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Computer Search Algorithms 1st Edition Elisabeth C.
Salander Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Elisabeth C. Salander; Elisabeth C. Salander
ISBN(s): 9781612090436, 1612090435
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 6.18 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 COMPUTER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

COMPUTER SEARCH
ALGORITHMS

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Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 COMPUTER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY
AND APPLICATIONS

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Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 COMPUTER SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

COMPUTER SEARCH
ALGORITHMS

ELISABETH C. SALANDER
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EDITOR

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Computer search algorithms / editor, Elisabeth C. Salander.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-61209-043-6 (eBook)
1. Computer algorithms. 2. Querying (Computer science) 3. Database
searching. I. Salander, Elisabeth C.
QA76.9.A43C673 2010
005.74'1--dc22
2010041301

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 CONTENTS

Preface vii
Chapter 1 Live Soft-Matter Quantum Computing 1
Kevin B. Clark
Chapter 2 Studying Different Heuristic Searches to Solve
a Real-World Frequency Assignment Problem 25
José M. Chaves-González, Miguel A. Vega-Rodríguez,
Juan A. Gómez-Pulido and Juan M. Sánchez-Pérez
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Chapter 3 Emergence and Advances of Quantum Search 49

Arti Chamoli and Samina Masood
Chapter 4 Efficient Implementations of Bi-Level
Programming Methods for Continuous
Network Design Problems 71
Suh-Wen Chiou
Chapter 5 A Hybrid Intelligent Technique Combines
Neural Networks and Tabu Search Methods
for Forecasting 89
Cagdas Hakan Aladag
Chapter 6 Lu_Hancock: A Best First Search to Process
Single-Destination Multiple-Origin Route
Query in a Graph 101
Qifeng Lu and Kathleen Hancock

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 vi Contents

Chapter 7 Some Heuristic Approaches for Solving

Non-Convex Optimization Problems 113
R. Toscano
Chapter 8 Evolutionary Algorithm Based on Concept
of Stochastic Schemata Exploiter 161
Eisuke Kita
Index 185
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 PREFACE
In computer science, a search algorithm, is an algorithm for finding an
item with specified properties among a collection of items. The items may be
stored individually as records in a database; or may be elements of a search
space defined by a mathematical formula or procedure, such as the roots of an
equation with integer variables; or a combination of the two, such as the
Hamiltonian circuits of a graph. This book presents research data in the study
of computer search algorithms, including live soft-matter quantum computing;
heuristic searches applied to the resolution of a relevant optimization problem
from the telecommunications domain; the emergence and advances of
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

quantum search algorithms; an equilibrium network design problem for road

traffic network; artificial neural networks; and evolutionary algorithms based
on the concept of stochastic schemata exploiter.
Chapter 1 – An estimated 3.5 x 109 years of ecological pressures have
driven extant cellular life, ranging from bacteria to humans, into highly
complex computational units of natural selection. Unsurprisingly, these live
soft-matter computers of sorts operate from platforms of nested networks
maintaining many of the same performance characteristics emulated by
artificial computational devices configured to network designs. Except
scientists have only recently begun to contemplate and manufacture what
Nature already succeeded in shaping eons ago – live soft-matter computers
capable of surpassing the Church-Turing thesis for efficient classical
algorithmic processes. During the mid-1980s, David Deutsch exceeded the
strong Church-Turing thesis, stating the probabilistic Turing Machine is the
most efficient computational device, with his own conceptual innovation of
Universal Quantum Computers. Quantum computers rely on quantum physics
to achieve at least quadratic improvements over classical computational rates.
Importantly, some of the most primitive life forms on Earth, single-celled

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 viii Elisabeth C. Salander

microorganisms or microbes, also compute at quantum efficiencies. Microbes

reveal their computational proficiency when trying to solve survival and
reproductive dilemmas. Physiological stressors, including homeostatic and
habitat instabilities, place heavy demands on a microbe‟s genetic, epigenetic,
and somatic regulatory networks to rapidly acquire, store, modify, and/or
execute appropriate coping strategies. Microbes can use these intracellular
response-regulator networks to implement social-like behaviors, such as
assisted reproduction, altruistic suicide, reproductive cheating, induced
colonial defenses, and coordinated foraging and hunting, to achieve selfish or
selfless fitness goals. Contractile ciliates, among the best learners of the
microbial world, employ Hebbian-like learning to increase the efficiency of
heuristic-guided behavioral strategy searches, planning, and execution when
deceptively or altruistically signaling mating availability and prowess. Such
practiced “courting” reciprocation depends on topologically invariant
computational networks which store “social” information content according to
preferential attachment rules and Bose-Einstein, Fermi-Dirac, and Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics. Very skilled ciliates search these networks for suitable
strategies and make signaling decisions at efficiencies comparable to finding
target solutions from superposed states with Grover‟s quantum search
algorithm. Quantum search efficiencies exploiting superposition of mutational
genetic states have been reported for DNA polymerases that sample and sort
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

