Some basic concepts in physics

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727):

Observed that all bodies are attracted by the earth towards its centre by some
force, which he named as gravitational force.
Newton stated that not only the earth but every particle in the universe attracts
every other particle.
Newton’s Law Of Gravitation (Universal Law Of Gravitation):
“Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force, which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses & inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centres”.
Consider two bodies of masses m1 & m2, separated by the distance r. Then
according to Newton’s law of gravitation, force of attraction between them is
given by
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2
1
𝐹∝ 2
𝑟
Combining both equations we get,
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
Where, G is constant of proportionality & is known as universal constant of
gravitation.

Universal Constant Of Gravitation (G):

According to Newton’s law of gravitation,
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
Where, G is constant of proportionality & is known as universal constant of
gravitation.
𝐹𝑟 2
𝐺=
𝑚1 𝑚2
If we put m1=m2=1 & r=1, then
G=F
Therefore, Universal constant of gravitation is the force of attraction between
two unit masses placed at unit distance apart from each other.

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The value of G does not depend upon the nature & size of the bodies.
It also does not depend on the nature of the medium between the two bodies,
hence it is called the universal constant of gravitation.

SI unit of G is: newton metre square per kilogram square Or Nm2/kg2 Or Nm2kg—2
CGS unit of is: dyne centimeter square per gram square Or dyne cm2/g2 Or dyne
cm2g—2
The value of G in SI system is experimentally found to be 6.67𝑥10−11𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
The value of G in CGS system is 6.67𝑥10−8𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑔2

Importance of the universal law of gravitation:

The universal law of gravitation successfully explains,
1.The force that binds us to the earth.
2. The motion of the moon around the earth.
3. The motion of the planets around the sun.
4. The tides of the sea due to the moon & the sun.

Accleration due to gravity(g):

“The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling body due to the
gravitational force of the earth is called the acceleration due to gravity.”

Mechanics:
Mechanics is a branch of physics which deals with the study of motion of a
particle.

Position:
The position of a point object at a given instant of time is a point in the space at
which the object exists at that instant of time.

Motion:
“The change in position of an object with respective to its surroundings is called
the motion of an object”.
A body is said to be in motion when its position changes continuously with
respect to a fixed point (reference point).
Motion does not start or stop spontaneously.
To describe the motion of a particle, its position at all the times must be specified.

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1. The motions which can be easily perceived by us are called visible motions.
2. The motions which are unable to perceive are called invisible motions.

Object is at rest:
When an object do not changes its position with respective to surrounding then
the object is said to be at rest.

Distance:
The actual path covered by an object in given interval of time is called distance.
The distance travelled by a body is the actual length of the path covered by a
moving body irrespective of the direction in which the body travels.
Distance travelled has only magnitude so it is a scalar quantity.
Distance travelled by a moving body cannot be zero.
The SI unit of distance is meter (m).

Displacement:
The shortest distance between initial and final positions in a given movement is
called displacement.
Displacement of a particle is the change in its position in a particular direction.
When a body moves from one point to another, the shortest i.e. straight line
distance between the initial position & final position of the body, along with
direction, is known as its displacement.
Displacement has magnitude as well as direction so it is a vector quantity.
Displacement of a moving body can be zero.
The SI unit of displacement is meter (m).

Path length:
Path length is the actual distance travelled by the particle during its motion.
Speed:
The distance covered per unit time is called speed.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
The speed of a body gives us an idea of how slow or fast that body is moving.
The SI unit of speed is meter per second (m/s).

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Speedometer:
The speed of a car is shown by speedometer in kilometer per hour (km/h).

Odometer:
The distance travelled by a car is measured by odometer in kilometers.

Average speed:
The average speed of a body is the total distance covered divided by the total
time taken to cover this distance.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Uniform speed:
A body has a uniform speed if it travels equal distances in equal intervals of time.

Velocity:
The rate of change of displacement is called velocity.
Velocity of a body is the distance travelled by it per unit time in a given direction.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
The SI unit of velocity is meter per second (m/s).
Usually, however, velocities are expressed without mentioning direction for the
sake of convenience.
The direction of velocity is the same as the direction of displacement of the body.
Speed is related to distance while velocity is related to displacement.
The magnitude of velocity & speed will be equal if motion is along a straight line
path.

Effect of speed & direction on velocity:

Velocity depends upon speed as well as direction & that velocity changes by,
1. changing the speed while keeping the direction same.
2. changing the direction while keeping the speed same.
3. changing the speed as well as the direction.

