Palawan’s Indigenous Peoples: Challenges and Legal Conflicts in Land Ownership

(An Katutubo i an Palawan: An Kasulan Ampang Albalayan sa Katagbanan i an lupa’)

C-SOSC006PR - Philippine Indigenous Communities

PSC21

Submitted To:

Dr. Ma. Virginia G. Aguilar

Submitted By:

De Ocampo, Yumi Eleina M.

Presado, Aliah O.
 I.​ INTRODUCTION

A.​ BACKGROUND OF THE TAGBANUA PEOPLE

​
HISTORY AND ORIGINS
​
​ The Tagbanua are one of the oldest indigenous groups in the Philippines, with historical roots
dating back thousands of years. Their ancestral lands are primarily in Palawan, particularly in Coron,
Aborlan, and other areas of Northern and Central Palawan. The name "Tagbanua" originates from the
phrase "tiga banua," meaning "people of the village" or "people of the place," emphasizing their deep
connection to their homeland. They have survived centuries of change, including Spanish colonization,
modernization, and land disputes, yet they continue to uphold their distinct cultural identity.​
​
POPULATION AND TERRITORY

The Tagbanua were once one of the largest indigenous groups in Palawan, but their population
has significantly declined due to external pressures.
●​ 1987: The Tagbanua population was estimated at 130,000 in Palawan.
●​ Today: The population has dropped to about 10,000, with around 1,800 living in the Calamianes
Islands.

Their ancestral lands cover more than 250,000 hectares, consisting of forests, coastal areas, and
marine reserves. Major ancestral domain titles include:
●​ 2001: Coron (22,000 hectares) – Recognized under the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title
(CADT), granting land and marine resource rights.
●​ 2009: Barangay Cabigaan, Aborlan (12,874.74 hectares) – Officially granted to the Tagbanua
community.
●​ Calauit Island (55,539 hectares) – Secured as part of ancestral land claims.
●​ Victoria-Anepahan Mountain Range (136,007 hectares of 164,789-hectare area) – One of the
largest recognized indigenous territories.
​
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SUBGROUPS OF THE TAGBANUA PEOPLE​

The Tagbanua people, indigenous to Palawan, Philippines, are generally characterized by their
brown skin, slender frames, and straight hair. They are divided into two primary subgroups: the Central
Tagbanua and the Calamian Tagbanua, each with distinct dialects and cultural practices.

Central Tagbanua: This group predominantly resides in the central regions of Palawan,
especially in the municipalities of Aborlan, Quezon, and Puerto Princesa. They speak the Central
Tagbanua dialect, which is unique to their subgroup. Their traditional practices include kaingin (shifting
cultivation) for agriculture and fishing, reflecting a lifestyle deeply connected to both land and sea.

Calamian Tagbanua: In contrast, the Calamian Tagbanua inhabit the Calamian Islands,
including areas like Busuanga, Coron, and Culion. They speak the Calamian Tagbanua dialect, which is
distinct from that of their Central counterparts. Their culture is heavily oriented toward the sea, with
livelihoods centered around fishing and gathering marine resources. The Calamian Tagbanua have also
been recognized for their sustainable environmental practices, particularly in marine conservation.

Despite these differences, both subgroups share a profound connection to their ancestral lands and
waters, maintaining traditions that have been passed down through generations
​
LIVELIHOOD AND ECONOMY

The Tagbanua have a subsistence-based economy, relying on natural resources for survival and
trade. Fishing plays a crucial role in their daily lives, as they catch fish, sea cucumbers, and shellfish from
the coastal waters of Palawan. Alongside fishing, they practice farming, growing rice, cassava, and
bananas to sustain their families. They also engage in forest gathering, collecting honey, rattan, and
almaciga resin, which are valuable in local markets. Traditional handicrafts, such as woven mats, baskets,
and wooden carvings, serve both as a form of artistic expression and a source of income, especially with
the rise of tourism. In recent years, many coastal Tagbanua communities have shifted toward eco-tourism
and conservation projects, offering guided tours, cultural demonstrations, and environmental protection
efforts to generate income while preserving their land and natural resources. However, despite these
efforts, modernization and external pressures continue to threaten their traditional economic practices.

