the disk for future use.
Processing: The CPU or central processing unit is sometimes called the Control
Unit and directs the operation of the input and output devices. The Coprocessor or
the Arithmetic-Logic Unit does arithmetic and comparisons. The memory or
RAM temporarily stores information (files and programs) while you are using or
working on them. The BIOS or basic input/output system controls the dialogue
between the various devices.

Keyboard Layout and Data Entry

ENTER or RETURN - Moves the cursor down one line and to the left margin. Enter
also process commands such as choosing an option in a dialog (message) boxes and
submitting a form.
DEL or DELETE - Deletes the character at cursor and/or characters to the right of
the cursor and all highlighted (or selected) text.
BKSP or BACKSPACE - Deletes the character to the left of cursor and all
hightlighted text.
SPACE BAR - Moves the cursor one space at a time to the right
SHIFT KEY - Use the shift keys to type capital letters and to type the upper
character on keys with two characters on them
CAPS LOCK - Locks the keyboard so it types capital letters (a light goes on when
caps lock is on)
TAB - Moves the cursor five spaces to the right (number of spaces are usually
adjustable). Tab moves to the next field in a form or table (Shift-Tab for previous
field).
ESC or ESCAPE - Cancels a menu or dialog box
ARROW KEYS - Moves the cursor around document without changing text
FUNCTION KEYS or F KEYS - Access commands by themselves or in combination
with the three command keys; CTRL, SHIFT, and ALT

Command or Special Keys

Command keys normally do nothing on their own but work in combination with
other keys. Each piece of software uses the command keys differently though there
is a move to standardize some functions. The Control key or Ctrl is often used to
access commands. The Alternative key or Alt is often used to access menus. The
Shift key is used to type CAPITAL LETTERS. As well the command keys are all
used to move through documents and edit text faster and easier. As well many

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 29

computers have Special keys design specifically for the particular computer. Apple
computers have the Apple keys and Macs have Command keys. Many keyboards
now have a Windows key specifically for Windows 9x and newer systems. Many
older computers also have special keys used for a variety of different functions.
Some Notebook or Laptop keys are left out because of space limitations and they
usually have a Special function key which allows other keys to double for the
missing ones.

Basic Typing Rules

Place one space between each word, after a punctuation mark and at the end of a
sentence. Always start a sentence with a capital letter. Use capitals for names,
addresses, provinces and countries, places, organizations, businesses, associations,
schools, colleges, universities, days of the week, months, holidays, nationalities,
ethnic groups and languages.
Learning the keyboard is the first step to learning computers. Learning involves
practice. It really is as simple as that. There are two kinds of typing.
The first is called Touch Typing. The Touch Typist uses the Home Keys (asdf for
the left hand and jkl; for the right) and all the fingers on both hands as well as the
thumbs for the Space Bar while typing. There are many commercial and public
domain programs that are designed to teach this method.
The other method is some times called 'Hunt and Peck' or depending on finger
strength 'Search and Destroy'. This involves using one or more fingers on one or
two hands to type. It is a perfectly acceptable way of using a computer and many
people get along fine with this technique.

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 30

Keyboard Symbols
The following chart displays the character symbols, name and Latin-1 number on a standard keyboard in their
approximate position on the keyboard. Most characters from any Roman based language can be created on any
computer using the American Standard Code for Information Interchange or ASCII. Most computers and
software also recognized American National Standards Institute's (ANSI) formatting standards as well. View
the entire ISO Latin -1 Character Set.
(
)
! & Open or _
~ @ # $ % ^ * Close or +
Exclamatio Ampersan Left Underscore or
Tilde At Number Dollar Percent Carat Asterisk Right Plus
n Point d Parenthesi Horizontal Bar
&#126: @ # &#;36 % &#;94 * Parenthesis +
! & s _
)
(
-
` =
Dash or
Acute Equals
Hyphen
` =
-
}
{
Close or
Open or Left
Right Curly
Curly Brace
Brace
&#;123
}
[ ]
Open or Left Close or
Square Right Square
Bracket Bracket
[ ]
|
: "
Or or Vertical
Colon Quote
Bar
: "
|
\
´
; Reverse
Apostrophe or
Semi Colon Solidus or
Single Quote
&#59; Backslash
&#;39
\
< > ?
Less Than Greater Than Question

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 31

 Mark
&#60; &#62;
&#63;
/
.
, Solidus or
Dot, Period or
Comma Forward
Full Stop
&#44; Slash
&#46;
&#47;

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers Page 32

Health and Safety
Health and Safety is crucial to the effective operation of a
computer. Stress is widely accepted as a common and
possibly the most dangerous aspect of using a computer.
It is possible to use a computer safely if a few simple rules
are maintained.
Musculoskelatal problems can occur when improper
office equipment is used. Chairs should be adjustable so
that legs are at a right angle. The back should have good
support for the spine and lower back. The seat should
swivel and be made from fabric that is porous.
Eye strain can be caused by staring at a fix object for extended periods
of time (like a computer). People who use glasses may have to get their
prescriptions changed and people who use bifocals can find that the line
interferes with the screen and trifocals triple the problem. Regular users
of computers may develop focusing problems. Temporary colour
distortion has also been reported.
A safe working environment is crucial. Ventilation is an integral part
of the new technological workplace. Though standards are set by the
manufacturer of computer equipment the modern office has many
different pieces of equipment. All electronic equipment emit some level of
electromagnetic field which, on it's own, most likely isn't a concern but
when combined with other equipment can create hazardous working
environments. Pregnant women should take extra care when working
around electromagnetic fields. Like any piece of equipment, computers
should have scheduled maintenance.
Stress is caused by many things including poor or inadequate training,
monitoring, fear of new technology, lack of control over work, physical
problems, hardware problems causing delays, poor layout of work space
and the myriad of other problems that people experience that combine to
create stressful situations.
Time away from the computer during the work day is crucial! This
gives the body a chance to stretch and gives the eyes a chance to rest.
Breaks should be scheduled and followed with great discipline.
Computers, even more so than television, have a mesmerizing effect on
the user so that it is easy to work right through breaks without noticing.
There are many other issues to be discussed around computer health and
safety but it is important to understand that there are problems and
solutions to those problems that the user, administrator and manager
must address.