nucleotide base pairs during DNA replication and proofreading. However, the
discovery that a fast search algorithm is also implemented by an intact life
form performing cognitive-like computations establishes a new standard for
expert decision making at any systematics level as well as provides
prospective research and development directions for next-generation
technologies based on natural computing. "Living matter, while not eluding
the 'laws of physics' as established up to date, is likely to involve 'other laws of
physics'... It is, in my opinion, nothing else than the principle of quantum
theory over again."
Chapter 2 – This paper elaborates a complete study about the application
of different heuristic searches applied to the resolution of a relevant
optimization problem from the telecommunications domain. Specifically, the
authors have tackled a real-world frequency assignment problem (FAP) in
GSM networks. There are many versions of this crucial problem, but most of
them are benchmarking-like problems. This work is focused on aspects which
are relevant for current and real communication networks. The authors want to
emphasize that all the experiments performed have been made using a real-
world FAP instance (which take in consideration realistic GSM requirements).

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 Preface ix

Obtaining efficient frequency plans is an important and very complex task for
GSM operators (in fact, FAP is an NP-hard problem), because the number of
available frequencies to cover the entire network communications is always
much reduced. The two fundamental elements of the FAP are: the transceivers
(TRXs), which are installed in the telecommunication antennas and give
support to the communications of a specific area, and the frequencies, which
make possible the communications in the network. There are usually
thousands of TRX in real-world networks, but frequencies are a very scarce
resource and they are not more than some dozens in best cases. Moreover, it is
also well known that heuristic searches are very appropriate methods when
tackling this kind of complex optimization problems because they are able to
obtain high quality results in reasonable periods of time. Therefore, the work
described here is a summary of a complete study in which four different and
representative heuristic methods have been carefully developed, adapted and
examined when they are used to solve a realistic optimization problem (the
FAP). After performing a rigorous statistical study, the authors can conclude
that the methods included here are able to obtain results of a very high quality
within the domain problem. In fact, the frequency plans obtained by some of
the algorithms included in the authors‟ work improve the results obtained in
other relevant studies published in the bibliography.
Chapter 3 – “There’s plenty of room at the bottom”, are the first words in
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

the conceptualization of quantum computation by Richard Feynman in his

famous talk at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December
29, 1959. His proposition was based on the fact that, at atomic and sub-atomic
level, the behavior of the particles is governed by the laws of quantum
mechanics. In his own words, “at the atomic level, we have new kinds of
forces and new kinds of possibilities, new kinds of effects. The problems of
manufacture and reproduction of materials will be quite different”. In 1982,
this Nobel – prize winning physicist discussed the idea of a quantum
simulator. Subsequently, quantum computation has emerged as a new area of
research with several theoretical and experimental breakthroughs that have
strengthened the idea of miniaturization of computational building blocks
(hardware). One such development was made in the field of search algorithms
by Lov Grover in 1996. He formulated a quantum search algorithm for
searching through an unsorted database. This algorithm is amongst the major
breakthroughs in the field of quantum computation with no classical
counterpart. The algorithm was proved to be optimal in 1997 by C. H. Bennett,
E. Bernstein, G. Brassard and U. Vazirani.

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 x Elisabeth C. Salander

Chapter 4 – An equilibrium network design problem for road traffic

network is considered in this chapter. Following Wardrop‟s first principle, a
user equilibrium traffic assignment is taken into account and formulated as a
variational inequality problem. In order to efficiently determine the set of link
capacity expansions and the corresponding equilibrium flows for which the
measures of performance index for the network is optimal, a bi-level
programming technique is used to formulate this equilibrium network design
problem. When the first order differentiable derivatives of the equilibrium link
flow with respect to the link capacity expansions are available under restrict
condition of the sensitivity analysis for perturbed problem, this equilibrium
network design problem can be regarded as a non-linear programming
problem. In this chapter, a descent approach via the gradient-based solution
methods for solving the bi-level program for the equilibrium network design
problem is proposed together with some new algorithms. Obtained numerical
results show that the proposed algorithms are robust and computationally
efficient in comparison with other alternatives.
Chapter 5 – Artificial neural networks (ANN) have been efficiently used
in many fields. One of these fields is forecasting. Forecasting problem is an
important issue on which many researchers from different disciplines have still
working. ANN method has proved its success in time series forecasting. While
traditional time series forecasting methods are not sufficient for some time
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

series which have non linear structure, ANN method can produce very
accurate forecasts for these time series. On the other hand, there are still some
problems with using ANN in forecasting problems. ANN have some
components such as architecture structure, learning algorithm and activation
function which play important role on forecasting performance of ANN.
Hence, determination of these components is a vital issue. Selection of
architecture structure that consists of determining the numbers of neurons in
the layers of a network is a key point for ANN method. To determine the best
architecture which gives the most accurate forecasts, various approaches have
been proposed in the literature. Finding the best architecture, which produce
the best performance measure value, can be considered as an optimization
problem. If the performance measure is a kind of criterion based on the error
between the forecasts and the original values, this is a minimization problem.
Aladag (2009) used tabu search algorithm to solve this problem so he
proposed a hybrid method combines artificial neural networks and tabu search
methods for forecasting problem. In this study, it is shown how the hybrid
intelligent forecasting method in which tabu search algorithm is employed to
determine the best architecture works. Then, the time series of international