CULTURE, BELIEFS, AND TRADITIONS

The Tagbanua have a deeply spiritual culture, rooted in animistic beliefs and a strong connection
to nature. They believe in diwata (nature spirits), who they see as protectors of the land, sea, and people.
To honor these spirits, they perform various rituals, the most important being the Pagdiwata, a
thanksgiving ceremony where they offer food, perform dances, and recite chants to seek blessings for
good health, abundant harvests, and protection from misfortune. The babaylan (shamans) serve as
spiritual leaders and healers, conducting healing rituals using a mix of herbal medicine, incantations, and
offerings to cure illnesses. One of their most distinct cultural practices is their burial customs, where they
perform secondary burials, a process where the bones of the deceased are carefully cleaned and placed in
ceramic jars inside sacred caves. This practice reflects their belief in life after death and their deep
reverence for ancestors. Despite external influences, many Tagbanua communities continue to uphold
these traditions, preserving their spiritual heritage in modern times.
​
LANGUAGE AND WRITING SYSTEM
​
​ The Tagbanua language belongs to the Austronesian language family and has three main dialects:
Aborian Tagbanua, Calamian Tagbanua, Central Tagbanua. Historically, the Tagbanua people used an
ancient writing system derived from the Kawi script of Java, Sumatra, and Bali. This script was once used
on bamboo and other materials, but its use has significantly declined due to external influences. Efforts
are being made to document and revive this traditional writing system as part of cultural preservation
initiatives.​
TRADITIONAL ATTIRE OF THE TAGBANUA PEOPLE

The Tagbanua people of Palawan have a rich cultural heritage, reflected in their traditional
clothing. In the past, their attire was made from the bark of trees, particularly the salugin. Men typically
wore simple loincloths, secured with a woven rattan waistband called an ambalad, while women wrapped
themselves in brief skirts made from the same bark material. Over time, their clothing has evolved due to
influences from other cultures, including Muslim and Western styles. Today, while modern clothing is
common, especially among women who now wear colorful garments similar to those in nontribal
communities, many men still choose to wear loincloths when fishing or working. Despite these changes,
traditional attire remains an important part of the Tagbanua identity, preserving their connection to their
ancestors and way of life.

COLONIZATION AND ITS IMPACT

Spanish colonization in the 17th and 18th centuries greatly affected the Tagbanua way of life.
They were subjected to forced labor, religious conversion, and land dispossession. Many were relocated
to mission settlements (reducciones), leading to the loss of their ancestral lands and disruption of their
traditional governance. Over time, modernization and government policies encouraged settlers to move
into Tagbanua territories, further marginalizing the indigenous group.

Despite these challenges, the Tagbanua have fought for their rights. In 2001, they won a historic
legal battle and were granted the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT), officially recognizing
their ownership of 22,000 hectares of land and marine resources in Coron. This recognition was a
significant step in securing their land rights and cultural survival.​
​
CURRENT STRUGGLES AND FUTURE CHALLENGES​

While the future remains uncertain, the Tagbanua’s resilience is undeniable. Their ongoing
struggle to protect their rights and ancestral lands is not just a fight for cultural survival but also a crucial
effort to preserve the complex biodiversity and rich history embedded in their territories. Protecting the
Tagbanua means safeguarding a vital part of the Philippines’ natural and cultural heritage, ensuring that
their legacy endures for generations to come.

B.​ LEGAL ISSUE

​
​ The struggle of the Tagbanua people to reclaim their ancestral rights to their lands and seas is a
reflection of the broader movement towards self-determination among Indigenous communities. This
conflict is not merely about territorial claims but is deeply tied to their survival, identity, and way of life.
Without legal recognition and protection of their ancestral domain, Indigenous groups face cultural
erosion, resource loss, and displacement. Upholding Indigenous rights is not only a matter of
environmental conservation but also a crucial issue of social justice. Recognizing their ownership
empowers these communities to establish self-governing institutions, participate in decision-making
processes, and manage resources in alignment with their cultural values and sustainable practices.
Ultimately, the recognition of Indigenous rights is vital for their development, dignity, and the protection
of their rich cultural heritage.​
​
​ The case of Arnolfo A. Daco v. Ruben E. Cabajar (G.R. No. 222611 November 15, 2021)
revolves around a legal conflict over the ownership of Isla Malajem, a land located within the ancestral
domain of the Tagbanua indigenous cultural community in the Philippines. The conflict arises between
the Tagbanua community, who assert their native title to the land based on traditional occupation and use,
and Arnolfo A. Daco, who claims private ownership based on tax declarations in his father's name and
alleged improvements made on the property. The case raises critical questions about the jurisdiction of the
National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) in resolving disputes between indigenous
communities and non-indigenous individuals over ancestral domains, the balance between individual
rights and communal rights, and the effectiveness of the Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act (IPRA) in
protecting indigenous land rights. The case seeks to clarify the evidence needed to establish native title
versus private ownership, and to ultimately determine the rightful ownership of Isla Malajem, potentially
setting a precedent for future legal disputes involving similar conflicts over ancestral domains.