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers

Page 33
Using Software
As stated earlier software is anything created and/or stored on a
computer or computer storage device (like a disk). The work that is
produced using an application or program is also software and is usually
referred to as a file or a document.

Files & Documents

Once you have typed or created a new document or file on your

computer, you will have to decide what to do with it. You could print it
right away using a Print command and then Exit or Quit your program
without saving it, but most of the time you will want to Save your
document for future use.
The computer saves its information on a disk, most often the hard disk,
and the users determines where and when the file or document is saved.

Folders & Directories

On the disk are directories or collection of folders. These

directories or folders could be compared to a filing cabinet. All
files are stored in a directory. Most hard disks have many
directories or folders and files can be stored in any of them.
Directories can have sub-directories and sub-sub-directories
many levels down. The directory immediately below the
current directory is called the child directory. The directory
immediately above the current one is called the parent directory. The
top of the directory structure is called the root directory.
When a user adds or installs a new program on the computer the
installation process will usually create a new directory or folder to store
the application's files.
Users can create and delete directories or folders as the need arises.
Older version of DOS require that the directory be emptied of files
before it can be deleted. When removing a directory always check before
deleting it to make sure that it doesn't contain files you need.
You can easily move files from one folder or directory to another using
menu commands, drag & drop using the mouse or a file utility. It is
important to understand your computer's directory structure as a
file can be misplaced if it is saved in the wrong directory.
One of the main problems new users have is creating a filing system.
Modern operating systems address the 'filing problem' by automatically
creating a (My) Documents folder. By saving files or documents in this
folder you will always know where to look for your files. Create sub-
folders within this folder for your main projects. Examples could be a
separate folder for your correspondence called Letters or a folder for
images called Graphics or Pictures. The main Documents folder can also
be renamed to what every name you want it to be called. If you are not

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers

Page 34
using Windows 9x simply create your own folder and sub-folders to save
your documents in.

Saving Files

In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save
command. Most modern software place this command in a menu which
you access with the mouse button or Alt key. Each file must be given a
filename so it can be found easily the next time it is needed.
Computers using DOS 6.X or older must follow the 8.3 rule: a filename
can only be 1 to 8 characters long followed by a 1 to 3 character
extension separated by a dot (period or full stop).
Modern operating systems allow computer users to use filenames up to
256 characters. Mac users, Windows 9X & NT/2000 and UNIX/LINUX
(along with a few other) use long file names but names using over 32
characters get unwieldy. It is better to use a directory or folder to help
describe them and keep common files together.
Many modern software programs (applications) add their own extension
to filenames. These extensions allow operating systems to recognize
certain filenames and associate (match) them to the program that
created it.
As well as choosing a filename, users must choose a directory and/or disk
to store the file in. Make sure that you are consistent and use a logical
structure. Once you are sure you know where the file is going to be
stored press Enter on the keyboard or press the left mouse button over
the word Save or Okay to store the document on a disk, in the
directory with the filename you have chosen. Some software programs
will automatically save files in specific directory that is created when the
program is installed (default settings). You can easily changed these
settings permanently using the applications Preferences or temporarily
at the point of saving the file.
Some common rules are:
 All files are saved on a disk or storage device.
 A disk is usually broken up into directories and sometimes into
partitions.
 A directory or folder is a way of keeping like files in a common
area.

A partitioned disk, though physically a single disk, is treated like separate

disks and given a separate drive letter (and/or name).
It is possible to save or move files anywhere that your computer can
access. This includes disk (or other storage devices) on your computer, to
any directory or sub-directory on your computer or on a network that
your computer is connected to. Always make sure that you have chosen
the correct directory and filename before pressing Enter or choosing
Save.

Printing

The promise of a paperless office has not happened though conservation

is catching on and it is possible to reduce paper consumption by using
your computer more effectively. Having said that many computers are
attached to printers and there are many reasons to print out documents

TSkills® – Introduction to Computers

Page 35
that you create on your computer. Most software programs and
applications allow the user to print the information that is created in the
program.
When choosing a printer consider the peripheral equipment that you will
need as well as the actual printer. Peripherals include paper, ribbons or
ink cartridges, toner and occasionally print heads.
You may have to adjust some of the settings for the printer to get the
output you want. Density adjustments determine how much ink is placed
on the paper or how many dots per inch (DPI). Draft quality will printer
quicker but creates a fainter copy (less dense). Modern Software has a
Preview option which show what the page will look like when it is
printed. Portrait prints the document up and down. Landscape prints
the document on it's side. Most software allows the user to adjust the
margin width or the blank space at the top, bottom, left and right edge
of the paper.

Exit or Quit

It is important to Exit or Quit a program, application and the operating

system before shutting off the computer. It is a good idea to Quit a
program when you are finished with it as it takes up memory. Exiting a
program should free up the memory that the program was using. Having
a number of programs running simply uses up resources that may be
needed in another project.
Exiting properly also saves the program settings so that when you return
to the application many changes that were made will still be active.

Menus

Menus are the most common way of interacting or controlling your

software. Though each program has it's own menu, modern software
developers have begun establishing some standardization in how they
create their menus. Many programs have a menu called File which
controls things like Opening, Saving and Printing your file and Exiting
the program. Many also have an Edit menu which contains the main
editing commands like Cut, Copy and Paste.
The items on the menu are Commands or the features of the program.
You choose the command that you want with the keyboard, mouse,
trackball or touchpad. Commands control the operation of the software.
Menu bars are usually positioned at the top of the screen and are
accessed by moving the cursor to the menu and pressing the button (left
button if there are two). This displays a pull down menu with a number
of commands or features. Depending on how the program works either
let go of the button and move to the command you want then press the
button again to choose it or while holding down the button, move to the
command and let go to choose it.
Menus can also be controlled through the keyboard. The most common
way of accessing the menu through the keyboard is by pressing the Alt
key and using the Arrow or Cursor Movement keys to move through

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the menu items, then pressing Enter to choose the item you want. Many
menu items can also be accesses using Hot key combinations. One
common keyboard combination is to first tap the Alt key and then press
letter key for the command you want.