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 Preface xi

tourism demand of Turkey is forecasted by using the hybrid intelligent

technique and obtained results are discussed.
Chapter 6 – A single-destination multiple-origin route (SDMOR) query is
to retrieve minimum-cost routes, each of which starts from one of a set of
origins and ends at the same destination. The query is typically used for route
assignment to stimulate timely rescues from multiple resources in an
emergency situation. In this paper, first, LU, a best first search algorithm and
framework recently proposed to process single-origin multiple destination
route (SOMDR) queries, is introduced. The way how LU incorporates
heuristic information obtained from the problem domain into a formal
mathematical theory of graph searching is provided. Then, LU_HANCOCK,
the reverse of LU, is proposed to process SDMOR queries in a graph. The
LU_HANCOCK search follows a vertex generation and expansion search
process starting from the destination, every time expands the most promising
vertex based on some rule to generate its parents, the starting vertices of its
incoming edges, until all the origins are reached. LU_HANCOCK uses a
heuristic, h_LU_HANCOCK, estimated based on origins yet-to-be-reached, to
expedite the search process following a best first way. As an example, the
Euclidean distance between two vertices is used as the basis to obtain
h_LU_HANCOCK to retrieve optimal solutions for SDMOR queries in
network distance in a transportation network and a set of experiments is
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

performed accordingly. The result demonstrates that LU_HANCOCK is much

more efficient than Reverse Dijkstra's algorithm when the number of origins is
much smaller than the total number of vertices in a graph, which is common in
reality. On average, the Reverse Dijkstra's algorithm is 0.1~32.3 times slower
than LU_HANCOCK to retrieve optimal solutions. For SDMOR query
processing, Reverse Dijkstra's algorithm is a special case of LU_HANCOCK
when no heuristic is adopted during the search process.
Chapter 7 – This chapter aims at solving difficult optimization problems
arising in many engineering areas. To this end, a brief overview of the main
stochastic methods which can be used for solving continuous non-
convexconstrained optimization problems is presented i.e.: Simulated
annealing (SA), Genetic algorithm (GA), and Particle swarm optimization
(PSO). In addition to that, the authors will present a recently developed
optimizationmethod called Heuristic Kalman Algorithm (HKA). The principle
of HKA is to consider the optimization problem as a measurement process
intended to give an estimate of the optimum. A specific procedure, based on
the Kalman estimator, was developed to improve the quality of the estimate
obtained through a measurement process. A significant advantage of HKA

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 xii Elisabeth C. Salander

against other stochastic methods lies mainly in the small number of parameters
which have to be set by the user. In this chapter the authors also introduce an
extension of standard geometric programming (GP) problems which the
authors call quasi geometric programming (QGP) problems. The consideration
of this particular kind of nonlinear and possibly non smooth optimization
problemismotivated by the fact thatmany engineering problems can be
formulated as a QGP. To solve this kind of problems (QGP), an algorithm is
proposed which is based on the resolution of a succession of standard GP. An
interesting feature of the proposed approach is that it does not need to develop
specific program solver and works well with any existing solver able to solve
conventional GP. Another objective of this chapter is to show that HKA and
QGP can be efficiently used to solve difficult non-convex problems. In
particular, the authors have addressed the problem of robust structured control
and on-ship spiral inductor design. Numerical experiments exemplify the
resolution of this kind of problems.
Chapter 8 – The search process of Genetic algorithms (GAs) can be well
explained by the schema theory. The schema theory points out about the
search process of GAs that better common schema in better individuals spread
gradually over whole population. If the better common schemata could be
distributedmuch more quickly over whole population, the convergence speed
of GAs can be improved drastically. The concept of the Stochastic Schemata
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Exploiters (SSEs) comes from this idea. In this study, the evolutionary
algorithmbased on the SSE concept is applied to the real-valued optimization
problems. The present algorithm is named as “Real-Coded Stochastic
Schemata Exploiters (RSSEs).” The RSSEs have some interesting features.
Firstly, the convergence speed is much faster than the RGAs. Secondly, it does
not need crossover and selection operators and therefore, the algorithm is
simple and the number of control parameters The RSSE search process starts
from the definition of the initial population by randomly defined individuals.
After the fitness functions are estimated, the individuals are numbered
according to the descending order of the fitness value. The sub-populations are
defined according to the order number of individuals. The common schemata
are extracted from the individuals in sub-populations and the new individuals
are generated from the extracted schemata. In the numerical examples, the
RSSEs are compared with Real-coded Genetic Algorithms (RGAs) in some
test problems. Numerical results show that RSSE search performance depends
on the mutual dependency of the design variables of the optimization problems
to be solved. The results show some features of RSSEs. Firstly, when
design variables of the optimization problem are mutually dependent, the

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 Preface xiii

convergence speed of RSSEs is faster than that of the RGAs. Secondly, when
variables are independent, the search performance of RSSEs depends on the
function.
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 In: Computer Search Algorithms ISBN: 978-1-61122-527-3
Editor: E. C. Salander © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