The legal battle of the Tagbanua people highlights the broader struggle that many Indigenous
communities in the Philippines face in protecting their ancestral lands. However, land disputes are not
exclusive to Indigenous groups. Many ordinary Filipinos, particularly those in informal settlements and
rural areas, also experience challenges when their homes and lands are threatened by development
projects and land conversions. While the IPRA provides a legal framework for protecting Indigenous
lands, its implementation is often hindered by weak institutional support and conflicting land policies.
Cases like Daco v. Cabajar reveal how Indigenous communities must navigate a legal system that
sometimes prioritizes business and government interests over their rights. Addressing these issues
requires stronger legal enforcement, institutional reforms, and increased advocacy to ensure that both
Indigenous and non-Indigenous Filipinos have their land claims recognized and protected. Until these
systemic issues are resolved, the fight for land rights will remain a persistent challenge for many
underprivileged communities.
​
​ A major legal challenge in this case is the proving of continuous occupation of the land, which is
a prerequisite under Section 5 of the IPRA that grants Indigenous claims based on customary and
historical use. Conflict parties would tend to use the legal loopholes to contend that certain lands are
covered by Presidential Decree No. 705 (Revised Forestry Code of the Philippines) which puts some
ancestral domains as forest lands outside the scope of Indigenous property. Another set of legal issues is
when certain government-sponsored infrastructure or tourism developments assert control over
Indigenous Peoples’ territories which causes conflicts between the conservation of the environment and
the protection of ancestral domains. In support of the Tagbanua’s case, arguments have also been made
based on the decision in Cariño v. Insular Government (1909) that declared Indigenous land rights do
exist without formal land title, but its application has exposed legal proceedings to contradictions. There
are also people informally occupying land in the cities who suffer the consequences of such disputes
through displacement and are left without adequate legal protection.

​ Aside from land ownership, the Tagbanua are also threatened by issues of free, prior, and
informed consent (FPIC), a provision under Section 59 of IPRA which requires Indigenous consent prior
to any project that impacts their lands. In most instances, projects have been undertaken without
meaningful consultation, resulting in claims of legal violations and displacement. Many projects have
taken place without genuine consultation, giving way to accusations of legal transgressions and
displacement. The NCIP, charged with the task of protecting Indigenous rights, has itself been singled out
for inefficacy and poor enforcement of FPIC procedures. Its inability to maintain proper consultation
procedures is echoed with the challenges that urban dwellers face because of development projects like
the displaced because of the Build, Build, Build Program where numerous informal settlers were
dislodged without resettlement schemes in place and even without sufficient legal safeguards.
​
​ Another legal problem is the tension between local ordinances and national laws, most notably
where local governments are not recognizing Indigenous land rights. Municipal governments have taken
sides with private claimants or commercial interests and have resulted in forced evictions and clashes with
the law. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), especially
Article 26, supports the rights of Indigenous people to own land. Unfortunately, these rights are not
always enforced in every country. The Tagbanua, like many Indigenous groups, face many challenges
which they deal with poverty and have limited access to legal services, which makes their situation more
difficult and leaves them more vulnerable. Most Indigenous people do not have the economic capabilities
to fund expensive legal processes and thus are susceptible to legal manipulations by their more influential
counterparties. In the same manner, the common Filipinos, especially the urban poor, experience similar
economic and legal problems when confronted with disputes over lands and threats of eviction.