Uniform velocity:
A body has uniform velocity if it travels in a specified direction in a straight line &
covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.

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Physical quantity:
A quantity which can be measured is called a physical quantity.
Physical quantities are mainly classified into two types, viz. scalars & vectors.

Scalars or scalar quantities:

Those quantities which can be completely described by their magnitude only are
called scalars.
Ex. Mass, Time, Temperature, Length, Density, Speed etc.
Scalars can be added or subtracted by rules of simple algebra.

Vectors or vector quantities:

Those quantities which require magnitude as well as direction for their complete
description are called vectors.
Ex. Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Momentum etc.

Uniform motion:
The motion in which the object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time is
called uniform motion.

Non-uniform motion:
The motion in which the object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time
is called non-uniform motion.

Acceleration:
The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
The acceleration is given by,
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
If ‘u’ is initial velocity, ‘v’ is final velocity in time interval ‘t’ then,
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
When body is at rest at the start of motion then its initial velocity is u=o.
When body comes rest at the end of motion then its final velocity is v=o.

Uniform acceleration:
If there are equal changes in velocity of body in equal intervals of time, then it
possesses uniform acceleration.

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Non-uniform acceleration:
If there are unequal changes in velocity of body in equal intervals of time, then it
possesses non-uniform acceleration.

Acceleration of body may be positive or negative.

Positive acceleration:
When velocity of body increases, acceleration is positive.
In this case, the acceleration is in the direction of velocity.

Negative acceleration:
When velocity of body decreases, acceleration is negative.
In this case, the acceleration is in the opposite direction of velocity.
Negative acceleration is also called deceleration or retardation.

Zero acceleration:
When velocity of body does not change with time, acceleration is zero.

Observations from graphs:

1. The nature of graph for uniform motion is straight line.
2. The nature of graph for accelerated motion is non-linear.
3. The slope of distance time graph gives velocity in case of uniform motion.
4. For all uniformly accelerated motion, the velocity-time graph is a straight line.

Q. What is force?
 “A force is any external effort that causes an object to undergo a certain
change either concerning its movement, direction or geometrical construction”.
OR
“A force is a physical quantity that can changes or tends to change the state of an
object”.
A force can be used to –
1. Move a stationary objet
2. Stop a moving object
3. Change the direction of an object in motion.
4. Change the speed of an object.
5. Change the shape and size of object.
According to the Newton the force is given by,
F = ma

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Where, m = mass of an object
a = Acceleration of an object
The S.I. unit of force is newton (N)
The C.G.S. unit of force is dyne
[newton is equivalent to kg.m/s2]

newton:
The SI unit of force is called newton.
1 newton:
The force which causes a mass of 1kg to move with an acceleration of 1m/s 2 is
called 1 newton force.
1 N = 1kg X 1m/s2

dyne:
The CGS unit of force is called dyne.
1 dyne:
The force which causes a mass of 1g to move with an acceleration of 1cm/s2 is
called 1dyne force.
1 dyne = 1g X 1cm/s2

Q. Define pressure. State its S.I. unit. OR

Write a short note of pressure. OR
Define pressure. How it is related to force and area?
Pressure : Force applied on unit area is called pressure.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
The unit of force is newton (N) while that of area is (m2). Hence, the unit of
pressure is Newton per meter square (N/m 2) OR pascal (Pa).
The pressure is directly proportional to force i.e. P ∝ F that means if force
increases pressure increases and if force decreases pressure decreases.
1
The pressure is inversely proportional to Area i.e. P ∝ that means if area
𝐴
increases, pressure decreases and if area decreases pressure increases.

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[Note:
One pascal is defined as the pressure exerted on a surface of area 1m 2 by a force
of 1N acting normally on it.
Pa is a very small unit. Therefore pressure is usually expressed in kilopascal (kPa).
Pressure is a scalar quantity.]

Q. Define atmosphere.
The layer of gases extended to hundreds of km around the earth is called
atmosphere. OR
The envelope of air around us is called atmosphere. OR
The thick blanket of air covering the entire earth’s surface is called atmosphere.

Q. Write short note on atmospheric pressure?

 1. The pressure exerted by atmospheric gases on its surroundings & the
surface of the earth is known as atmospheric pressure.
2. The instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure is known as
barometer.
3. Atmospheric pressure decreases as height above the sea level increases.
4. The atmospheric pressure is expressed in unit called atm.
5. 1 atm is the pressure exerted by a vertical column of mercury of 76cm (or
760mm) height.
6. 1 atm = 101292.8 Nm-2 ≈ 1.013 X 105 Pa

[Note:
1 atm = hdg = 76 cm X 13.6 g/cm3 X 9.8 m/s2
= 0.76 m X 13.6 X 103 kg/m3 X 9.8 m/s2
= 101292.8 Nm-2
Other units usually used in measurement of pressure are torr & bar.
1 torr = 1 mm of Hg, 1bar = 105 Pa ]

Q. Define atmospheric pressure.

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.