Menus are created in a hierarchy. Some menu

items branch out to give even more choices. Some
menu items open Dialog Boxes that allow you to
choose from a number of different options.
Dialog boxes allow computer users to select
different options. Some dialog boxes have 2 or more
Tabs which can be clicked to choose more options.
Once the options have been chosen press Okay to
apply the options. Some dialog boxes have an Apply
button which will apply the options that you have
chosen without closing the dialog box. Choose
Cancel to close the dialog box without applying the
changes selected. Note that options set with the
Apply button cannot be canceled this way.

Modern software places the most popular commands on a toolbar for

easier access. Simply click the left mouse button over the menu item to
access a particular command. These tool bars can usually be customized
and often allow the user to move or Tear Off the menu and drag them to
a preferred location or Dock on the screen. Menus can also be
customized by adding or removing commands.
Windows has a context sensitive menu that is activated with the right
button. When the right mouse button is click over an object on the screen
or area of the screen, a specific menu with commands related to that
object will be displayed. Click the left mouse button on the command to
choose it.

Installing New Software

Most software sold today has an automated install sequence that is

activated with the press of a button. The installation process will create a
directory, if necessary, to store the files related to the new program,
uncompress and copy the files to the directory and often adds itself the
desktop (Start) menu. Many installation processes will also copy files to
other parts of the computer and register itself with the operating system
by updating the registry. Some programs will associate themselves to a
certain filename extension.
Older software many not have this option. The installation procedure is
the same though. First create a folder or drawer to store the program and
it's related files in. This makes it easy to find them and minimizes file
clutter in the main directory. Copy the files from the installation disk to
the folder that you will be running the program from. A lot of Software is
compressed and you may need to uncompress it before you can use it.
You then can create a new item, create a short cut to the program or add
it to your desktop menu or utility program.

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Backing up Software

Computer errors and software failures happen ocasionally so it is

important to backup your files and documents.
One simple way to backup your files is to copy them to a disk. If there are
only a few small files a floppy disk will work but if you are backing up lots
of large files a cd burner, a second hard drive or tape backup may be
needed. You can use a software program to automate backups or do it
manually. A manual backup usually involves dragging the files or folders
to the backup disk or tape to create the duplicte backup.
Store your backup files in a safe place out of the sun and away from
electro-magnetic devices such as speakers and wires with strong
electrical currents.
Every file that you create and plan to keep should be backed up. This
includes word processing documents, financial information, databases,
photos, etc...
Some less obvious files that also need to be backed up are email, Internet
Favorites or Bookmarks, and Address Books. Check the help files in your
email program on how to back up email. Generally each folder name in
your email program is a file containing the individual email messages and
copying these files to the backup disk or tape will be sufficient. Software
preferences such as customized menus and settings can also be backed
up. Check your software's help files to find out where these files are
located.
A newer software version may be installed on the computer before ever
needing the backups so make sure that the newer programs can handle
the older file format.
When to backup is an individual choice. A company should have a backup
policy which explains how and when data should be backed up. It all
depends on how important the information is and how difficult it would
be to duplicate it in the event of a system failure. If the information is
critical an automatic backup system that duplicates the documents
immediately may be needed (a Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks
(RAID) system is an example). If the files are not critical a weekly backup
may be all that is needed. It is impossible to determine when a system
failure will occur so it is better be cautious.
The backed up data can then be used as an archive, to recover from a
system failure or to transfer data to a new computer system. Simply copy
the files to the correct folder to restore them. Backup software will have
an automatic recovery feature that will restore the backed up file
automatically.

Compression and Decompression

Most software you buy or get off the Internet is Compressed.

Computers store information in bytes which are made up of on or off
signals. The software applications that uses these files need to have all
the on and off signals (bytes) in place but when the file is stored they can
be modified to take up less space on the storage disk or tape.
There are commercial and shareware programs that will compress and
decompressed files for you. The most popular form of data compression is
called zip or stuffit but there are others available as well.
Programs are also available to compress and decompress your files as
you or the application you are using requires them. This can be a way of

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making more space available on a hard drive. Windows comes with a
program that will compress part of your hard disk. Be sure to read the
documentation before embarking on a project like compressing a hard
drive.

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INTERNET
The Internet or the Net is a collection of computers, all
link together, to share information globally. It was first
developed in the U.S. by two universities who were both
working on the same contract and wanted to share their
data. They were faxing information back and forth and
then retyping it until they came up with a piece of
software called Unix to Unix Copy Program or UUCP.

The Internet was born and has mushroomed outward from that point.

There are 4 things that are necessary to "get on the net" with a full
graphic interface (picture, sounds, animation, etc...).

 A computer - preferably with a fast processor (around 100 MHz or

more) and lots of memory (16 meg or more)
 A modem - preferably 56,000 baud or high speed digital
 Browser Software - often installed with your operating system or
can be downloaded off the Internet
 An ISP - An Internet Service Provider is a service that connects
your home or office computer to the Internet

Once you have purchased an account with an ISP you will be given an
account name. This is often your email address as well. You will also
be given a password and should also be provided with instructions on
how to change the password to a unique and personalized. The generic
password provided with your account should be change to one of your
own. Protect your password as you would any personal identification
number (PIN) number.
top
The ISP will also provide information on how to configure your
software. This can be simple or difficult depending on your Operating
System. Once configured you simply run the software to connect your
computer's modem to the ISP's modem, giving you access to the Internet.
There are a number of pieces of software that work together to connect
you to the Internet.
top
The first and most complicated is the dialer or socket software. This is
the software that makes the physical connection with the ISP's computer
and the internet. This needs to be configured only once but you will need
instructions from your ISP on how to do this as each ISP has a different
setup.
top
The second piece is an Internet browser. This is the program that
locates websites for you and allows users to maneuver around (surf) the
World Wide Web and view web pages. The two most popular today are

AOL's Netscape Navigator and Microsoft's Internet Explorer

though Mosaic was the first and still used by some people. Opera is

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another. Before graphic browsers Lynx was the most popular
browser and is still available for text browsing. There are also a number
of different ones and new ones being developed every once in a while.
Some ISP have a proprietary type of browser though most have given
up this practice as it limits the users abilities to browse the Internet.
Type the url or web address of the website that you want to visit in the
address bar of your browser and press Enter or click Go. Collect your
favorite websites by adding them to your Favorites or Bookmarks. To
go to a Favorite or Bookmark, click on the menu and click on the link.

