9

Immanuel Kant

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a brilliant German philosopher who is regarded the
most systematic thinker of the Enlightenment He is also known as the exponent of
idealism. Kant was born at Königsberg in East Prussia in a family of modest means.
His father was a saddle-maker, and his grandfather was an emigrant from Scotland. He
was educated at the University of Königsberg where he was appointed to the chair of
logic and metaphysics as late as 1770, after a prolonged struggle.
Enlightenment (The Age of Reason)
Enlightenment refersto an intellectual movement of eighteenth-century France,
Germany and Great Britain. It was a period when people's religious and political
life was set free from obscure and orthodox beliefs and new light was shed on
the proper conduct of human affairs. This led to the growth of a new outlook,
informed by Reason and committed to the authority of scientific research and
discovery. old superstitions were discarded and a new faith in the knowledge
obtained bythe scientific method was developed. That is why the Enlightenment
is described as the 'Age of Reason.

Kant was a sociable person who enjoyed the company of his scholarly friends,
but he never married. He lived in a relative isolation from the political upheavals of the
eighteenth century. He did not comment on his contemporary politics in his writings, but
Cxerted enormous influence on legal and political thinking of his time as well as of the
Subsequent generations. According toRoger Scruton (4 Dictionary of Political Thought:
I982), "Kant believed that reason, which could lead to theoretical knowledge only when
Carefully circumscribed, has anatural tendency to transcend its limits, leading to empty
[223 1
 Western Political Thought
andparadoxical beliefs which could never be rationally supported." This simply implies
224
note of caution. Normally, it is
legitimate applied with a capable
be where it serves as a competent guide to morallprinciples
practical application
that reasonshould always
that Reason is the distinctive quality of human agency which
and practice. Kant believed
treat himself and
as an end-in-itself.
every other personphilosophy. and not
impels each person to keynote of Kant's moral
as a means to an end. This is the
Kant's reputation as aphilosopher largelyrests on his following works: Critique
Metaphysic of Morals (1785);
ofPractical
Groundwork of the Critique
Reason (1788): Critigue ofJudgement (1790); Toward Eternal, Peace (1795),of
Pure Reason (178 1):
of Virtue (1797); and The Conflict of the Faculties (1 7091
Metaphysical Principles

THOUGHT
KANT'S MORAL AND POLITICAL

CONCEPT OF MORAL FREEDOM

Interlinkage between moral philosophy and political philosophy is the hallmark ofKant's
political thought. He proceeds from the concept of 'moral freedom' in order to arrive
at the standards of political behaviour. This idea is inspired by Jean-Jaques Rousseau's
concept of the 'real wll', but Kant developed it in his own way.

Real Will
Real willrefers to an aspect of individual's will identified by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712-78), French philosopher. Rousseau distinguished between two aspects
of individual's will: Actual will and Real will which represent his lower self and
higher self respectively. Actual will is motivated by his immediate self-interest;
real will, by his ultimate and collective good. Actual will is transient, real will is
stable. Actual will differs from individual to individual; real will is common to all
members of the community.

NowKant identifies the real will as 'good will', as it is

concerned with good
individual as wellas society. It represents that aspect of individual's
by Reason. It is Reason which impels the will which is inspie
individual to realize that each indivdua
should be treated as an end-in-itself, not as a means to serve another's interest. Ins
culminates in his sense of duty. Kant argues that individual 's freedom lies in fulin3
his will that is informed by his
sense of duty. Hence his moral with
his true freedom. freedom coincides
Since the source of moral
Kant is regarded an individualist.freedom lies in the individual himself and not elsewhere,
of individualism. While liberal But ofhis individualism is quite different from liberal I view
his own good according to his own view individualisnm. envisages each individual pursuing
judgement, all
individuals think alike because they Kant byprojects
are informed an identical ofwhich
order in
a social'sense dun. n
this respect, Kant's view
corresponds to Rousseau's concept of the General Will.
 Immanuel Kant 225