Q. Define fluids. What are the properties of fluids?

 Fluids : The substances that can flows are called fluids.
E.g. air, water

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Properties of fluids :
1. Fluids flow from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure.
2. Fluids substances exert equal pressure in all directions.

Q. Why and in which direction do land breezes blow ?

 i) Land breezes blow from land towards sea.
ii) After the sunset the air above the land cools quickly as compared to air over
the sea.
iii) Due to this the air over the see remains warm and rises.
iv) Therefore, the air pressure over the land becomes greater then over the sea.
v) As a result a breeze flows from the land towards the sea and this breeze is
called land breeze.

Q. Why does sea breeze (cool breeze), blow in the afternoon on the sea-shore?
 i) In the afternoon or during the day time, air over the land gets heated up
faster than the air over the sea.
ii) As a result the warm air over the land becomes lighter and rises.
iii) Cool air exerts greater pressure as compared to warm air. Hence, the air
pressure over the land becomes less than air over the sea.
iv) Due to this air over the sea blows towards the land. This breeze is called cool
breeze or sea breeze.

Applications of pressure:
1. Pressure due to liquids in blood vessels helps blood to move throughout the
body.
2. Rubber sucker: Used for installing hooks in the kitchen. As the air between wall
& sucker is sucked out, it is held firmly against the wall.
3. Straw: We can enjoy cold drinks with a straw. This happens when air of straw
goes into lungs & forces liquid from straw to come out.
4. Vacuum cleaner: Low pressure is created inside the cleaner which sucks dirt
into the device.
5. Squeezing of tooth paste, lemon, spray bottle, etc. are some activities which
are not possible without understanding pressure.
Manometer: A device used for measuring liquid pressure.

Sphygmomanometer: A device used for measuring blood pressure.

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Force:
Force is a physical quantity that changes or tends to change the state of rest or of
uniform motion of a body in a straight line.
Force is required to put a stationary body in motion or to stop a moving body.
Force can change the velocity, direction, shape & size of a body.
Pushing, hitting & pulling of objects are all ways of bringing objects in motion.
Force is an interaction between objects.
Force is not visible but we can see the effects of force.
Force acts along a line in a particular direction & has some magnitude.
Force is a vector quantity. So to describe force, we must specify both its
magnitude as well as direction along which the force is acting.

Balanced forces:
When two forces acting on a body are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction, we get net forces acting on a body equal to zero. Then the two forces
are called balanced forces.
Balanced forces do not change the state of rest or of motion of an object.

Unbalanced force:
Single force acting on a body is an unbalanced force.
If two or more forces act on a body such that their resultant is not zero, then the
force acting on them is an unbalanced force.
Due to an unbalanced force, there is a change in the speed of an object or a
change in the direction of motion.
An unbalanced force is required to accelerate the motion of an object.
So long as the unbalanced force is applied to a body, there is a continuous change
in its speed.

Inertia:
The tendency of a body to resist change in a state of rest or state of motion is
called inertia.

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Types of inertia:
1. Inertia at rest: The inherent property of a body by virtue of which it cannot
change its position of rest is called inertia of rest.
2. Inertia of motion: The inherent property of a body by virtue of which it cannot
change its state of motion is called inertia of motion.
3. Inertia of direction: The inherent property of a body by virtue of which it
cannot change its direction of motion is called inertia of direction.

Momentum:
The total quantity of motion contained in the same body is called momentum.
Mathematically momentum is measured as the product of mass of body & its
velocity.
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Momentum is a vector quantity. Momentum has both magnitude & direction. Its
direction is same as that of the velocity.
The force necessary to change the momentum of an object depends upon the
rate at which momentum changes.
As velocity of an object changes due to application of force on it, the force also
produces change in momentum.
SI unit of momentum is 𝑘𝑔𝑚 ⁄𝑠.
CGS unit is 𝑔𝑐𝑚/𝑠.