LIVE SOFT-MATTER
QUANTUM COMPUTING

Kevin B. Clark*
Portland, Oregon, USA

ABSTRACT
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

An estimated 3.5 x 109 years of ecological pressures have driven

extant cellular life, ranging from bacteria to humans, into highly complex
computational units of natural selection. Unsurprisingly, these live soft-
matter computers of sorts operate from platforms of nested networks
maintaining many of the same performance characteristics emulated by
artificial computational devices configured to network designs. Except
scientists have only recently begun to contemplate and manufacture what
Nature already succeeded in shaping eons ago – live soft-matter
computers capable of surpassing the Church-Turing thesis for efficient
classical algorithmic processes. During the mid-1980s, David Deutsch
exceeded the strong Church-Turing thesis, stating the probabilistic Turing
Machine is the most efficient computational device, with his own
conceptual innovation of Universal Quantum Computers. Quantum
computers rely on quantum physics to achieve at least quadratic
improvements over classical computational rates. Importantly, some of
the most primitive life forms on Earth, single-celled microorganisms or

*
Corresponding author: 4229 S.E. Harney Street, Portland, OR, 97206-0941, USA;
00.1.503.771.3997 (Telephone Number); [email protected] (Email Address).

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 2 Kevin B. Clark

microbes, also compute at quantum efficiencies. Microbes reveal their

computational proficiency when trying to solve survival and reproductive
dilemmas. Physiological stressors, including homeostatic and habitat
instabilities, place heavy demands on a microbe‟s genetic, epigenetic, and
somatic regulatory networks to rapidly acquire, store, modify, and/or
execute appropriate coping strategies. Microbes can use these
intracellular response-regulator networks to implement social-like
behaviors, such as assisted reproduction, altruistic suicide, reproductive
cheating, induced colonial defenses, and coordinated foraging and
hunting, to achieve selfish or selfless fitness goals. Contractile ciliates,
among the best learners of the microbial world, employ Hebbian-like
learning to increase the efficiency of heuristic-guided behavioral strategy
searches, planning, and execution when deceptively or altruistically
signaling mating availability and prowess. Such practiced “courting”
reciprocation depends on topologically invariant computational networks
which store “social” information content according to preferential
attachment rules and Bose-Einstein, Fermi-Dirac, and Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics. Very skilled ciliates search these networks for
suitable strategies and make signaling decisions at efficiencies
comparable to finding target solutions from superposed states with
Grover‟s quantum search algorithm. Quantum search efficiencies
exploiting superposition of mutational genetic states have been reported
for DNA polymerases that sample and sort nucleotide base pairs during
DNA replication and proofreading. However, the discovery that a fast
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

search algorithm is also implemented by an intact life form performing

cognitive-like computations establishes a new standard for expert
decision making at any systematics level as well as provides prospective
research and development directions for next-generation technologies
based on natural computing.
"Living matter, while not eluding the 'laws of physics' as established
up to date, is likely to involve 'other laws of physics'... It is, in my
opinion, nothing else than the principle of quantum theory over again."

Keywords: classical and quantum information, decision making, emergent

computation, learning and memory, microbes, primitive intelligences,
protozoa, signaling games, social heuristics, soft matter physics, quantum
biology.

INTRODUCTION
What Erwin Schrödinger [1] asked in the title of his published address,
What is life?, to the Nobel Committee in 1933 echoes countless sentiments of

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 Live Soft-Matter Quantum Computing 3

philosophers, artists, and scientists throughout the history of humankind. In

trying to answer this perhaps indeterminable question, Schrödinger moved in a
largely unfamiliar direction that only twentieth century minds could first, if
less than fully, appreciate. That physics, in general, and quantum physics,
more specifically, are the very principles of life. Many technological dreams
and accomplishments of humankind are inspired and surpassed by the often
near physical perfection and useful complexity of natural phenomena. The
evolved mechanics of membranous or feathered wings keeping flying insects
or birds aloft still out-perform the best engineered wings for subsonic man-
made flight, dating from mythical Icarus‟ flight of wax-winged fancy to the
less fanciful results of modern metamaterial wing warping [e.g., 2]. Robots
and robotic prosthetics remain sensorially impaired and clumsy compared to
the sensory acumen, timing, and delicate, precise movements of animal bodies
and limbs [e.g., 3-5]. Promising smart nanobeads [6,7] and -scaffolds [8] for
drug delivery and tissue repair mimic and augment human immunoresponses,
but lack self-tuning target specificity, autoamplification or -replication, and
additional features of a healthy, mature immune system. Many common
performance shortcomings found in these and other examples can be chiefly
traced to the inferior materials and control systems of artificial machines. We
are constantly reminded of the computational superiority of Nature‟s
“biomachines”, such as actin-myosin molecular ratchets or the primate brain,
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

versus that of artificial ones when observing then trying to exploit or model
the extraordinary diversity of organic materials and cellular life on Earth.
Natural selection, the keystone axiom of Darwin‟s Theory of Evolution [9],
promotes diversity through the dynamic interplay of competitive and
cooperative forces, shaping the organization and function of life forms by
favoring random or directed genetic and epigenetic innovations that maximize
fitness for certain ecological conditions. Natural selection may take either slow
or fast routes to produce high levels of fitness, but the adaptive traits “chosen”
(I use this term in the non-teleological sense.) must maintain performance
flexibility over a range of survival/replicative demands encountered in
abruptly changing environments. Otherwise, highly specialized adaptations
can lead to a sometimes counterintuitive and most nonadaptive, typically
nonlocal evolutionary endpoint – extinction.
The capacity of organisms, whether they be the ribonucleic acid (RNA)
“organisms” of the RNA World Hypothesis or modern humans, to rapidly
modify performance characteristics is itself an adaptive complex inherited trait
evolving at phylogenetic, ontogenetic, and even sociogenetic scales of
computation [cf. 10]. To achieve this kind of computational sophistication