C.​ REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

The indigenous people's land rights struggles remain unresolved, and with recent research studies,
add more complexity and light to their legal battles. According to Santiago (2021), despite the existence
of laws such as the The Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act (IPRA), many indigenous groups still experience
difficulties in staking claims to their ancestral lands because of red tape and opposition from corporate
interests. Santiago also points out that while the government has constructed systems meant to support the
recognition of claims made for the ancestral domains, such systems are often too complex and costly, and
too many various challenges pose legal obstacles. Indigenous groups face enormous hurdles to reclaim
what is theirs due to many corporations and landowners exploiting these bureaucratic impediments to
consolidate their claims and expand their borders. Furthermore, as Santiago further states, the absence of
proper legal counsel and the necessary finances puts the indigenous communities at a great disadvantage
in land disputes and forces them to render the implementation of the IPRA futile in plenty of situations.

​ Meanwhile, The Environmental Justice Atlas (2022) provides an overview of the different
interrelated conflicts that arise from land struggles in the Philippines, focusing on the Aetas and the New
Clark City project located in Tarlac. The Aeta families have been removed from their homes due to the
construction of this development, which has economically and culturally disrupted their traditional
livelihoods and cultural practices. With urban expansion, these people are becoming more and more
marginalized, as the lands that once supported them through agriculture and hunting are no longer
available or have no access to it. Moreover, the alteration of these ancestral domains into industrial sites
leads to environmental destruction, worsening the condition of the already vulnerable Aeta people. This
issue illustrates the severe consequences on the land rights of indigenous peoples caused by the
implementation of large development works without the participation of the affected peoples and
communities, which increases poverty and displacement.

In addition, IPRA continues to be the pillar of legal protection for indigenous peoples in the
Philippines, though its enforcement continues to be very challenging (Cebu Daily News, 2024). In spite of
its purpose of safeguarding ancestral domains, several indigenous peoples struggle with bureaucratic
obstruction and corporate incursion, weakening their rights over their lands. The law requires Free, Prior,
and Informed Consent (FPIC) prior to the commencement of any development projects, yet in reality,
numerous indigenous groups cite instances of coercion and manipulation. The article highlights how
economic interests overrule indigenous rights, causing displacement and cultural heritage loss. Also, lack
of strong enforcement systems enables industries like mining and logging to work in ancestral territories
with little accountability. Therefore, indigenous people still demand greater legal security and effective
governmental action.

Moreover, as the IPRA is recognized as one of the most comprehensive legal frameworks for the
indigenous rights, granting indigenous communities ownership over their ancestral lands, forests, and
natural resources, and more, the article still highlights that its implementation of it remains weak due to
external pressures from corporations and conflicting legal provisions (FocusWeb, 2024). Similar to other
studies on indigenous land struggles, it points out how FPIC has been misused, allowing businesses to
push through projects without genuine community approval. Additionally, legal contradictions between
IPRA and other national laws create loopholes that favor private interests over indigenous claims. The
article also emphasizes that some indigenous communities have been forcibly displaced despite the legal
protections guaranteed by IPRA. It argues that the effectiveness of the law really depends largely on the
political will of those who are in power. It also depends on how supportive the government could
strengthen enforcement and protect indigenous rights. Without firm state intervention, the potential of
IPRA to serve as a tool for indigenous empowerment remains unfulfilled.

SYNTHESIS AND RELEVANCE OF THE REVIEWED RELATED LITERATURE AND

STUDIES

The reviewed studies highlight the struggle for indigenous people’s land rights in the Philippines.
This is not just a legal issue as it is a matter of survival, identity, and justice. The reviewed literature
paints a clear picture of how indigenous communities continue to face immense obstacles in reclaiming
and protecting their ancestral lands, despite the existence of laws meant to safeguard them. Santiago
(2021) describes how indigenous groups encounter overwhelming legal and financial barriers, making it
nearly impossible for them to navigate the bureaucratic processes required to secure their claims.
Meanwhile, powerful corporations take advantage of these legal loopholes, using delays and technicalities
to expand their control over ancestral domains. Cebu Daily News (2024) further highlights how economic
interests often overpower indigenous rights, as industries such as mining and logging continue to operate
on indigenous lands with little oversight or accountability.

Beyond the legal battles, the displacement of indigenous communities due to large-scale
development projects has profound human consequences. The Environmental Justice Atlas (2022) details
how the Aeta people in Tarlac were forcibly removed from their homes to make way for the New Clark
City project. This disruption is not just about the land, it is about losing their way of life, traditions, and
sources of livelihood. With their forests and farmlands transformed into industrial zones, they are left
struggling to adapt to an unfamiliar world that does not prioritize their needs. Similarly, FocusWeb (2024)
exposes the manipulation of the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) process, which is supposed to
protect indigenous communities from unwanted development. Many indigenous groups report being
pressured into agreements that do not reflect their true interests, further weakening their ability to protect
their lands and future. Additionally, contradictions between IPRA and other national laws create legal
gray areas that corporations exploit, making it even harder for indigenous communities to assert their
rightful ownership.