Equations of motion:
Motion of an object was studied by Newton & then it was summarized in a set of
three equations of motion.
The equations of motion analyses rectilinear motion of uniformly accelerated
body.
These equations relate the displacement (s), velocity (v), acceleration (a) & time
(t) of an object moving along a straight line.
1. The first equation of motion represents velocity & time relation & is given by,
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
2. The second equation of motion describes position time relation & is given by,

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 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
3. The third equation of motion represents relation between position & velocity &
is given by,
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION:

1. Newton’s first law of motion:
“An object continues to remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion along a
straight line unless an external unbalanced force acts on it.”

2. Newton’s second law of motion:

“The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force &
the change of momentum occurs in the direction of the force.”

3. Newton’s third law of motion:

“Every action force has an equal & opposite reaction force which acts
simultaneously.”
This law describes the relationship between the forces on two interacting objects.
Force never occurs singly in nature. Forces always occur in pairs.
Force is a mutual interaction between two bodies.
Action & reaction forces exist in pairs. An isolated force does not exist. Action-
reaction forces acts at the same instant.
Action-reaction forces acts on different bodies. They don’t act on the same body
hence they don’t cancel each other.
Examples:
1. When a bat strikes a ball, the ball exerts an equal &opposite force of reaction
on the bat. The force acting on the ball projects it with high velocity, while the
reaction force acting on the bat slows down its forward motion.
2. When a bullet fired from a gun, a force is exerted by the gun on the bullet &
therefore the bullet acquires high velocity. At the same time the bullet also exerts
an equal & opposite force on the gun & the gun moves in the opposite direction
with small velocity.

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3. The principle used for the motion of a rocket is based on the Newton’s third
law of motion.
When the fuel in the rocket is ignited; it burns as a result of chemical reaction.
The exhaust gases escapes with a force through a small opening at the tail end of
rocket. They exert an equal & opposite reaction force on the rocket. It is this
reaction force which makes the rocket move in the forward direction.

Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum:

“When no external force acts on two interacting objects, their total momentum
remains conserved. It does not change.”
It is corollary to Newton’s third law of motion.
Momentum is always conserved in a collision.
The momentum may get redistributed among the colliding bodies. One body
gains momentum lost by the other.
Hence the principle can also be stated as:
“If two freely moving bodies collide, their total momentum after collision is the
same as their total momentum before collision.”
Proof:
Consider two objects A & B having masses m1 & m2 moving with initial velocities
u1 & u2 (u1>u2) respectively.
Initial momentum of body A is 𝑚1𝑢1
Initial momentum of body B is 𝑚2𝑢2
When these bodies collide with each other, a force F 1 due to body A acts on body
B, & according to Newton’s third law of motion body B also exerts equal &
opposite force F2 on body A.
Let velocities after collision becomes v1 & v2 then,
Final momentum of body A is 𝑚1𝑣1
Final momentum of body B is 𝑚2𝑣2
Therefore, Total initial momentum = 𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
Total final momentum = 𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
Then we have
𝐹1 = −𝐹2
𝑚1𝑎1 = −𝑚2 𝑎2

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𝑚1(𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ) 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
=−
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚1(𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ) = −𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
𝑚1𝑣1 − 𝑚1𝑢1 = −𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚2𝑢2
𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2 = 𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
Total final momentum= Total initial momentum
Hence proved.
Example:
The principle can be explained by an example of a bullet fired from a gun.
When a bullet of mass m1 is fired from a gun of mass m2, it acquires a velocity v1&
moves in forward direction with momentum 𝑚1𝑣1
After firing the bullet, the gun moves in the backward direction. This motion is
called ‘recoil’. It moves with recoil velocity v2 such that its momentum is 𝑚2𝑣2
The initial momentum of both gun & bullet is zero because both are at rest
position. So initial velocities are zero & the total initial momentum is also zero i.e.
𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑜 (Total initial momentum before firing the bullet)
As mass of the gun is much greater than mass of the bullet, velocity of the gun is
very small as compared to velocity of the bullet. So momentum of gun & bullet
are equal in magnitude & opposite in direction. Hence there is conservation of
momentum.
𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2 = 𝑜 (Total final momentum after firing the bullet)
The recoil velocity can be calculated as,
𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2 = 𝑜
𝑚1𝑣1 = −𝑚2𝑣2
𝑚1
𝑣2 = − × 𝑣1
𝑚2

Circular motion:
“The motion of an object along the circumference of a circle is called circular
motion.”
The circular motion is a special case of linear or translatory motion, in which
particle revolves along circumference of a circle.
Ex:
1. Motion of an object tied at the end of string & whirled in a circle.

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2. Motion of tip of minute hand, hour hand & second hand of a clock.
3. Motion of roller coaster looping the loop.

