2.

semiconductor physics The band model in the transition from position space to momentum space
2.2 The band structure

Si GaA s Results:
conduction band
bands are dependent on direction

bands are close to parabolic (quasi free)

parabolic bending results in different

electron
moving masses m* < melectron

valence bands are flat

indirectly direct -> hole mass larger than electron mass
transition transition
hole degenerated valence bands with
different bending
-> light and heavy holes mass

steeper conduction band in GaAs

valence band -> smaller mass -> higher mobility -> HF

indirect band gap needs change in

momentum k
-> hampered light emission in Si
-> GaAs for optoelectronics

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 43, 2024
2. semiconductor physics Band diagrams of semiconductors
2.2 The band structure

Simplification of the band structure (in momentum space) to the band diagram (in position space)

Considering the band structure, the band curvatures are in the order of eV.
Usually, charge carriers do not have higher kinetic energies than kT.
(note: kT(300K) = 26meV)
This means that the charge carriers hardly energetically notice the band
curvature. All electrons are in the conduction band minimum with almost the
same energy and at all places in the Crystal.
The same applies to the holes in the valence band maximum.

With this it‘s possible to draw a simplified energy scheme

for all places in the crystal (= band diagram).
This band diagram is the design basis for all
semiconductor devices.

band
energy of electrons
structure

Ec

Ei
Ev

Real position x in crystal

band diagram

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 44, 2024
1. crystals
-> crystals, lattice types, crystal planes
-> crystal defects

2. the band structure

-> atomic model, energy levels, energy bands
-> position space and momentum space

3. occupation of energy levels

-> Excitation and intrinsic carrier density
-> doping, Fermi level

4. carrier transport
-> thermal movement, drift, diffusion

5. basic principles of semiconductor devices

-> Barrier generation and steering
-> bipolar transistor and MOSFET

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 45, 2024
2. semiconductor physics Thermal excitation of electrons
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

With the band structure or the band diagram the location and the number of energy levels is
represented. Now it‘s required to calculate how these levels will be occupied.

Energy
__

~ 10 22 energy levels CB

Egap

~ 10 22 energylevels VB

Egap
real coordinates x
band structure

Energy levels
state density = how many seats per level (row)

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 46, 2024
2. semiconductor physics Thermal excitation of electrons
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

classic electron gas

Heat generates kinetic energy of the particles: Ekin = 3/2 kT
𝑇[𝐾]
𝑘𝑇 𝑒𝑉 =
1
𝑘𝑇
𝑚𝑣²
𝜕𝑁 −2
∝ 𝑁𝑣²𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑑𝑣

Maxwell distribution with Boltzmann

factor
quantum mechanical electron gas

1 Fermi distribution
f 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸0
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

1 −
∆𝐸
Approximation: kT << ∆E → exp[ ] >>1 → 𝑓 𝐸 ∝ = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
exp[]
Thermal excitation mostly through Boltzmann factor ∆𝐸
−𝑘𝑇
𝑒
Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul
slide 2. 47, 2024
 2. semiconductor physics Thermal excitation of electrons
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

To calculate the number of electrons in the conduction band, the following 3 factors are taken into account:

𝑛 = න 𝐷(𝑊) ∙ 𝑓 𝑊 𝑑𝑊
over all allowed energies
number of electrons
density of states Fermi distribution (occupation
(Distribution of energy states) probability)

Energy The integral can be solved analytically if:

D(W)
____ dW
NC= 3.2*1019 cm -3 eV-1
D(W) = const. at the band edges
WC NV = 1.8*1019 cm -3 eV-1

Ei =0 𝑓(𝑊) ≈ 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇
Δ𝑊 if W-WF >> kT
f(W) Boltzman approximation
WV
𝑊 −𝑊𝐹
− 𝑐
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

0 0.5 f(W) 1 n*p = ni2

𝑊
𝑊 −𝑊−𝑊
− 𝐹𝐹𝑘𝑇 𝑉𝑉
−
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
Semiconductor
lead fabrication
ertec hn o l og ie P Dr. Thomas Maul
slide 2. 48, 2024
2. semiconductor physics Thermal generation and recombination of load carriers
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

𝑊 −𝑊𝐹 𝑊 −𝑊𝑉 𝑊𝑉 −𝑊𝐶 𝐸𝑔𝑎𝑝

− 𝑐 − 𝐹 −
𝑛 ∙ 𝑝 = 𝑁𝑐 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∙ 𝑁𝑉 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑉 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑉 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ≈ 1 ∙ 1020 𝑐𝑚−3

In thermal equilibrium through ongoinggeneration and recombination

ni = 1.35*1010 cm-3 electrons, resp. holes exist.