These studies are deeply relevant today because they shed light on the urgent need for stronger
legal enforcement and genuine political will to protect indigenous rights. The challenges faced by
indigenous communities are not abstract legal debates, they are real-life struggles that affect people’s
homes, cultures, and futures. For policymakers, legal advocates, and human rights organizations, these
findings emphasize the need for reforms that go beyond paper promises. Without real action, indigenous
communities will continue to suffer displacement, cultural erosion, and economic hardship. Strengthening
the enforcement of IPRA, ensuring fair and transparent FPIC processes, and holding corporations
accountable are critical steps in making sure that indigenous peoples are not just heard, but truly
protected.

D.​ OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This research seeks to investigate and examine the challenges of the Tagbanua people in reclaiming
and defending their ancestral territory. It aims to understand the legal, social, and political barriers that
hinder their land rights and explore the broader implications of these struggles on their community.
Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:

1.​ What are the major legal and institutional challenges faced by the Tagbanua people in reclaiming
their ancestral lands?
2.​ How do government policies and external interests impact the Tagbanua’s land rights and
territorial claims?
3.​ What are the social, economic, and cultural effects of land disputes on the Tagbanua community?

II. METHOD OF RESEARCH

This study will primarily utilize document analysis as its main research method to examine the
challenges faced by the Tagbanua people in reclaiming and defending their ancestral lands. This approach
involves systematically reviewing and interpreting relevant materials, such as government policies, legal
documents, historical records, court decisions, and academic studies related to indigenous land rights. By
analyzing these sources, the study aims to uncover key legal, social, and political factors influencing the
Tagbanua’s struggle for land ownership and protection. Through this method, the research will provide a
comprehensive understanding of the issue based on credible and verifiable information while evaluating
the effectiveness of existing laws and policies in safeguarding indigenous land rights.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings drawn above, the following are hereby recommended:

1.​ Strengthening IPRA Implementation – The government must enhance enforcement

mechanisms to ensure the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) effectively protects indigenous
communities. This includes imposing stricter penalties for violations and improving oversight by
the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP).
2.​ Legal Assistance for Indigenous Communities – Creating legal aid services that specialize in
supporting indigenous communities in dealing with legal conflicts can enable them to exercise
their rights. Collaborating with law schools and human rights institutions can offer pro bono legal
services to the affected people.
3.​ Stronger FPIC Enforcement – Ensuring that Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC)
procedures are truly participatory and not dominated and manipulated by corporate agendas is
imperative. Independent monitoring of agencies must be put in place to monitor FPIC
implementation.
4.​ Community-Led Land Mapping – Indigenous peoples must be assisted in mapping their lands
to ensure that there is clear documentation of their claims over the land. The Government,
academic institutions, and NGOs can work together to help communities develop digital and
physical maps of their ancestral territories.
5.​ Policy Reform and Legislative Amendments – Sealing the legal loopholes permitting corporate
and private individuals to dispute indigenous land rights is essential in the Philippines. New
legislation must contain strong protection against land-grabbing and stricter rules regulating land
conversion on indigenous lands.
6.​ Educational Awareness and Advocacy – Indigenous studies must be incorporated in schools
and universities to inform students of the significance of indigenous rights. Schools and
universities must also promote research on indigenous matters to foster a greater understanding of
their plight and achievements.
7.​ Increased Protection from Forced Evictions in Urban Communities – The government must
have tougher laws governing the eviction process to safeguard urban poor communities against
forced evictions with warning or without due process. Creating a Mandatory Eviction Notice Act,
with strict requirements of local governments and developers to issue adequate notice, alternative
accommodation, and legal representation for displaced families, can avoid unfair evictions.
Housing programs in emergencies must also be strengthened to provide displaced citizens with
immediate housing and assistance.
8.​ More Studies on Urban Displacement and Indigenous Rights – Future scholars should
conduct in-depth case studies on indigenous land rights conflicts, especially the long-term effects
of legal combat and displacement. Comparative studies across the Philippines and other nations
with strong indigenous protections can help shed light on policy enhancements. Moreover, studies
 on the socio-economic contributions of indigenous peoples can also serve to further advance the
argument for more secure legal safeguards.
9.​ Recommendations to Future Researchers – Future research would be directed toward the
efficacy of existing land tenure policies, the indigenous people's role in the advocacy of land
rights, and the effects of climate change on ancestral domains. Research would also look into the
convergence of indigenous struggles with issues of urban displacement, focusing on a wider
framework of land security in the Philippines.