Uniform circular motion:

“Uniform circular motion is defined as the motion of particle long circumference
of circle with constant speed.”
Ex:
1. Motion of the earth around the sun.
2. Motion of the moon around the earth.

Electricity & magnetism:

Electric charge:
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a
force when placed in an electromagnetic field.
Charge is a fundamental property of matter which can never be isolated from
matter.
There are two types of charges: 1. Positive charge 2. Negative charge
1. Positive charge:
The deficiency of electrons on a body is known as positive charge.
When an object has positive charge, it has more protons than electrons.
The mass of body somewhat decreases when a positive charge is given to it.
Ex: A glass rod gets positively charged on rubbing with silk.
2. Negative charge:
The excess of electrons on a body is known as negative charge.
When an object has negative charge, it has more electrons than protons.
The mass of body somewhat increases when a negative charge is given to it.
Ex: When ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, it gets negatively charged.
Properties of charges:
1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
2. The total charge of an isolated system remains conserved.
3. Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed, rather than charges can be
transferred from one body to another.
4. A charged body attracts other uncharged body like particles.

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5. The exchange of charge, in any physical process, can be integral multiples of
electron charge & not its fraction.
If Q is the net charge due to gain of electrons or loss of electrons,
Then, 𝑸 = 𝒏𝒆
where, ‘n’ is an integer having both the negative as well as positive values e.g.
1,2,3,…& -1,-2,-3,….
‘e’ means charge having value of 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

Principle of conservation of charges:

Electric charge can neither be created nor be destroyed but it is transferred from
one part a system (substance) to other part of the system, so that total charge of
an isolated system remains constant.

Coulomb: [Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, French physicist, Well known for

developing Coulomb’s law, 1736-1806]
The SI unit of charge is coulomb.
1 coulomb is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6.242X10 18 electrons.
1coulomb=6.242X1018 electrons
1 −18
Therefore, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 = 6.242×1018 𝐶 = .16 × 10 𝐶 = 1.6 ×
10−19 𝐶
The charge on an electron is -1.6X10—19C.

One coulomb:
One coulomb is the charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in
one second.
1𝐶 = 1𝐴. 1𝑠
1mC (millicoulomb) = 10—3C, 1µC (microcoulomb)= 10—6C,
1nC(nanocoulomb)=10—9C, 1pC (picocoulomb)= 10—12C

Static electricity:
The electricity which deals with charges at rest is called static electricity.
Current electricity:
The electricity which deals with charges in motion is called current electricity.

16 | BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS 9890603360 BANSODE L.P.

Frictional electricity:
The electricity developed on objects, when they are rubbed with each other, is
called frictional electricity.
Examples:
1. Clouds rub against each other and produce lightning.
2. In winter, if a rubber comb is fast through dry hair, the comb attracts small
pieces of paper.

Conductor:
A substance which allows passage of electric charges through it easily is called
conductor. OR
Those materials whose resistivity is negligibly small are called conductors.
A conductor offers very low resistance to the flow of current.
Ex: copper, silver, aluminium etc.

Insulator:
A substance that has infinitely high resistance & which does not allow electric
current to flow through it is called insulator. OR
Those materials whose resistivity is very high are called insulators.
Ex: Rubber, glass, plastic, ebonite etc.

Semiconductors:
Those materials whose resistivity lies between that of conductors & insulators are
called semiconductors.
Ex: Silicon, germanium etc.

Electric current:
Electric current is a flow of electrons in a conductor. OR
The electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a
particular area in unit time i.e. rate of flow of electric charges. OR
Electric current is defined as the amount of charge flowing through any cross-
section of a conductor per unit time.

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If Q is the net charge flowing through any cross section of a conductor in time t,
𝑄
then current I is given by using the formula 𝐼 =
𝑡
Electric current in terms of number of electrons (n) in a conductor is,
𝑛𝑒
𝐼= , where e = charge of an electron = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑡
Electric current is a scalar quantity.

Ammeter:
Ammeter is a device used to measure current in a circuit.
Ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit.
Ammeter is a low resistance device.
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance, but real ammeter have finite & small
resistance.

Galvanometer:
Galvanometer is a device used to detect current in an electric circuit.

Conventional current:
Electrons were not known at the time of when the phenomenon of electricity was
first observed. So, electric current was considered to be the flow of positive
charges & the direction of flow of positive charges was taken to be the direction
of current.
Conventional direction of current is from positive terminal to the negative
terminal of cell or battery.