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
 4 Kevin B. Clark

requires bionetworks whose computational architecture and natural computing

power rival, if not exceed, adaptive control systems governing complex
photoelectronic logic networks of individual computers or of “large-world”
technological systems, such as the world wide web. Indeed, in this chapter, I
review conceptual trends gaining momentum in ecological and evolutionary
sciences which emphasize quantum algorithms, a family of procedures that
implement some or all of the properties of quantum mechanics (e.g.,
superposition, entanglement, and interference) to enhance information
processing capacity, fault-tolerance, and speed over that attained by standard
classical procedures [cf. 11], have emerged in Nature with the consequence of
speeding-up major evolutionary transitions, including possibly the origins of
life from prebiotic conditions. Awareness that quantum algorithms might
happen in Nature is a striking and rather surprising advance in our
expectations of how biocomputations are executed at different levels of
structural and functional organization, given that quantum computation has
been only considered achievable with artificial devices beginning with the
insights of Richard Feynman and later developed more extensively by David
Deutsch in the mid-1980s [12]. Deutsch‟s conjecture 25 years ago that man-
made computational devices can surpass the limits imposed by the
probabilistic Turing machine and the strong Church-Turing thesis is now
solidly supported by both theoretical and experimental demonstrations of
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

natural quantum computation by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polymerases,

by microbes making heuristic-guided “social” decisions, and by perhaps
additional evolutionary phenomena. After commenting on this material, I
finish with a few thoughts on possible future directions for research and
development which particularly exploit the quantum computing nature of
primitive microbial intelligences for treatment of infectious disease,
bioremediation, and other biotechnology-driven fields.

EVOLUTIONARY TRANSITIONS, CONFLICT MEDIATION,

AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

For roughly 4 billion years, the continuum of life, from replicating

molecules to complex animal societies, has solved the problem of performance
flexibility by selection processes, subsumed under the label conflict mediation,
which nest or network simpler levels of structure and function into new, more
complex units of natural selection [13-21]. Conflict mediation operates

Salander, Elisabeth C.. Computer Search Algorithms, edited by Elisabeth C. Salander, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated,
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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From every side; it is Mars for whom they clamor,
Not Bacchus any more. And all the people,
Against the omens, against the will of the gods,
Cry out for wicked war. They fight each other,
Almost, to siege and storm Latinus’ palace.
He is a rock in the sea; he stands like a sea-rock
When a crash of water comes, and it is steadfast
Against the howl of the waves, and the roar is useless,
And the sea-weed, flung at the side, goes dripping back.
But even so Latinus could not conquer
Their blind determination. Things were going
As Juno willed. He invoked the empty air,
He invoked the gods, in vain. “Alas, we are broken!
We are broken by fate, we are swept away by storm.
You will pay for this, you will pay for it with bloodshed,
O my poor people! And punishment is waiting,
Turnus, for you; you will find it very bitter,
And then you will pray, and it will be too late.
My rest is won, my voyage almost over;
I lose a happy death.” He said no more,
Shut himself in his palace, and relinquished
The reins of power.

There was a Latin custom,

Cherished, thereafter, by the Alban cities,
As now by Rome, great empress—when they rouse
The god of war to battle, against the Getans,
Arabians, Hyrcanians, no matter;
Whether they march on India, or strive
To win back captured standards from the Parthians,
The custom holds. There are twin gates of Mars,
Held in both awe and reverence; they are fastened
By bolts of bronze, a hundred, by the eternal
Solidity of iron, and their guardian
Is Janus, always watchful at the threshold.
These, when the fathers vote for war, the consul,
Girt in the dress of Romulus, and belted
Gabinian-wise, with his own hand must open,
Must swing the portals wide, with his own voice
Cry war, and the others follow, and the trumpets
Give tongue in bronze agreement. So Latinus
Was called on, by that custom, for announcement
Of war against the Trojans, for the opening
Of those grim gates. But he refused to touch them,
Fled from the task he loathed, hid in the darkness,
And Juno, coming from heaven, shoved them open
With her own hand; the turning hinges grated,
The iron was loosed for war. And all Ausonia,
Listless till then, unmoved, blazed out in fury:
On foot they came, on horseback; through the dust
The cry rang out To arms! They oil the shields,
They make the javelins shine, they hone the axes,
They love the sight of banner, the sound of trumpet.
In five great cities, Tibur, Crustumerium,
Antemnae, and Atina, and Ardea,
Strong towns, and proud, and turret-crowned, they forge
New weapons on their anvils; they carve out helmets,
Make wicker covers for the shields; they hammer
Breastplates of bronze, or greaves of pliant silver.
They beat their ploughshares into swords; the furnace
Gives a new temper to the blades of their fathers.
Alarum sounds, password is whispered. Helmets
Come down from the wall; the yoke weighs down the horses;
A man puts on his armor, picks up his shield,
Buckles his sword to his side.