APPENDICES

Tagbanua People ​
Source: https://bestdivingphilippines.com/tagbanua-tribe-palawan/​

The island of the Tagbanua

Source: https://www.remotelands.com/travelogues/tribal-
tagbanua-the-guardians-of-coron/
 The Tagbanua prepare for a courtship dance
Source: https://www.remotelands.com/travelogues/tribal-
tagbanua-the-guardians-of-coron/

​
Wedding Ceremony: Sado (in Tagbanua) or Saro (in Pela'wan)​
Source: https://www.facebook.com/share/p/193ykB1qHX/

REFERENCES (BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY):

●​ Posts, V. M. (2019, September 27). THE CULTURE OF THE TAGBANUA TRIBES.
Cherryjaneweb. https://cherryjaneweb.wordpress.com/2016/07/28/tagbanua-tribes-2/
●​ Travel Palawan. (2023, May 8). Palawan’s Indigenous people ’s cultural heritage.
https://www.travel-palawan.com/cultural-heritage/indigenous-peoples/
●​ Life, C. (2024, September 12). The Tagbanwa Tribe: Guardians of Ancestral Heritage in Palawan
- Coron Life. Coron Life.
https://coronlife.com/the-tagbanwa-tribe-guardians-of-ancestral-heritage-in-palawan/
●​ Wikipedia contributors. (2024, December 29). Tagbanwa. Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagbanwa
●​ Ivan. (2024, December 11). Proactively protecting ancestral land in the Philippines: A Tagbanua
community’s fight for justice.
https://iprights.org/index.php/en/all-news/proactively-protecting-ancestral-land-in-the-philippines
-a-tagbanua-communitys-fight-for-justice
●​ Capistrano, R. C. G. (2009). Reclaiming the ancestral waters of indigenous peoples in the
Philippines: The Tagbanua experience with fishing rights and indigenous rights. Marine Policy,
34(3), 453–460.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2009.09.012
●​ Clark, J. (2022, November 14). Palawan Beliefs • THE ASWANG PROJECT. THE ASWANG
PROJECT.
 https://www.aswangproject.com/philippine-mythology/palawan-mythologies-beliefs/
●​ Project Katutubong Pilipino. (n.d.). TAGBaNUa | Project Katutubong Pilipino.
https://katutuboproject.org/tag/tagbanua/
●​ Esterman, I. (2024, December 27). Indigenous Filipinos fight to protect biodiverse mountains
from mining. Mongabay Environmental News.
https://news.mongabay.com/2024/03/indigenous-filipinos-fight-to-protect-biodiverse-mountains-f
rom-mining/
●​ https://neptjournal.com/upload-images/(1)D-1620.pdf
●​ Padrones, H. M. (2024, December 9). Palawan IPs fight for rights to cultural land. PALAWAN
NEWS.
https://palawan-news.com/palawan-ips-fight-for-rights-to-cultural-land/

REFERENCES (REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES):

●​ Santiago, A. (n.d.). THE CORDILLERA INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ RIGHT TO LAND. ., h

https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/EMRIP/RightToLand/Santia
goPhilippinesCordillera.pdf
●​ https://geomatico.es/. (n.d.). Ej Atlas.
https://ejatlas.org/conflict/the-struggle-for-land-in-the-new-clark-city-project-in-tarlac
●​ Dsingson. (2024, October 17). Indigenous Peoples Rights Act and struggle for self-determination.
Cebu Daily News.
https://cebudailynews.inquirer.net/600730/indigenous-peoples-rights-act-and-struggle-for-self-det
ermination
●​ Bello, W. (n.d.). The subversion of the Philippines’ Indigenous People’s Rights Act | Focus on the
Global South.
https://focusweb.org/the-subversion-of-the-philippines-indigenous-peoples-rights-act/