Drift velocity:
The average velocity that a particle, such as an electron, attains due to an electric
field is called drift velocity.
Drift velocity is superimposed on the random motion of the free electron & is very
small, of the order of 10-3m/s.
Due to drift velocity there is a net flow of electrons i.e. there is an electron
current opposite to the field.

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Even though, the drift velocity is very small, the current can be very large because
of the large number of electrons which all start drifting immediately after the field
is applied.
Thus, before setting up an electric field in the conductor, the average velocity of
the electron is zero. But after setting up an electric field, the electrons acquire a
small drift velocity in a direction opposite to that of the field.
[Note: In a metallic conductor, at room temperature electrons are in a state of
random motion & frequently collide with atoms with the velocity of the order of
105m/s.]

Electric field:
It is the region around a charged body within which its influence can be
experienced. OR
The space surrounding an electric charge, in which any other electric charge
experiences a force is called electric field of the charge.

Ampere:[Andre Marie Ampere, French scientist, 1775-1836]

Ampere: The SI unit of electric current is called ampere. [ampere is equivalent to
coulomb per second ]
One ampere: If one coulomb of charge is passing through any cross section of a
conductor in one second then the amount of current flowing through it is called
as one ampere.
1𝐶
1𝐴 =
1𝑆
1mA (milliampere) = 10—3A, 1µA (microampere)= 10—6A, 1nA(nanoampere)=10—
9
A, 1pA (picoampere)= 10—12A

Electrical circuit:
A continuous path consisting of conducting wires & other resistances between
the terminals of a battery, along which an electric current flows, is called a circuit.
OR
A continuous & closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit. OR
The closed path along which electric current flows is called an electric circuit.

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Circuit diagram:
A diagram which indicates how different components in a circuit have been
connected by using the electrical symbols for the components is called a circuit
diagram. OR
A diagram showing symbolic representation of components used in electrical
circuits is called circuit diagram.
The conventional direction of current is from the positive terminal to negative
terminal of the cell which is opposite to the flow of electrons.

Uses of electrical components:

1. Electric cell:
An electric cell is used to provide potential difference in a circuit.
2. Battery:
Group of cells is called a battery.
Battery is used to provide large potential difference in a circuit.
[An Italian scientist Alessandro Volta invented the first battery.]
3. Tap key Or Plug key:
When tap key or plug key is off then the circuit is said to be open.
When tap key or plug key is on then the circuit is said to be closed.
4. Electric bulb:
Electric bulb is used in a circuit to check electric supply.
5. Resistor:
A resistor or resistance is used to control the current in a circuit.
5. Rheostat:
Rheostat or variable resistance is used to change the current in the circuit.
6. Ammeter:
Ammeter is used to measure the electric current in the circuit.
Ammeter is always connected in series in the circuit.
7. Voltmeter:
Voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference across the device.
Voltmeter is always connected in parallel in the circuit.
An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance, so when it is connected between two
points in a circuit would not change the value of current.

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[ Each meter has two terminals. The terminal marked ‘+’ is connected by a wire
to the higher-potential side of a circuit, while the terminal marked ‘_’ is
connected to the lower-potential side.]
Lightning:
Lightning is the electric discharge travelling from clouds at higher potential to the
earth surface which is at lower potential.
The electric potential released in the process of lightning is as great as 10 7 volt.

Electric potential (V):

Quantitatively the potential is measured in terms of the work done in moving the
charge against the force of attraction.
“The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of
work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point”.
Electric potential is the electric level at a particular level.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
The SI unit of electric potential is joule per coulomb (J/C) or it is also called volt
(V).
Electric potential is a scalar quantity.

Potential difference:
“The amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to
another point in an electric field is called potential difference between two
points”.
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
The SI unit of potential difference is Volt (V).
[The SI unit of electric potential & potential difference is volt (V), named after
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an Italian physicist.

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The potential difference between two points is sometimes also called as
voltage.]

1 Volt:
The potential difference between two points is said to be 1V if 1J of work is done
in moving 1C of electric charge from one point to another.
1𝐽
1𝑉 =
1𝐶
Other units:
1mV(milli volt)=10-3V, 1kV(kilo volt)=103V, 1MV(Mega volt)=106V
Voltmeter:
The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the
voltmeter.
The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which
the potential difference is to be measured.
Voltmeter is a high resistance electrical device.

Resistor:
A conductor having some appreciable resistance is called resistor.