Open the mountain,

Muses, release the song!—what kings were hurried
Hot-haste to war, who filled their battle-lines,
How Italy blossomed with men, and burned with weapons,
For you remember, Muses, and you have power
To make us all remember, deeds that rumor,
Far-off and faint, brings to our recollection.
 First from the Tuscan shore came fierce Mezentius,
Arming his columns, the man who scorned the gods.
Beside him, handsomer than any other,
Save only Turnus, stood his son, young Lausus,
Tamer of horses, huntsman, from Agylla,
Leading a thousand warriors, a vain mission;
He was worthy, Lausus, of a happier fortune
Than being his father’s subject; he was worthy
Of a better father.

Near them, Aventinus

Paraded over the field his horses, victors
In many a fight, his chariots, crowned with palm-leaves.
His shield portrayed a hundred snakes, and the Hydra,
Serpent-surrounded, a token of his father,
For this was Hercules’ son, whose manly beauty
Was like his father’s. His mother was a priestess,
Rhea, whom Hercules had known when, victor,
He had slain Geryon, reached Laurentian country,
And bathed Iberian cattle in the Tiber.
His birthplace was the forest on the hillside
That men call Aventine; his birth was secret.
His men go into battle with pikes and javelins,
Fight with the tapering sabre, and a curious
Sabellan type of dart. And Aventinus
Strode out on foot, the skin of a lion swinging
Across his shoulders; the bristling mane was shaggy,
And the head rose above it like a helmet,
With the white teeth bared and snarling. So he entered
The royal halls, and everything about him
Gave sign of Hercules.

Next came two brothers,

Twins from the town of Tibur, named Catillus
And Coras; through the throng of spears they entered
As Centaurs, born from clouds, come down the mountains,
Crashing through wood and thicket in their onrush.
 There was Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste,
A king who, legend says, was born to Vulcan
In a country that raised cattle, found, untended,
Beside a campfire. His men were country fellows
From every here and there, from steep Praeneste,
From Juno’s Gabian fields, from the cold river,
The Anio, Anagnia, Amasenus,
Hernician rocks, and dewy stream and meadow.
Some of them had no arms, no shields, no chariots,
Their weapons, for the most part, being slingshots
And bullets of dull lead, but some of them carried
A couple of darts apiece, and for their headgear
Wore tawny wolfskins; they kept the left foot bare,
They wore a rawhide shinguard on the other.

And there was Messapus, a son of Neptune,

A tamer of horses, a man whom none in battle
Could hurt with fire or sword; his people came
To war from years and years of peaceful living,
Men from Fescennium, Soracte’s mountains,
Flavinian fields, Ciminus’ lake and hillside,
Capena’s groves. They sang as they were marching,
Hailing their king in measured step and rhythm,
Their music like the sound of swans, bound home,
White through white cloud, as they return from feeding,
And the long throats pour echoing music over
Meadow and river. You would not think of warriors,
Marshalled in bronze, in that array, but a cloud
Of raucous birds, driven from sea to shore.

Clausus, a host in himself, led a great host

Of Sabine blood; the Claudian tribe at Rome
Of Sabine origin owes to him its name.
His followers came from many cities, Cures,
Eretum, Amiternum, and Mutusca,
Renowned for olives, Tetrica, Nomentum,
Velinus’ countryside and Mount Severus,
Casperia and Foruli; many rivers
Had served their thirst, the Fabaris, the Tiber,
Himella’s stream, chill Nursia, and Allia,
A name of evil omen: they came like waves
Rolling to Africa’s coast when fierce Orion
Sinks in the wintry ocean, as thick as grain
Turned brown in early summer on Hermus’ plain
Or Lydia’s yellow acres. The earth trembles
Under their feet; the shields clang on their shoulders.

And there was Agamemnon’s son, Halaesus,

A hater of the Trojan name; for Turnus
He yoked his steeds, he brought a thousand peoples,
Men who hoe Massic vineyards, men from hills,
Men from the plains; men from Volturnus’ river,
Men from the town of Cales; Oscan people,
Saticulan hosts. Their weapon is the javelin,
Wound with the whiplash; an old-fashioned shield
Covers their left; for work, close-in, they carry
Sharp-bladed scimitars.

And Oebalus
Was with him, son of Telon and Sebethis,
Born by that nymph when Telon, old, was ruling
Over Capri, a realm his son extended
Over Sarrastrian tribes, over the plainland,
The Sarnus waters; Batulum, Celemna,
Rufrae, were all his towns, and high Abella,
Rich in its apple-trees. These warriors carried
Some kind of German dart; they used for headgear
Bark of the cork-tree: shields and swords were bronze.