Another piece of software is an email program . This program

controls sending, composing and receiving email. Most email programs
can also be used to read postings on newsgroups.
Instructions for getting this software can be obtained from your ISP
though you may have to download the newest version yourself.
top
There are many different ISPs. If you attend a university or college or
belong to a military or government organization you can most likely get
Internet access through your school or work. If not you will most likely
buy access from a commercial provider.
Another option, if you are in a major center, is the Freenet. Many major
cities have groups devoted to making the Internet accessible to the
greater majority of people and create Freenets which allowing members
free access to the Internet. They run on private and public donations. It is
an excellent way of learning about the Internet in a helpful environment.
Once you are connected you will have access to Email, Newsgroups, the
World Wide Web (WWW), File Transfer Protocol (ftp), Internet
Relay Chat (irc), Search Engines, ICQ and other Internet Services.

Email is the electronic equivalent of sending a letter through the mail.

There are many different mail reading programs or applications that
control email but the basic functions are all the same. An email address
directs a message to the recipient.

Email addresses are made up of...

 the account name (often the users first initial and then the last
name (sometimes only 8 characters)
 then the @ symbol
 then the name of the user's ISP
 the last 2 or 3 characters describe the type of service called the
top level domain name. For example .com stand for commercial
site, .ca - noncommercial site in Canada, .mil - U.S. military, .gov -
U.S. government, .au - noncommercial site in Australia, .net -
network, etc... Recently 2 new TLDs were added; .biz, .info.

As well as sending and receiving mail the recipient can;

 save the address for future reference in an address book
 reply to the original message

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  forward the message to a third party
 edit a message
 check the spelling and a wide range of other options.

One of the services provided by your ISP is to provide a storage area or

mailbox to collect email in. Email software programs control the transfer
of this stored email by downloading the messages from your mailbox on
your ISP's computer to your own computer. You must be connected to the
Internet to do this.
An email message is made up of two parts; the header information and
the body. The recipient's address (to), the subject, the sender's email
address as well as other information is contained in the header. The
content of the message is in the body. You can find out information about
an email message by viewing the header content. Most email programs
had a 'view header' option in the menu.
New messages can be written or composed off-line (not connected to the
Internet). If the ISP charges by the hour, connect to the Internet only to
send and receive your email and then disconnect to read and compose
your mail.
Some companies offer free email service that you can sign up for. These
free services rely on advertising for revenue so your recipient will also be
receive an advertisment with the email. Usually email is accessed
through a web browser where the user composes and reads their mail
online. The benefit is that you can easily access your mail from any
internet terminal and the address is easily disposable (if it gets added to
a junk mail list for instance). The disadvantage is that it doesn't have the
legitimacy of a business address and it may be difficult to complete
transactions.
You can also attach files to email messages to send picture, sound,
documents, videos and other types of file with your email. Some email
programs automatically open attachments such as photos and html code.
Change the program's properties or options to turn this feature on or off.
Unrequested or spam email has become a problem on the internet. A
large percentage of the email sent is this unrequested email which takes
up bandwidth and causes prices to rise. Businesses must take time to sort
through spam to find the legitimate email which also takes time and
money. Most ISPs provide software that will filter out the worst of this
email. If you find that you are receiving a lot of unrequested email
contact your ISP to see if they can provide you with spam filters.

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Email Attachments
An attachment is a computer file or files place inside an email message.
Email was originally designed to handle only plain text (no formatting,
ie. bold, centering, etc.) which was transferred from one computer to
another in a format called ASCII. ASCII is a standard across all computer
types which makes e-mail universal. Today many modern email programs
allow HTML (hypertext markup language) to be included in email
messages which allow you to format your email messages with font sizes,
bold, centre and such. The recipient must have an HTML capable email
reader to see the formatting otherwise they will get a document marked
up with HTML tags.
To attach a document to an email message drag the file attachment to the
body of the message and drop it. An attachment can also be added by
choosing File Attachment from the menu. Most modern email programs
place a button on the Toolbar usually in the shape of a paper clip that you
can click. A dialog box will open that allows you to browse and select the
file that you want to attach. You can attach more than one file to a single
email message. Don't move the original document until the message has
been sent.
Most documents created on computer, such as word processing
documents (Word, WordPerfect, etc.) or spreadsheet documents (Excel,
Quatro, etc.) or graphic files (Corel Draw, Paint Shop, or .gif and .jpg
files) are stored in their own unique binary code format. This binary
format is determined by the program that the file is created with. Email
documents are create as text files so in order to send a binary file or
document via email, it must first be encoded into a text format and then
attached to the email text message.
Such an 'encoded' document may end up looking something like this:

ugAAANAAAAALAAAAAgD//zQAQgBvAGQAeQAgAFQAZQB4AHQAAABCAG8AZAB5ACA
AVABlAHgAdAAA
ANMFCwAAAQAACwDT0wQdAAATAAD//wUAsAQAmA0AEA4AaBAAK5sdANPUGxkAgAE
AAAgAigIAAAAA
AACKAooCGQDU1BpXAIABAQAIAAAAAAAAAAAAHAD0GlwSGgkAABEJAAAAYAAYEQAA
ECoAVABpAG0A
ZQBzACAATgBlAHcAIABSAG8AbQBhAG4AAAAAAAAAVABUAAAAVwDU1AILAAABAAEL
ANTUAwsAAAEA

These lines are all printable or lower-ASCII characters and can be sent
via email. When it gets to your computer and you want to view the
document, it first must be decoded or converted back to it's binary
format before it can be opened. Today this is typically handled by your
Email program.
There are several common encoding standards, the most popular being
uuencoding, mime, and binhex. Not all email packages support even
these three, let along all the non-standard ones. If someone sends you a
document encoded in a format that your email program doesn't support
the email program will not decode the attachment.
The attached file must be loaded into a program to be viewed. If the
attached document was originally created in MS-Word you need MS-
Word on your computer to work with the document. Most modern