Resistance (R):
The property of a conductor due to which it opposes flow of current is called
resistance.
Resistance controls the magnitude of the current.
The SI unit of resistance is ohm.
Resistance depends upon:
1. Length of conductor i.e. 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙
1
2. Area of cross-section i.e. 𝑅 ∝
𝐴
3. Temperature i.e. 𝑅 ∝ 𝑇
4. Nature of material of conductor
[Note:
1. When the length of wire is doubled, its resistance also gets doubled & if the
length of wire is halved, then its resistance also gets halved.

22 | BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS 9890603360 BANSODE L.P.

2. When area of cross-section of wire is doubled, its resistance gets halved & if
area of cross-section is halved, then its resistance will get doubled.
3. A thick wire has less resistance than a thin wire.
4. The resistance of wire is inversely proportional to the square of its diameter.
5. The resistance of all pure metals increases on raising the temperature &
decreases on lowering the temperature. But the resistance of alloys like manganin
(alloy of copper, manganese & nickel), constantan (alloy of copper & nickel) &
nichrome (alloy of nickel, chromium, manganese & iron) is almost unaffected by
temperature.]

Multiples & sub-multiples of ohm:

Mega-ohm (One million) MΩ=106Ω
Kilo-ohm (One thousand) KΩ=103Ω
Milli-ohm (One thousandth) mΩ=10-3Ω
Micro-ohm (One millionth) μΩ=10-6Ω

Ohm’s law:
A German physicist Georg Simon Ohm stated the law which is used to calculate
the resistance in an electrical circuit.
“The electric current flowing in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across its terminals, provided physical conditions of the
conductor such as length, area of cross-section, temperature & material remains
constant”.
𝑉
𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 OR 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 OR 𝑅=
𝐼
where, R = constant of proportionality called resistance

One ohm:
If 1A current flows through the conductor & 1V is potential difference is applied
across it, then it’s resistance is one ohm.
1𝑉
1Ω =
1𝐴

23 | BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS 9890603360 BANSODE L.P.

Resistivity (ρ):
Resistivity of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a conductor of unit length
& unit area of cross section.
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (Ωm)
Resistivity is also called as specific resistance.
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝑙
Resistivity of a substance is numerically equal to the resistance of a rod of that
substance which is 1 metre long & 1 square metre in cross-section. Since the
length is 1m & the area of cross-section is 1m2, so it becomes 1m3.
So we can also say that,
Resistivity of a substance is equal to the resistance between the opposite faces of
a 1m3 of the substance.
Resistivity of a substance does not depend on its length or thickness. It depends
on the nature of the substance & temperature.

Combinations of Resistors:
1. Resistors connected in series:
“Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if the current flowing
through one also flows through the rest & potential difference across the
combination of resistors is equal to the sum of the potential differences across the
individual resistors”.
In this combination the resistances are joined end t end. Thus the second end of
each resistance joined to the first end of the next resistance & so on. The first end
of the first resistance & second end of last resistance are connected to the cell.
In series combination, the resistance of the combination of resistors is equal to
the sum of individual resistors.
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛
In series combination, the total voltage drop across the combination is equal to
the sum of the voltage drop across the separate resistors.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
The effective resistance in a series combination is greater than the individual
resistances.

24 | BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS 9890603360 BANSODE L.P.

Series combination is used to increase resistance in the circuit.

2. Resistors connected in parallel:

“Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel if the total current
flowing into the combination is equal to the sum of the currents passing through
the individual resistors and the same potential difference gets applied to each of
them”.
When two or more resistances are connected in such a way that their first ends
are connected to one point & the second ends to another point then this
combination is in parallel.
In parallel combination, the sum of reciprocals of the individual resistance is equal
to the reciprocal of equivalent resistance.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
In parallel combination, the total current is the sum of currents flowing in the
different branches.
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛
In parallel combination, the voltage across each resistor is same.
The effective resistance in a parallel combination is less than the individual
resistances.
Parallel combination is used to decrease resistance in the circuit.
[Note: Distribution of current in two resistors in parallel is given by,
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝐼1 𝑅2
𝐼1= 𝐼 & 𝐼2= 𝐼 Thus = ]
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐼2 𝑅1

Heating effect of electric current:

When current flows through a metallic conductor, the free electrons in the metal
start moving from the end which is at lower potential. These moving free
electrons collide with the atoms of the metal.
At each collision of electron, a part of kinetic energy of electron converts into
heat & slowly the temperature of the conductor begins to rise.
Thus, the production of heat energy in a conductor by the electric current
flowing through it is called the heating effect of the current.