Individualism refers to a
Individualism
principle which regards individual a
requires that
eognition individual's dignity,
while making public policyautonomy and judgement shouldrational being. It
d political order and decisions. It supports abe given full
based on voluntary transaction legal,
mutual advantage. between individuals for social
their

General Will
According to Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), General Will
convergence of the real will of all members of a refers to the point of
interest of each individual as well as the community. It reflects the true
common interest
Rousseau believed that man would realize his freedom by of the whole community.
will to the direction of the General Will. submitting his particular

Kant argues that when the sense of duty imparts

identical consciousness to all
individuals, it may be expressed as a universal rule. For example,
all individuals do not steal', it becomes a universal rule. An when Reason directs
rules is identified as law' which needs the state for its aggregate of such universal
idea of moral freedom is the reason behind the existence enforcement.
of the state.
Hence the very
According to this argument the state is the product of the social contract. It is
through this contract that people surrender their external freedom so as to regain their
true freedom as members of a commonwealth. They use this instrument in order to
exchange their wild, lawless freedom for their perfect freedom. This freedom would
never be lost because it emanates from their free, legislative will'.

Social Contract
The idea of the social contract refers to an agreement among men whereby they
relinquish the hypothetical state of nature' and enter into civil society. Thomas
Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), English philosophers, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (1712-78), French philosopher, are regarded the chief exponents of the
theory of the social contract. They have given different accounts of the state of
nature, the terms of the contract, and the nature of sovereignty which comes into
existence in consequence of the social contract.

Kant argues that men should enter into any relation wilth each other only at
their free will.,Hence the objective of any contract should be the mutual benefit of the
contracting parties,and not to promote the interest of any one party. It is important to
note that thecharacter of the 'rational negotiators' envisaged by John Rawls (1921-2002),
onlemporary American political philosopher, in his theory of justice, corresponds to
Kant's concept of men acting at their free will. Since these 'rational negotiators grasp
d Tormulate the specified rules of justice' in order to safeguard their individual
interests,these rules become acceptable to everyone,
 Western Political 77
226

maxim enablesthe freedom of each individual's

Every action which by itself or by its
everyone else in accordance with a universal
freedom of
will to c0-exist with the
Morals; 17gSI
law is right.
Immanuel Kant (Groundwork of the Metaphysicof

DIGNITY
PRACTICAL REASON ANDHUMAN
In the sphere of epistemology, Kant argued
that our knowledge about the universe is
based on the subtle and dispersed signalsobtained through our sense-organs (ie the
are integrated byy our mind and
organs of sight, sound, smell, taste and touch) which this world attained by ne
translated into meaningful experience. So the knowledge of us to know the
circumscribed by the capability of the knower. It is not possible for
isworld as it is inthe realsense. In other words, our sense-organs are incapable to perceive
the true nature of the universe. We are therefore left with onlyone alternative, that is to
apply our practical reason to inquire into the relation between our mind and the universe

Epistemology
Epistemology refers to a branch of philosophy which inquires into the nature,
origin, scope, structure, types, methods and validity of knowledge. The subject
matter of epistemology may be expressed as follows: How do we know that we
truly know what we know?

Kant holds that our concepts are formed within the context of various
human
activities involving labour, science, arts, etc. which seek to mould the
fulfilling human needs and objectives. So philosophy should be universe for
knowledge as to how men strive to mould the universe. Man's founded on the
practical reason is not
determined by cause and effect relationship of the physical world,
distinguishing between good and evil. It is therefore guided by thebutmoral
it is capable of
should be recognized as the law which
of sovereignty of moral law.foundation of metaphysics. Thus Kant propounds the theory