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software suites can import documents from other suites, but typically
it's best to have the correct matching program.
Most modern email programs work hand-in-hand with your operating
system to try and open the correct program required to view the
document sent as an attachment. This is done by matching the file
extension such as .jpg, .gif, .doc, etc... with a registered file type.
Viruses can also be transferred via email attachments. Because your
email software handles the decoding of programs sent as attachments it
is easy to infect your computer simply by opening an infected attachment.
Always check email attachment with an anti-virus program before
opening them.
There are several reasons why an attachment will not display properly or
at all:
1. the encoded file is corrupted and cannot be decoded. This is
usually due to damage in transit and happens very seldom these
days.
2. the encoding type is not supported by your e-mail program and so
the file cannot be decoded back to it's original type.
3. the attached document was created in a program that you don't
have on your computer or is not a registered file type.
4. the email program has an option set which automatically locks
attached files

When sending an attachment you should think about whether the

intended recipient has the same program on their computer. When you
are sending an attachment to someone you should always use a standard
encoding process (the one that comes with your email program is usally
best) and send the document in a format that the recipient can view. If in
doubt, ask them first by email.
Macs users should be aware that most Windows user won't be able to
decode a binhex file.
If your email software automatically locks attachments and you want to
view the attachment you can change the programs settings by modifying
the Preferences or Options.
If the formatting isn't important it's better to copy your the text from the
original program and then paste it into the body of a plain text email
message rather than sending an attachment. Everybody's email software
can read this 'plain text' ASCII format.

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Internet - Newsgroups
Newsgroups are discussion groups that are going on all the time. You
can write a message and post it to a newsgroup in the morning and come
back to read a reply to the message in the afternoon. You can also reply
to other's messages.

There are thousands of news groups covering as many topics. Some are
moderated, meaning that a person who has knowledge or an interest in
a certain topic will receive the message and read it before posting it. This
keeps the discussion on topic. Most are not moderated and the discussion
can go anywhere but it can be a great way to get a quick reply to your
questions.
One problem with posting a message to a public newsgroup is that
unscrupulous companies mine the newsgroups for email addresses and
then send unsolicited email (spam) to the poster. It is recommended
that you disguise your email address using your newsgroup software's
preferences.
Many newsgroups have a publicly accessible faq. A faq is a collection of
frequently asked questions that have been posted many times to a
newsgroup. You may get a gentle reminder or a completely rude and
insulting comment if you post a question that is on the faq. It is
acceptable to post a question as where the faq is located and you may
find that frequent posters will mention the faq in their message.

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Internet - Navigation

World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of web pages connected

together with hyperlinks. Each document or page has a unique address
that allows you to find it among the millions of other documents on the
Web. The address is called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or
sometimes a Uniform Resource Indicator (URI). When you chose a
new link by clicking on it or by typing it into the address field your
browser sends a request for that document and displays it on the screen.
That link can be to a different section of the current document, another
document on the same website as the original or on another website
anywhere in the world. Web pages are designed using hypertext
markup language or HTML.
Designing a basic HTML page is not difficult after mastering a few simple
codes (see the section on web site design) or if you are planning a
website you can have a Web Developer (send me an inquiry) create one
for you. The key to the web are the links to different, useful or interesting
pages. Many web page user will collect links to their favorite sites or
web pages and add them to a bookmark or favorites list.
Receiving information from another computer is called downloading.
When a user chooses a web page to go to the browser automatically
downloads the information from the page and displays it on the users
computer screen. The user can also choose to download specific files.
Sending information to another computer is called uploading. To place a
web page on a website the developer must upload the file from their
computer to the ISPs server.
Being Online means being connected to another computer, whether that
computer is your ISP, your friends computer across town or a remote
office computer, through a modem, or digital connection. Going Offline
means disconnecting your computer from the remote connection.

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INTERNET - SEARCH
If you are looking for a specific company or organization try typing
www.company name.com into the address bar first (e.g.
www.grassrootsdesign.com). If it is a "country specific" organization try
ending with the specific, 2 character country code rather than .com (click
here to display countries and their code).

Search Engines make finding things on the Internet relatively easier.

Search engines are run by companies that collect information from the
Internet, sort and categorize it and present the information to the user
based on keyword searches or through directory listings.

It is worth taking some time to learn how to make an effective keyword

search as the amount of information that these search engines provide
can be overwhelming. It is common to be provided with 10s of thousands
of references to any given search term. By narrowing your search to a
specific phrase you can target your searches more effectively. Many
search engines require that you enclose a search phrase in quotes (e.g.
"the cat in the hat").

Different search engines will display different results and sort those
results differently. If you don't find the information you want on one
search site try another. Some search companies offer meta searches
which are compiled from a number of different search engines' results.

Most search sites offer directory listings as well. The information is

categorized in a hierarchy from general categories to specific categories.
To find a specific web site follow the links down to the category that
matches your interest.

The results from a search are a list of pages with links to the documents
that match your search. Each search engine has a different way of
displaying the results but generally you will see a list with the name of
the organization or title of the page. You may also see a short description
of that web page. Clicking on the title will take you to that page.

Though there are hundreds of search engines on the Internet there are
only a couple dozen that the majority of people use. If you choose
"customize" in your browsers search tool you will see a list of some of
these search engines.

Website Search

As well as Internet searches many websites offer a website search feature

to help visitors find information on that specific website. Generally there
will be a button marked 'Search' beside a text field. Enter your query to
display links to the pages that match.

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TSkills® – Introduction to Computers
Page 48
ECommerce
Electronic Transactions on the Internet are becoming common place.
Books, software and even groceries can be bought and sold with the click
of a button (and a credit card). The biggest problem with doing business
over the Internet is the lack of common standards around security. There
are dozens of different standards involving hundreds of different
methods.