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Joules law [James Prescott Joule, British Physicist, 1818-1889]:
According to Joule’s law, the quantity of heat (H) generated in a conductor of
resistance ‘R’ when a current (I) flows through it for a time ‘t’ is directly
proportional to the square of current, the resistance of conductor & the time for
which the current flows.
𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 𝑉2𝑡 𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝐻= 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙
4.18 4.18𝑅 4.18

Applications of heating effect of electric current:

1. Electric bulb:
An electric bulb consists of a filament. This filament becomes hot and emits light.
The filament is made up of high melting point metal such as tungsten whose
melting point is about 33800C.
The bulbs are usually filled with chemically inactive nitrogen & argon gases which
prevent oxidation of filaments and prolong the life of filament.
[Note: Nitrogen & argon provide inert atmosphere which prevent evaporation
of filament.]

2. Electric iron:
An electric iron consists of a coil of high resistance covered by mica sheets & kept
inside a heavy metal block.
When electric current passes through the coil it gets heated & can be used for
ironing clothes.
The mica sheet is bad conductor of electricity & good conductor of heat.
The mica sheet prevents the current from entering into metal & thus protecting
the user from getting an electric shock.

3. Electric fuse:
Fuse protects circuits & appliances by stopping the flow of any excess electric
current.
The fuse is placed in series with a device.

26 | BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS 9890603360 BANSODE L.P.

Fuse consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting
point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead, tin etc.
If a current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the
temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire & breaks the
circuit.
The fuse wire is usually enclosed in a cartridge of porcelain with metal ends.
The fuses used for domestic purposes are stated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 10A etc.

4. In industry, soldering, welding, cutting, drilling & working of electric furnaces

are based on heating effect of electric current.

5. In surgery, a fine heated platinum wire is used for cutting tissues much more
efficiently than a knife.

Electric power:
Power is the rate of doing work.
Electrical power is the electrical work done per unit time. OR
The electrical energy produced or consumed per unit time is called electric power.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 [W = VIt joule]
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2𝑅 =
𝑅

The SI unit of electric power is watt.

Power is a scalar quantity.
[James Watt, Scottish inventor & chemist, 1736-1819]

One watt:
If 1J of work is done per second the electric power is 1watt.
1𝐽
1𝑊 =
1𝑆

27 | BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS 9890603360 BANSODE L.P.

Commercial units:
Commercial unit of electric power is kilowatt (kW)
The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kWh), commonly known
as unit.
1 kilowatt hour is equal to 3.6 x 106 joule.
1hP=746watt
1cal=4.18J

Introduction:
In 1820 Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that magnetic field is
produced due to an electric current.
After this discovery scientists started thinking whether it is possible to produce
electric current from magnetic field.
In 1831 Michel Faraday & Joseph Henry independently discovered that electric
current is produced in a coil, when there is a relative motion between the coil & a
magnet.
The current produced is called induced current & the corresponding e.m.f. is
called induced e.m.f.

Electromagnetic induction:
“The phenomenon of producing an induced e.m.f. in a conductor or conducting
coil due to change in magnetic field or flux is called electromagnetic induction”.
OR
“The process, by which a changing magnetic field in a conductor induces a current
in another conductor, is called electromagnetic induction”.

Magnetic flux:
The total number of magnetic field lines passing normally through a given area is
called the magnetic flux through that area.

Magnetic induction:
The magnetic flux per unit area is called magnetic induction.
The strength of magnetic field is measured in terms of a vector quantity called as
magnetic induction or magnetic flux per unit area.
The SI unit is weber per meter square or Wb/m2 or tesla or NA-1m-1

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Michael Faraday:
Michael Faraday in 1821, found that electricity could produce rotary motion.
Today’s electric motors are based on this principle.
In 1831, he showed that relative motion between a magnet & a coil of wire, could
induce electricity in the coil. This idea gave birth to modern generators.

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction:

First law:
Whenever there is change in the magnetic flux associated with a coil, an e.m.f. is
induced in the coil.

Second law:
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the coil.

Magnetic lines of force Or Magnetic field lines:

The path along which the unit north pole moves in a magnetic field is called
magnetic line of force.
Properties of magnetic lines of force:
1. Magnetic field lines are closed continuous curves. They start from North Pole &
end on South Pole.
2. The tangent at any point on the magnetic lines of force gives the direction of
the magnetic field at that point.
3. No two magnetic lines of force can intersect each other.
4. Magnetic lines of force are crowded where the magnetic field is strong & far
from each other where the field is weak.

29 | BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS 9890603360 BANSODE L.P.