Metaphysics refers to a branch ofMetaphysics

reality behind the universe as philosophy which inguires into the nature of
smell, taste and touch). So perceived through oursense-experience
that is within the reach of metaphysics is concerned
our with what exists(sight, sound,
beyond all
sense-experience.
Two things fill the mind
often and more seriouslywith ever new and increasing wonder and
above me and the moral lawreflectionconcentrates
within me. upon them: the awe, the more
starry heaven
Immanuel Kant (Critique of Practical
The maxim of moral law in Reason; 1785)
Kant's
dignity, It holds that each human being philosophy leads to the concept of humam
is entitled to aspecial
regard only because it is
 Immanuel Kant 227
a human being. In other words, every human being is by nature endowed with a unique
quality,that is human dignity which cannot be exchanged for any worldly value. In
Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785), Kant
his
typesof ought-statements: categorical and hypothetical. The distinguished between
hypothetical two
statement
suggests what an agent ought to do when he desires to achieve some
otherhand, the categorical statement prescribes what ought to be done objective. On the
independently of
suchcondition. Kant argued that only a categorical statement t suggests an actionthat has
genuine moral worth. Accordingly, categorical imperative implies what an individual
oughttodo independently of any desire to achieve a specific end.
Kant identified three formulations of this principle: (a) One ought to act only
2CCording to that maxim by which he can will at the same time that it should become
auniversal law; (6) One ought to act in such a way that he always treats humanity.
hether in his own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means but
always at the same time as an end; and finally, (c) One ought to act as though he were
through his maxims a law-making member of a 'kingdom of ends'. In a nutshell, the
categorical imperative directs the individual to transcend his personal ends, identify the
ends concerning all humanity, and ceaselessly pursue only those ends.
Man in the system of nature... is of little significance and, ...has an ordinary value...
But man as a person, i.e., as the subject of a morally practical reason, is exalted
above all price. For.. he is not to be valued merely as a means to the ends of
other people, or even to his own ends, but is to be prized as an end in himself.
Immanuel Kant (Metaphysical Principles of Virtue; 1797)

NATURE OF POLITICS
Kant strongly recommends that morality and politics should be closely related. He argues
that "true politics cannot take asingle step without firstpaying homage to morals" He
draws aclear distinction between moral motives and legal motives. Moral motive refers
toacting from good will or respect for moral law. On the other hand, legal motive refers
to acting from the fear of law. Now politics can be utilized for the reconstruction of legal
Institutions. Since politics operates on the strength of legal motive, it cannot be seen as
dmanifestation of good will. A better legal order may prove conducive to moral order,
yet as long as it is based on legal motive, it is bound to remain inferior to moral order.

Nothing in the world- indeed nothing even beyond the world can possibly be
Conceived which could be called good without qualification except as a good will.
Immanuel Kant (Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals; 1785)

hant argues that if politics could be shaped by morality, it would be instrumental

to promoting public legal justice by forbidding war and insisting on 'eternal peace'
as well as the rights of man'. The concept of human dignity can serve as a bridge
between legal justice. This can also serve as a bridge between arts
and morality and public determined by the
In that case, arts shall be devotedto serve the purpose
moralmorality.
sentiment.
 Western Political Thought
others
228 wouldrespect all orderas 'ends'
had good will, they
Ifallindividualskingdomof ends'. Then a perfect well
moral would
as good,
-indeedinto
come
exIstence. But
the
as members ofsince men are
becomes
by natureinclined
necessary.
to evil as
It is therefore imperativethat foundin g of an
legal order is
effective legal order as effectively as
possible.
ends
designed to serve the moral may tendto violate the 'rights of man'
sovereign authority
Kant apprehends thattoa serve its self-interest. War is aglaring example of
by treating men as
means misuse
rulers, e.g.authority;
of sovereign
the territorial
instrument of fulfilling Some
immoral
is apowerful In order to obviate this problem, Kant
itaggrandizement. purpose
hopes
of
conducted on the lines of repablicanism. Under this
wouldrisebeabove
politics would
that a healthy people
arrangement, the status of 'subjects' and become full-fedged
through the instrument
citizens. In short, Kant wants politics to serve moral ends
consent to a decision for un
law. He hopes that the citizens of a republic would never

Republicanism
Republicanism refers to a principle of governance. It requires that sovereign
authority is not held by any hereditary King or Queen, but the power to rule is
derived from the authority of people who are regarded to be 'equal citizens' in
terms of their legal and political rights. Republicanism also rules out the existence
of any privileged class in society or politics. In akingdom, people are treated as
'subjects' governed by the will of the King or Queen; in a republic, they become
'citizens' who are governed by their own will.