Atomistic Picture Energy Picture

The thermal energy generates vibrations

of the Si atoms (phonons)
conduction band
Energy -
Ekin Ekin
----

generation
ni (Si) E i =0

recombination
With the probability exp[-Egap/kT] + ++++ +-
bonds may break up, creating
a free electron (in conduction band) valence band
and a free hole (in valence band).

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 49, 2024
 2. semiconductor physics Simplified definition of materials by the band structure
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

Energy conduction bands

empty band (empty or partially filled)
partially empty band
_ _ _ band
filled
Fermi level Egap
Egap
partially
filled band
at T = 0 K !

Egap
Filled band filled band filled band filled band valence bands
(completely filled)

Conductor Insulator Conductor Semiconductor

partially filled overlapping Egap < 3eV

Egap > 3eV
band bands
Si3N4 : 5.1 eV Si: 1.1 eV
Cu, Au Na: 3s/3p GaAs: 1.4 eV
SiO2 : 9.0 eV
GaP: 2.2 eV

the size of the band gap (if any) and the position of Fermi level determine the number of charge
carriers within the conduction band and hence the conductivity

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 50, 2024
 2. semiconductor physics Modification of the number of charge carriers by doping
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

Insertion of atoms of Insertion of atoms of

the 5th group with the 3rd group with
5 outer electrons. 3 outer electrons.
The 5th electron is An additional electron is
not required for needed for bonding and
+ binding and is - procured through change
therefore easily set of location from
free and wanders neighboring atoms.
almost freely through The binding hole wanders
the Si crystal. almost freely through the Si
n-doping p-doping crystal.

The result is: a free negative charge (Electron) The result is: a free positive charge (Hole)
and a stationary positive charge (space charge) and a stationary negative charge (space charge)

in the energy scheme:

n-type dopants (easily disperse electrons into the conduction band) Dreaded impurity atoms in the mid gap
conduction
band

mid-bandgap

valence
band
p-type doping elements (easily absorb electrons from the valence band (= existingbonds))
slide 2. 51, 2024
2. semiconductor physics Thermal activation of the dopant atoms
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

Because of the low ionization energy of the doping atoms

(~kT at room temperature) from T~100K all doping atoms
are ionized and therefore electrically active.

From T>500K so many Si bonds break that the number

of intrinsic electrons exceeds the number of doping
electrons: the device structure no longer works.

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 52, 2024
2. semiconductor physics The location of the Fermi level at doping
2.3 The occupation of the energy levels

from:
with n=ND 𝑁𝐶
𝑊 −𝑊𝐹
− 𝑐 𝑁𝐷
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑊𝐶 − 𝑊𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 ∙ ln 𝑊𝐹 − 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑘𝑇 ∙ ln
𝑁𝐷 𝑛𝑖
𝑊 −𝑊𝑉 with p= NA 𝑁𝑉
− 𝐹 𝑁𝐴
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑊𝐹 − 𝑊𝑉 = 𝑘𝑇 ∙ ln 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 ∙ ln
𝑁𝐴 𝑛𝑖

+ energy NC

WC
n - doping the position of
+0.2 position of Fermi level Fermi level can be
calculated by doping
0 Wi

-0.2
p-doping
and still applicable:
WV
n*p = ni2
- ni 10
11 1013 1015 NA/D / cm -3 1019
NV
Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul
slide 2. 53, 2024
 2. semiconductor physics The location of the Fermi level at doping
2.3 The occupation of the energy
levels
For extremely high doping (> ND, NA ~1019 cm-3 ) the Fermi level enters the bands. This turns the
semiconductor into a quasi-metal.

At these high levels of doping >1019 cm-3 every 10th silicon atom has already been replaced by a doping atom in all
directions. The doping atoms begin to overlap electrically, so-called "impurity bands" are created, which lead to a reduction in
the Si band gap.

+ energy

conduction tape

impurity band _

gap narrowing
0

impurity band_

doping concentration
- energy

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 54, 2024
 Band diagram of a p/n junction

Fermi level remaians constant.

Band bending due to different doping of the p area

and n area.

p: Fermi level close to valence band.

n: Fermi level close to conduction band.

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 55, 2024
1. crystals
-> crystals, lattice types, crystal planes
-> crystal defects

2. the band structure

-> atomic model, energy levels, energy bands
-> position space and momentum space

3. occupation of energy levels

-> Excitation and intrinsic carrier density
-> doping, Fermi level

4. carrier transport
-> thermal movement, drift, diffusion

5. basic principles of semiconductor devices

-> Barrier generation and steering
-> bipolar transistor and MOSFET

Semiconductor fabrication Dr. Thomas Maul

slide 2. 56, 2024