The Internet, by it's nature, is an open system which means that

information can flow freely from one computer to the next. Information
transmitted through the Internet can be intercepted and copied as any
point along the path. For this reason it is not a good

idea to send confidential information like credit card numbers through

the Internet the same way you might send an email to a friend. In order
to send confidential information you must be sure that your private
information can not be intercepted along the way.
The most common method is Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). A transaction
computer with an order form for the product that you wish to purchase
creates a secure connection which ensures that all the information that
you send to it is not accessible to anyone else. If information from a
secure connection is intercepted it will be encrypted making it useless to
persons with malicious intent.
Most small businesses will not find it economical to setup their own
secure server and can purchase a service from a third party which offers
a transaction service. These services vary but all require a setup fee and
some form of payment for transactions performed on their secure server.
This payment can involve a monthly fee, a transaction fee, a percentage
of the transaction, a credit card company fee or a combination of some/all
of these fees.
When considering hiring a transaction service a company should decide
whether they want to setup their own merchant agreement with the
credit card companies or pay the transaction service to use theirs. Some
transaction companies retain a percentage of receipts for security deposit
until a proven transaction record is established anywhere from 30 to 90
days. Some allow limited outside development of the forms used on the
secure server and other insist that the forms be developed in-house.
Another model is the Secure Electronic Transaction (SET). This model
requires that the customer download and install a wallet into which they
enter their password protected credit card information. The SET system
development was promoted by the major credit card companies to
provide a safe and secure environment for online transactions.
The SET "wallet" model requires that the customer obtain a Digital
Certificate from a Certified Authority (CA) which they then use to
perform the transaction. The Certified Authority, usually the bank or
financial institution that the customer deals with, verifies the validity of
the Certificate to the merchant. The customer enters their personalized
password to verify that they have the authority to use the Certificate and
the transaction is made. This model allows customers to use their credit
cards to purchase items from merchants without transmitting their actual
credit card details to the merchant.

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The merchant uses their merchant agreement with the credit card
company to complete transactions, process refunds and verify the validity
of the customers credit card information.

Though still in its infancy, many billing companies have begun Internet
transaction projects using the SET model to allow their customers to pay
their bills, check their account status and much more.

Scripts & Macros

Scripts are used for many things on computers. Everything from
customizing and automating repetitious tasks to changing the way the
computer functions can be controlled with scripts. One example of a
script is a batch file and the most common of these is the
AUTOEXEC.BAT file. With older versions of Windows, this script
contained the steps that the computer went through when starting up.
The CONFIG.SYS file controls how your computer's hardware is configure
each time you restart it. These type of files contain instructions for your
computer; one instruction per line. These instructions are operating
system commands and can be modified in any text editor. Always be sure
to make a backup before modifying a *.BAT file.
One of the most common scripts that the average user will come in
contact with are macros. Most programs use some form of macro. A
macro, at it's simplest, is a recorded series of keystrokes that help
automate repetitive tasks. These tasks, once copied into a script, can be
accomplished with a few keystrokes. You can use macros to help you
write letters, create memos, or build reports. Some macros stop and beep
when you need to enter information. Some present a screen with detailed
information and multiple choices. Many programs allow the user to
record personalized macros for their own unique use such as inserting
your name and address.
Most computer users will use scripts in some way, perhaps without
realizing it. One common script that users often use are Wizards or
scripts that install new software. These type of scripts will take you step
by step through complex processes and stop a certain points to offer
users different choices.
On the Internet there are a number of script languages including
JavaScript, Perl, VBScript, PHP and many others. These programming
script languages allow website programmers to create many interesting
and useful functions. These scripts are often written into web pages or
stored on the server that you connect to. These type of scripts are used
for processing forms, keeping statistics, counting visitors to website,
querying databases as well as limitless other processes with more being
introduced each day.
There are many scripting languages and programming languages
designed to be used with programming tools or as stand alone programs
but, as this is an introduction to computers, lets stick to the basics for
now.

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TSkills® – Introduction to Computers
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Computer Viruses
A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious
hacker) to do a certain unwanted function. The virus program can be
simply annoying like displaying a happy face on the user's screen at a
certain time and date. It can also be very destructive and damage your
computer's programs and files causing the computer to stop working.
The reason why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. The
most quoted reason is simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are
Ludite based "smash the machine" motivations, antiestablishment/anti-
corporate actions, criminal intent, and various others that range into the
"conspiracy theory" realm.
Viruses take two basic forms
One is a boot sector viruses which infect the section of a disk that is first
read by the computer. This type of virus infects the boot or master
section of any disks that it comes in contact with. The second is a
program virus that infects other programs when the infected program is
run or executed. Some viruses infect both and others change themselves
(polymorphic) depending on the programs they encounter.
Though viruses do not damage computer hardware there have been
attempts to create programs that will do things like run the hard drive
until it fails or lodge itself in the computer's clock (which has a
rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even months after the
computer has been unplugged. Other viruses affect certain microchips
(BIOS chip for instance). These microchips need to be modified under
normal computer use but the virus program can produce changes which
cause them to fail. Other viruses will affect the characters or images
displayed on the screen which may give the impression of monitor failure.
Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the computers it infects and
can cost a lot of time and money to correct it.
Computer viruses have been around for a long time, even before
computers became widely used and they will likely remain with us
forever. For that reason computer users will always need ways to protect
themselves from virus programs. The main, common feature of a virus is
that it is contagious! Their sole purpose is to spread and infect other
computers.
A computer gets a virus from an infected file.
The virus might attach themselves to a game, a program (both
shareware and commercial) or a file downloaded from a bulletin board or
the Internet.
You cannot get a virus from a plain email message or from a simple text
file! That is because the virus needs to be 'run' or executed before it can
take effect. This usually happens when the user tries to open an infected
program, accesses an infected disk or opens a file with an infected macro
or script attached to it. A plain email message is made up of text which
does not execute or run when opened.
Modern email programs provide the ability to allow users to format email
messages with HTML and attach scripts to them for various purposes and
it is possible for a malicious hacker to attempt to spread a virus by
building a virus script into an HTML type of email message.
When you are accepting software or scripts on Internet sites or reading
mail from unknown senders it is best not to run a program from that site
or sender without checking it with an anti-virus program first.