Q. Write a short essay on Kant's moral and

political thought.
 33

T. H. Green

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Green.. has seized the philosophy of Greece and of Germany, and interpreted it for
Englishmen with a full measure of English caution...Green... is more of an Aristotelian
than a Platonist,and more of a Kantian than a Hegelian.
Ernest Barker (Political Thought in England
1848 to 1914; 1928)
Thomas Hill Green (1836-82) was an English
reformer. He was born at Yorkshire, England,philosopher,
where his
profound scholar and social
paternal side, he was a descendant of Oliver father was a rector. On the
himself as Lord Protector of England Cromwell (1599-1658) who distinguished
Oxford where he became a (1653-58). Green was educated at Balliol College
Professor
position till the end of his short life. of Moral Philosophy in 1878, and retained this
Green's major contribution to
working out its moral political
He was philosophy was to transform liberalism by
which originated fromfoundations.
the writings of Plato deeply influenced by the idealist tradition
and which was and Aristotle, ancient Greek philosophers,
revived in the
modern
phi1831),
losopher, and developed by Immanuel byKantJean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), French
age
German philosophers. Green (1724-1804) and G.W.E. Hegel
(1770-
liberalism,
hollow which was based on the argued that
and that it could be the of British
existingself-interest, had become
foundations
of
franchise, sustained
public instruction
calculation of
further only onindividual exxpansion
could be justified and moral grounds. Further
social legislation was the order of the day which
only on
as the
philosophical
pioneer of the modern grounds. In the
together with that of John Stuartwelfare state. Green's liberal of liberal philosophy
tradition, Green ishailed
i
Mill
(1806-73), restatement responsible
|246 ] English philosopher,
was
 TH. Green 247
forredirectingliberalism from the morally indifferent principle of laissez-faire towards
social welfare
e more humane principle of
Liberalism
Liberalism refers to a principle of politics which regards "liberty' or freedom of
individual as the first andforemost principle of public policy. Early liberalism (which
broadly flourished in eighteenth-century Europe) subscribed to the principle of
laissez-faire which implied the policy of non-intervention of the state in economic
activities of individuals. It held that individual is the best judge of his own interest,
nd that each individual pursuing his self-interest, tends to promote the common
nterest which represents the aggregate of the self-interest of all members of
society. However, later version of liberalism (which was broadly developed in late
nineteenth-century England) subscribed to the principle of Welfare State.

Welfare State
Welfare state refers to a state that safeguards liberty of its citizens and also
provides various types of social services for them, e.g. social security (financial
assistance in the case of loss of job or any other source of income, death of the
breadwinner, prolonged illness or physical disability or any other calamity), free
like
education, public health, poor relief, supply of essential goods and Itservices
makes use
needy at subsidized rates.
foodgrains, milk, fuel and transport to the network
provide fora vast
of public resources and taxation of the relatively rich to
of social services and social security.

Green's political philosophy played a prominent role in shaping university education

1920. Green's most important
dnd public policy in Great Britain from about 1880 to
Prolegomena to Ethics (1883), and
Wlingsthat were posthumously published, include: 885).
Leclures on the Principles of PoliticalObligation (1 In a nutshell, Green sought to
political philosophy. His chief
Oish interlinkage between mataphysics, ethics and but it can certainly create conditions
argument was that the state cannot make man moral,
wanted the state to remove hindrances in
which are conducive to his moral uplift. He
Ihe way of man's moral life.