From Nersae Ufens came, a man distinguished

In arms and reputation; his tribe were huntsmen,
Farmers, after a fashion; they wore their armor
Even when ploughing. Rugged soil they lived on;
They loved to raid and live on what they raided.
 Archippus, the Marruvians’ king, had sent
A warrior-priest, Umbro, renowned in courage.
His helmet carried olive leaves; he knew
The arts of charming serpents and of healing
Their venomous wounds; he had no magic, later,
Against the Trojan spear-point, and the herbs,
Gathered on Marsian hills, availed him little
In days of war; his native groves and waters
Mourned his untimely death.

And Virbius came,

Aricia’s handsome son, raised in the groves,
The marshy shores around Diana’s altar,
Most rich, most gracious. Hippolytus, his father,
Had once been slain, the story runs, a victim
Of Phaedra’s hate and passion, and the vengeance
His father took; he had been drawn and quartered
By Theseus’ stallions, but Apollo’s magic,
Diana’s love, had given him life again
Under the stars and the fair light of heaven,
And Jupiter, angry that any mortal
Should rise from shadow to life, struck down his healer,
Apollo’s son, with a fearful blast of thunder,
Hippolytus being hidden by Diana
In a secret place, where the nymph Egeria tended
Her sacred grove; there he lived out, alone,
In the Italian woods, the days of his life
With no renown; he took another name,
Virbius, meaning, Twice a man; no horses
Ever came near that grove, that holy temple,
Seeing that horses on an earlier shore
Had overturned his chariot in panic
And been his death, driven to panic terror
By monsters from the ocean. But his son,
Virbius the younger, had no fear of horses,
Driving and riding to war.
 Among the foremost,
Taller than any, by a head, was Turnus,
Gripping the sword; his helmet, triple-crested,
Had a Chimaera on it, breathing fire
From gaping jaws; the bloodier the battle,
The hotter the fight, the redder that reflection,
And on his shield, in gold, the story of Io,
The heifer, once a girl; you could see her guardian,
Argus, the hundred-eyed, and her poor father,
The river-god with streaming urn, Inachus.
And a cloud of warriors on foot behind him,
Columns with shields, the Argives and Auruncans,
Rutulians, old Sicanians, Labicians
With colored shields, Sacranians, men from Tiber,
Ploughmen of Circe’s ridge, soldiers from Anxur,
Sons of Feronia, that land of greenness
Where Satura’s marsh lies dark, and the cold river
Runs seaward through the valley.

And last of all

Camilla rode, leading her troops on horseback,
Her columns bright with bronze, a soldieress,
A woman whose hands were never trained to weaving,
To the use of wool, to basketry, a girl
As tough in war as any, in speed afoot
Swifter than wind. She could go flying over
The tips of the ears of the wheat, and never bruise them,
So light her way, she could run on the lift of the wave,
Dry-shod; and they came from the houses and fields to wonder,
To gaze at her going, young men, and matrons thronging,
Wide-eyed and with parted lips, at the glory of royal crimson
Over her shoulders’ smoothness, the clasp of the gold
In her hair, and the way she carried the Lycian quiver,
The heft of the pastoral myrtle, the wand with the spearpoint.
 BOOK VIII

AENEAS
AT THE SITE OF ROME

As Turnus raised war’s banner, and the trumpets

Blared loud above Laurentum’s citadel,
And fiery horses reared, and arms were clashing,
Confusion reigned: all Latium joined alliance,
The youth were mad for war. Messapus, Ufens,
And that despiser of the gods, Mezentius,
Brought forces in from everywhere; wide fields
Were stripped of countrymen. They sent a message
By Venulus, to Diomede in Arpi:
Come to our aid; the Trojans are in Latium;
Aeneas with a fleet and vanquished gods
Proclaims himself a king; it is fate, he says;
And many tribes are joining him; his name
Spreads far and wide in Latium. Diomede
(The message says) better than many others,
Should know the outcome, if the grace of fortune
Follows Aeneas in the scheme he nurtures.
He knows the Trojans; he can judge them better
Than Turnus or Latinus.
So, in Latium,
Events were shaping, and Aeneas knew it,
And saw it all, and turned and tossed in torment
On a great sea of trouble. The swift mind
Went searching, probing, veering with every shift,
As when in a bronze bowl the light of water,
Reflected by the sun or moonlight, wavers,
Dances and flits about, from wall to ceiling.
Night: over all the world the weary creatures,
The beasts and birds, were deep in sleep; Aeneas,
With warfare in his heart, stretched out for rest
Where the cold sky was awning over the river,
And sleep came late. Before him rose an image,
An aged head amid the poplar leaves,
A mantle of gray, and shady reeds around him,
Tiber, the river-god, in consolation
And comfort speaking:—“Son of the gods, redeemer
Of Troy from overseas, her savior ever,
O long-awaited on Laurentian fields,
Here is your home, be sure of it; here dwell
Your household gods, be sure. Do not turn back,
Do not be frightened by the threats of war:
The swollen rage of Heaven has subsided.
Soon—do not take my words for idle phantoms,
Illusions of a dream—under the holm-oaks
Along the shore, you will find a huge sow lying,
White, with a new-born litter at her udders,
Thirty of them, all white, a certain token
Of a new city, in thirty years. Your son
Will found it; he will call it the White City,
A glorious name, beyond all doubt whatever.
Further, I have a word or two of guidance
To speed you through the pressure of the moment
Toward ultimate victory. Inland a little
Arcadian people live, a race descended
From Pallas’ line; their king is called Evander,
Under whose banner they have built a city,
High on the hills; its name is Pallanteum.
They wage continual warfare with the Latins;
Take them as allies, in covenant and treaty.
And I myself will guide you there, upstream
Along the banks, the oars against the current.
Rise, goddess-born; when the stars set, make prayer
To Juno first, with suppliant vows appeasing
Her threats and anger. As for me, my tribute
May wait your triumph. I am blue-green Tiber,
The river most dear to Heaven, I am the river
You see, brim-full to these rich banks, this ploughland:
This is my home, the source of lofty cities.”