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Protect yourself
You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing is to get
an anti-virus program. Most reputable companies that create virus
protection programs release an evaluation copy that a Internet user can
download for free and use for a certain amount of time. This anti-virus
program will be able to check your computer for viruses and repair
damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. You may have to
replace infected files that cannot be repaired.
The second thing you can do is purchase a copy of the program. The
reason for this is that viruses are constantly being created. When you
purchase an anti-virus program you are also purchasing periodical
updates which keep your anti-virus program up-to-date and able to deal
with new viruses as they are encountered. Commercial virus programs
also allow the user to customize when and how the program will check
the computer for viruses. You will need to renew this updating service
periodically.
If you find that your computer has been infected with a virus use an anti-
virus program to clean your computer and make sure to check all the
disks that you use. This includes all the hard drives on your computer(s)
and all your floppy disks and CDs as well as any media that you save
information on. Remember that the virus can easily re-infect your
computer from one infected file!
If you have to reload your computer programs, use the original program
disks. You may want to check your original disks before reinstalling the
software. If your original disks are infected contact the distributor to get
replacements.
Always take the time to ensure that your computer is properly protected.
Spending money on a good virus checking program could save you
hundreds of dollars and lots of time later.
A discussion of viruses would not be complete without mentioning
hoaxes. Malicious people without programming skills will send out fake
virus warnings causing people to take unnessary measures which often
cause your computer harm. One example tries to get the unsuspecting
computer user to delete an important system file by warning them that it
is a virus. A legitimate virus warning will provide a link to a website
operated by an anti-virus company with more information about that
virus. Don't forward a virus warning until you have check out whether it
is legitimate.

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Internet Security
There is a lot of discussion these days about computer security as more
people use email and more services such as banking, mail orders and
subscriptions become available through the Internet. But how secure is
the Internet and what is computer security?

Computers & Security

Before the Internet, computer security was limited to 'closed systems' or

network computers such as offices or banks where only people physically
in the office could use the computer system. It was quite easy for the
network supervisor to set up user names and passwords and since
that time people have become used to logging on before they can use
these types of computers or resources.
With the advent of the Internet, computers users can now work in an
'open system' and security has become much more complicated. Even
though you can now connect your home or office computer to the Internet
and perform remote transactions without leaving the building you still
want to be sure that the transaction is secure. The transaction takes
place through the Internet by bouncing the information through various
computers before it reaches, for example, the bank's computer. You want
to be sure that no one observes the transaction along the way and
collects or modifies your transaction information.
This is where computer security comes in. There are many different types
of security systems though most use a process called encryption. When
you connect to your bank or other service to make a transaction you are
often required to send your account number or user name as well as a
Personal Identification Number (PIN) or password for verification. This
information should only be sent after establishing a secure connection.
If you are using an Internet browser you will see a small closed lock
appear in the window of the browser. Once you are connected to a
secure server any information you send or receive is scrambled or
encrypted using a mathematical formula and then reassembled or
decrypted at the other end. The computer user usually will not notice
this happening as they perform their secure transaction. Anyone with
criminal intent who intercepts your transaction will be treated to a
stream of garbled nonsense - (e.g.. qANQR1DBwU4D560EJv6XqrMQB)!
If this is the first time you use a new service you most often will need to
setup an account and possibly download a small piece of software
called a plug in which allows your computer to create the secure
connection or link.
The transaction often involves the exchange of a small file that keeps
track of the transaction and can act a flag or bookmark when you next
visit that website. These small files are called cookies and are set by the
website you are visiting. They can contain information such as the type of
server you are connecting from, the type of browser you are using, the
last site you visited and any information you volunteer. You can view the
information stored in the cookie. Try a search for 'cookie' to find the

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cookies folder. Windows users can view any cookies they are storing in
the folder C:\Windows\Cookies\.

Setting up security

As the most people won't be setting up their own secure server the scope
of this section is limited to the topics of protecting email and small
business or organizational transactions.
Email can be protected using a service or an application (program).
There are others but the two that stand out currently are S/MIME and
PGP. S/MIME requires the user to register with a 3 party service which
issues a digital id that you attach to your message. Though this is usually
a commercial service there is often a free introductory period. PGP is free
for personal use or a commercial application for business use and is run
from your own computer.
Both methods allow users to sign or attach a digital identification to
the email message which verifies, to the recipient, that the message is
from the original person or organization and that the information wasn't
tampered with in transit. These methods also allow the user to encrypt
their message so that anyone intercepting the message wouldn't be able
to read it. You can also decide the level of encryption from low; in which a
nerd with some good software and enough time on their hands could
possibly decrypt to high (128 bit) which would take a whole mountain of
experts weeks to decrypt if even then. Most of us will choose somewhere
in between as this process involves increased time and file size.
Both methods use key pairs of public and private keys. Your public keys
is sent to everyone that you communicate through email with. Your public
key can be sent through various methods including posting it to an
internet service or sending it as part of an email message. Public keys
can also be post on your website in a file. Your friends and associated can
add your public key to a file called a key ring). When someone wants to
send you a secure email the sender encrypts their messages with your
public key. When you receive the email you must decrypt it using your
private key. Many email programs will automatically verify that the
message is authentic. You will need to type in your password to view the
message.
Encryption also involves using the key pair but in reverse. Once your
message is completed you encrypt the file using the recipient's public key
ensuring that only the recipient can ever access that message with their
private key. (Editor's note: Don't lose your private key!).
Small businesses and organizations that wish to offer transactions over
the Internet or Ecommerce can take their chances and set up an
unsecured system, set up their own secure server or purchase a
service from a third party. There are various types including service that
take a percentage of the transaction and/or charge a service fee and/or
charge for each transaction. Some organizations are more reliable and
you should always shop around before committing to a service. Because
this type of service is so new the length of time a company has been
operating is not always a way to decide. Things to watch for is downtime.

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If your companies website is operating properly yet the customer or user
can't access the transaction server because it is down, too busy or
misconfigured they will easily be put off perhaps entirely. Watch for
contracts that lock you in as the market is still developing and prices tend
to fluctuate. It is easy to switch services by simply changing the address
on your website's order forms.