FREEDOM
CONCEPT OF MORAL

political philosophy. He realizedthat

Conceptof
the moral freedomniis the
best exibesting theoryasinegative
keynote of Green's
based on the principle of
of fliberalism which wasbecause it subscribed
laissez-faire,could
to 'negative liberty'. Green
sought todescribed
liberalism, concept of 'positive
itt into positive liberalism by introducing the moral freedom as the
transform
liberty which iis coterminous with moral freedom. He recognized
"Ireedom' have been
the terms 'liberty' and
dsincisynonymousl
ve quality y.
of man, Inthis context,
as donein all literature
on liberalism.
freedom' and 'positive freedom'.
Green carefully distinguished between'negative
 Western Political Thought
248
He argued that negative freedom consistsin the satisfaction of one's desires, and acting
is the sphere where man likes to
according to one's own choice or sweet will. It Early utilitarians thought of
left alone' (which is the literal meaning of laissez-faire).
maximizer". So the notion of negative
man as a mere 'pleasure-seeker'and 'pleasure introduce qualitative
liberty suited their mode of thought. J.S. Mill(1806-73) sought tohigh-quality pleasure
differences between different kinds of pleasures. He argued that
spirit. That is why Mill
is obtained by applying the superior faculties of mind and pig satisfied; better to he
than a
asserted: "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied
Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." Green went a step further and argued that
human beings do not seek pleasure directly. Rational basis of human activity is will
and reason, and not desire or passion. Men therefore seek 'self-realization' which is
superior to the pursuit of all sorts of pleasure.
Green asserted that human beings, as self-conscious subjects, pursuetheir 'good',
but their idea of the good does not vary from person to person, as early liberals had
assumed. In Green's view, men's concept of the goodcoincides with each other because
they share it with other members of the associations to which they belong. According
to Green, these shared ideas of the good have been "the parent of the institutions and
usages, of thesocial judgements and aspirations through which human life has been so
far bettered" (Prolegomena to Ethics; 1883). Individuals accept their duties towards
other members of society as they can attain self-realization only when they behave as
conscientious children or parents, citizens or public servants.
Man's urge for self-realization, informed by his sense of duty, leads to the
of positive freedom. Green (Lectures on the Principles of concept
Political
defines 'positive freedom' as the state in which man shall have Obligation; 1885)
himself, shall be at one with the law which he realized his ideal of
obey,. and so fulfil the law of his being or livingrecognizes that which he ought to
as
had argued that human welfare would be according to nature". Early liberals
choose his course of action. On the other maximized if individual was left alone to
free choice between alternative hand, Green asserted that for most
courses of
bound by the economic, cultural and social action did not exist because they werepeople, a
already
create conditions in which constraints. It was for the
government to
trulyfree choice. In order toindividual could rise above these
serve this purpose, constraints and make a
compulsory government should provide free and
of poverty andeducation, healthy living and working conditions, and relief
unemployment. from the fear
So'positive freedom' or
to Reason, achieving moral freedom of individual
through the act of'goodself-realization and self-perfection. consists in acting
Moral freedom isaccording
will' whereby
Barker (Political Thought in England man
1848
identifies himself withhis ideal self.realized
to Ernest
concept of true liberty as follows: 1914; 1928) has aptly
only be liberty for the pursuit of "Liberty can only be liberty for thiselucidated Green's
is therefore no the objects which such a
will good will, it can
negative absence of restraint, any more than
ugliness. It is apositive power presents to itself. Liberty
of doing or enjoying beauty is the absence O1
Green further postulates that
positive something worthdoing or enjoying.
enjoying something worth doing or enjoying, freedom
but
is realized not only
through
with others. Accordingly, David also in doing or doing o
Miller ("Introduction' in Liberty, enjoying it in common
edited by DavidMiller;
 TH Green 249
1991) hasidentifiedthree distinct elements in Green's definition of positive freedom:
"First,there is the claim that true freedom involves the
mere absence of restraint. Second, there is capacity to do things, not the
the moral element: the things we do must
be worth doing, which for Green meant that they had moral value.
social element: freedom must be enjoyed 'in common with others'." Third,
It
there is the
means that an
individual enjoys his freedom not by curtailing freedom of
others, but in
mnkes a positive contribution to the well-being of others. In Green's view, doing so he
conditions are independent of cach other. In these three
conditions should be fulfilled together.
exercising one's moral freedom, all these

THEORY OF RIGHTS
Green argued that the exercise of true liberty postulates rights, Rights do not
from any transcendental law as John Locke (1632-1704), English emanate
philosopher-the
father of liberalism, had imagined. Locke had maintained that man's right to life,
liberty and property' comprised his natural rights because he was endowed with these
rights by nature; no empirical evidence was necessary to prove this. In Green's view,
rights emanate from the mnoral character of man, and not from his natural existence.
Green postulates a system of rights in which each individual recognizes in his fellow,
and each claims from his fellow that he shall recognize in him, the power of
pursuing
ideal objects. Since each individual is a moral agent, and in this respect all individuals
are alike, it follows that the ideal objects of all are the common objects. When all men
claim the right to pursue their common ideal objects, theoretically there is no question
of clash between the rights of different individuals.
Green concedes that rights need recognition, but it does not mean that all rights are
legal rights. Green draws a clear distinction between state and society, and holds that
genuine rights need not be recognized by the state; these are required to be recognized by
Ihe moral consciousness of the community, Man can pursue his moral end and attain self
Tealization onlyin a community, and not in isolation. So Green is primarily concerned
with ideal rights, and not with legal rights. These rights can be realized in a society
Which is properly organized on the basis of 'good will'. As Ernest Barker (Political
Thought in England)has elucidated: "The rights of which Green speaks arerelative to
morality rather than law: and the recognition of which he speaks is recognition by a
vOmmon moral consciousness rather than by a legislature."
According to Green, the state is also the product of moral consciousness of the
Community. As he argues, human consciousness postulates liberty; liberty involves
S rights demand the state The state is necessary to maintain an effective system
of rights> It is
therefore an instrument ofperfection as liberal theory holds; it is not an
embodi
to m ent of 1perfection as idealist theory claims State is necessary to enable
exercise their moral freedom. Green regards the state the 'protector of rights'
men

JiGrberaleen theory maintained, and not as the 'source of rights'asas idealist theory professedas
from whiargued that the state should respect the moral consciousness of the community
ch the rights of man are derived. Positive law can be criticized and improved
 Western Political Thought
250
state the moral perfection of men,
upon in the lightof the ideal purpose of the
Positive Law
and
duly enacted by a legislative body
Positive law refers to the law that is binding on all those coming within its
recognized by the judiciary. Positive law is
with punishment.
jurisdiction,and its violation is effectively met

state is to maintain such conditions of life

In Green's view, primary function of the the disinterested performance
in which morality shallbe possible. Moralityconsists in state. Green's conception of
of self-imposedduties, not in obeying the commands of the
improvement of men led him to favour intervention
the state as an instrument for moral
of the state in order to secure welfare of the citizens.
As achampion of rights, Green upholdsthe right to property as a means of realizing
awill polentially directed to the social good. He argues that freedom of the individual
implies the freedom to acquire and possess material goods according to one's potentiality
to contribute to the social good. The social good requires that different individuals should
flldifferent positions in the social organization. So they require different amounts of
property to perform their duties. Hence, differences in the possession of property are
'functional' from the point of view of the social good, which should be recognized by
the social conscience. However, on this point Green is faced witha dilemma. When the
right to property creates conditions under which some men take an unduly large share
and others are prevented from acquiring adequate property as a means of self-realization,
this right becomes an obstacle in the exercise of moral freedom by the many. So Green
turns to realize the malady of the capitalist system, but stops short of making proper
diagnosis, by locating the origins of the inequality of property in the system of 'landed
property' as itexisted in England in the past.
So Green tends to blame the feudal system of the past for all
evils of the present
capitalist system. He argues that the system of landed property' was responsible for
the creation of a proletariat (the word used by Green
himsel) which neither held nor
acquired any property for itself. C.B. Macpherson (Democratic
Retrieval; 1973) has rightly argued that Green had "so little Theory Essays in
of capitalism that he could attribute the insight into the nature
existence of a proletariat not to the nature of
capitalist enterprise but to the continuing effect of anoriginal
in feudal times, and
subsequent 'unrestricted landlordism" By forcible seizure of land
feudalism, Green sought to putting the blame on
bulk of the working class in exempt capitalism
modern times.
from the responsibility of plight of he