Security and Websites

As was stated at the beginning of this document the nature of the

Internet is an open system. Having said that there are many reasons and
many ways to set up a secure or closed system with in this open
framework. Private or member based discussion groups, private files or
folders, protected databases, copyright material to name a few all need
some way of allowing them to be distributed to the intended recipient
only. Also many businesses are creating Intranets which are closed
systems only accessible to registered users. An Intranet can provide a
way of making company information easily accessible and allow branch
offices to communicate with each other easier.

Account Security

Your website itself is protected by your ISP's software. When you

attempt to access your web space to change or modify a file using a shell
or ftp you are challenged to send your username and password. This is
the first line of protection and adequate for many website administrators.

Server Security

The server that your website is installed on is the second line of

protection. Most servers have security features built in to them allowing
users to password protect folders or build scripts to send a
username/password challenge to a user trying to access a file or folder.
This allows website administrators the ability to create discussion groups
within their site or to place confidential documents or information that is
made available only to registered users on their own website.
Unfortunately some ISP either don't make this option available, charge a
premium to use them or only allow their own employees to set them up.

Third Party Security

Another option includes contracting the protection of private files to a

separate service, pay a third party to hosting a private discussion group
or obtain web space on another server that allows access to security
options. The entire Internet is as close as your computer connection and
whether the file the user is viewing is stored in your own current web
space or on another server is usually immaterial. When your customers,
employees or members moves from one page to another the consistency
of the website is the maintained by the design, not the address of the
separate pages. It is also possible to control the address that is displayed
if required.

Software Security

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Another option is to use JavaScript or Java applets to control how
customers or members access secure features. This option is only
available to users who are using Java enabled browsers. Scripts and
applets can control access to documents and databases, create content
on the fly based on user input, detect the browser the visitor is using and
direct them to the proper page, retrieve cookies and use that information
to determine whether a user has access to a certain area or not, as well
as many other uses.

Copyright

Copyright is protect using the same process as any original material

(books, artwork, film, etc...). Anything that a user gets off the Internet
should be treated as privately owned information unless otherwise noted.
Anyone posting private information to the Internet should be aware that
copyright law is not the same in every country and may be difficult to
enforce. It is possible to set up a page that won't be stored on the users
computer once they leave the site but that will only slow down not stop
users who want to obtain information posted on a website. Notices of
copyright are often added to the main page of a website sometimes with a
link to a page describing the details of how the content can be used.

Is Security Necessary?

Though you may think that it is not necessary to setup security systems
there are many reason to consider it. I have come across a number of
examples of people forging documents and email. A digital signature will
be the only way to verify whether a document is genuine or not.
Many organizations need to discuss draft articles, changes to bylaws and
other documents that could cause problems if they were made public
before they are approved. A secure directory within your website is an
ideal spot to store sensitive material making it available for members and
people who have the proper password.
I would be remiss to not point out and as all articles on the subject also
point out mining the Internet with malicious intent is also possible. One
common malicious acts is to search websites for email addresses and
then add them to spam distribution lists. Unfortunately there is very little
that can be done to counter this other than removing your email address
from your web site but this makes it difficult for your customers to
contact you.
Whether you decide to add a security component to your web site project
initially it is a good idea to think about or have a discussion about web
site security when planning the site. You should also review your security
systems periodically whether that is changing your password or
reviewing and updating your security system.

Networks
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Most people working in office with more than a couple of computers will
be using some form of network. As networks become easier to setup and
maintain more home users are also setting up networks to share resource
such as disk space, printers, Internet connections and access to software.
A network is basically two or more computers connected through a cable
or wire which share resources. Network software controls how the
computers communicate.
There are dozens of different types of networks which are impossible to
cover in an introduction article. This article focuses on home and small
business networks using some version of the Window operating system.
To connect computers each of the computers needs a network card with a
connection that allows a cable to be connected to it. Computers can be
connected directly through a bi-directional cable or through an other
piece of hardware called a hub. The hub then connects all the computers
in your local network together. Both solutions cost about the same but a
hub allows more than two computers to connect. A hub can also be used
to connect two local area networks together to create a wide area
network.
Some form of network software is required. This network protocol
software is installed through the network preferences. NetBIOS was
commonly used though recently a secure TCP/IP protocol has been
developed. The network protocol determines how computers become part
of the network and how they are recognized. The network must have a
name and you can use some creativity at this point. Each computer must
also have a unique name that other computers on the network can access
them with.
If all goes well this is all you need but often there will be a conflict that
can be resolved by establishing exactly how the computer will
communicate. To solve these types of conflict your network needs a set
DNS server address and each computer in the network needs to be
assigned a unique IP address. The addresses usually are in the range of
192.168.x.x where x means any number between 0 and 255. Once these
numbers have been entered your network should be functioning with
each computer able to see the other computers on the network.
You must also decide which resources you want to share. You may want
to make a disk or folder available, a printer or tape backup system so that
everyone can use it. You may also want to have parts of the network that
are either not accessible or accessible only through a password. File and
print sharing must be enable on the computer that will share it's
resources or host computer and they determine how they are accessed by
other computers or clients.
A computer with an Internet connection can also share that connection
with other computers on the network but you should check with your ISP
what their policy on sharing Internet connections is. Sharing an Internet
connection also raises some serious security issues. Many cable high
speed Internet connections use the Network Neighborhood settings to
create the Internet connection and connecting your home or office
network to this existing system can cause problems. Though you may
want to allow a computer in another room of the house to access files or
run programs on your computer you probably don't want the kid down
the block to have that same access.
Security on networks begin with passwords. Everyone who wishes to
access the network must logon with a username and password. If
someone cancels the password challenge they will be able to access the

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files and programs on that individual computer but can't access any of
the network resources. Specific passwords for important folders or disks
can also be set or access to folders or disks can be forbidden.
Unlike server/client networks where the server must be running before
the computers can communicate the peer-to-peer network that comes
packaged with Windows allow any computers that are turned on to
communicate with other. Other computers in the network become
accessible as user turn them on.
Networks can also be open to remote secure access through a virtual
private network. A VPN allows a computer to connect to a computer or
network through the Internet.

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