Capitalism
Capitalism refers to an economic system of the
industrial production where means of social modern age largely based on
forests, machinery and capital), production (land. buildings, mines,
entrepreneurs,a large distribution and exchange are owned by private
and economic activity isnumberof workers are employed on wages at the mnarket rate,
work anywhere accordingprimarily devoted to
to their skills and private profit. Here
capabilities as well asworkers are free to
market demand.
 TH. Green 251

IV

FOUNDATIONSOF THE POLITICAL OBLIGATION

Political obligation refers to the set of conditions which determine as to how far, when
andwhyrindividual is obliged to obey law and the commands ofpolitical authority. Green
edthat the state is authorized to make law, and individual is
ar as it conforms to the moral consciousness of the obliged to abide by it,
respectively.In Green's view, the state cannot demand cornmunity
and the individual
unconditional obedience from
is citizens. For the purpose of determining political obligation, organized power of the
community, and not the state, should be recognized as the political authority. Accordingly.
individual owes his allegiance to society, and not to the state.
Green tends to link the problem of political obligation with the pursuit of the
common good. He argues that as self-conscious beings, mnen and women seek to realize
the common good which they grasp along with other members of the community.
They do not identify their self-interest as distinctly as they identify the common good.
Common good not only comprehends the good of all members of the community, but
their conceptions of thecommon good are also identical. In his Lectures on the Principles
of PoliticalObligation (1885), Green argued that the state itself is obliged to promote
the common good as conceived by its citizens. Individual is obliged to abide by those
laws only which will promote the common good in his own judgement. If individual
thinks that he will serve the cause of thecommon good by defying aparticular command
of thestate, his political obligation does not prevent him from such defiance.
According to Green, it is the consciousness of the common good which prompts
men to accept their duties. They are ready to sacrifice their self-interest for the sake
of the common good, such as by paying taxes and rendering military service, for they
believe that they can attain self-realization only as members of the community, notas
Isolated individuals. The question of priority between the individual and the community
IS iTelevant because individuals have no rational existence outside the community,
and no community can exist without its constituent individuals. The true basis of the
community lies in each individual treating every other individual as an end-in-itself.
Decause cach member of the community is regarded to be capable of pursuing ideal
0bjects. The criterion of evaluation of any institution or law consists in determining
wnether it enables the citizens to exercise their good will and reasonin the conduct of
heir affairs. Moral freedom of individuals requires all mnembers of the community to
have equal l opportunity of self-development. It is the duty of the state to create conditions
ial are conducive to moral freedom of individuals.
Green argues that law can force the individuals to perfom certain acts. But these
Mould be external acts only. No law can make them moral because morality is dependent
Something freely willed. In Green's words, "Will, nor force, is the basis of the
e. In a nutshell,Green's view of political obligation banks upon the moral nature
and capacity of human beings. Since individuals themselves are the best judges of the
common good, and the state is only an instrument of the common good, there is no
ground for unconditional lor unlimited political obligation. Green served as asource of
252 Western Political Thought
political
inspiration for later political philosophers who sought to build their theories of
obligation on the foundations of morality. Forexample, Harold J. Laski (1893-1950)
English political philosopher, following the footsteps of Grecn, ruled out unconditional
political obligation. Laski argued that if a government claims allegiance of its citizens,
it willhave to compete with other human associations in securing their highest welfare

Q. Elucidate Green's concept of moral freedom. Bring out its relation with the
grounds of political obligation.