So spoke the river-god, to his deep pool diving.

Slumber and night were gone. Aeneas rose,
Faced eastern sunlight, took up river water
In the hollow of his hands, and made his prayer:—
“Laurentian Nymphs, to whom the rivers owe
Their essence, father Tiber, holy river,
Receive Aeneas, be his shield in danger.
Wherever your presence dwells, in pool or fountain,
Whatever land its flowing bounty graces,
O comforter in time of trouble, surely
Our gifts will bring their meed of honor, always,
To the horned ruler of the western waters.
Only be with us, give us confirmation!”
He had made his prayer; two ships were quickly chosen
Out of the fleet, equipped, and the crews made ready.

And then a marvel struck their eyes, a wonder!

White in the wood, on the green ground, there lay
A sow with her white litter, and Aeneas
Brought them in sacrifice to Juno’s altar.
All that long night, the Tiber calmed his flood;
The silent wave, retreating, lay as still
As pool or mere or watery plain; the oars
Dipped without strain; the voyage went with laughter
And cheerful shouting; over the waters rode
The oily keels; and waves and woods in wonder
Beheld the shields of men, the colored vessels,
Divide the flood. Day turns to night. They traverse
The winding bends, with green shade arching over,
Parting the green woods in the quiet water,
Till it is noon, and they see walls and houses,
Evander’s town, which Roman power later
Made equal to the city, a mighty empire,
But it was little then. They turned to the shore,
Drew near the city.

On that day, it happened,

The king was paying customary homage,
In a grove before the city, to the gods,
To Hercules, most of all. And his son Pallas
Was with him there, and the leaders of the people,
The lowly senate, bringing gifts of incense
Where the warm blood was smoking at the altars.
They saw the tall ships come, they saw them gliding
Upstream, through the dark wood, the feathered oar-blades
Making no noise at all, and they were frightened,
They rose; they would have left the feast, but Pallas,
Unterrified, forbade them; he seized a weapon,
Rushed out in challenge, calling from a hillock:—
“What cause, young men, has brought you here, exploring
Ways that you do not know? Where are you going?
What is your race? Where do you come from? Are you
Bringers of peace or war?” Aeneas answered
From the high stern, raising the branch of olive:—
“We are men from Troy; we are armed against the Latins,
Whose arrogant war we flee. We seek Evander.
Take him this message: tell him chosen leaders,
Dardanus’ sons, have come, to seek for friendship,
For allied arms.” And Pallas, in amazement
At hearing that great name, cried, “Come and join us,
Whoever you are, speak to my father, enter,
O guest, into our household!” And his hand
Reached out to greet and guide them. They left the river,
Drew near the grove; with friendly words Aeneas
Spoke to Evander:—“Best of the sons of Greeks,
To whom, at fortune’s will, I bring petition,
Bearing the branch of peace, I have not been frightened
To come to you, a Danaan chief, related
To Atreus’ twin sons. In my own right
I am worth something; we are bound together
By the god’s holy oracles, by the old
Ancestral kinship, by your own renown
Widespread through all the world. I am glad to follow
The will of fate. Dardanus, our great father,
Was father of Troy; his mother was Electra,
Daughter of Atlas, who carries on his shoulders
The weight of heaven. Mercury is your father,
Born, on Cyllene’s chilly peak, to Maia,
And Maia, if legend is credible, the daughter
Of Atlas, who carries heaven on his shoulders.
A common blood runs in our veins, and therefore
I sent no embassies, I planned no careful
Tentative overtures; myself, I came here
My life at your disposal, in supplication
Before your threshold. We are harried in war
By the same race that harries you, the sons
Of Daunus; nothing, so they think, will stop them,
If we are beaten, from complete dominion
Over the western land and both her oceans.
Receive and give alliance: our hearts are brave,
Our spirit tried and willing.”

He had finished.
Evander had been watching him, expression,
Gesture, and mood, and bearing. He made answer:—
“How gladly, bravest man of all the Trojans,
I recognize and welcome you! Your father,
The great Anchises, speaks to me again,—
These are the words, the voice, the very features
That I recall so well. Once Priam came here,
Faring to Salamis, his sister’s kingdom.
I was a young man then; I stared in wonder
At the chiefs of Troy, at Priam, but Anchises
Towered above them all, and my heart was burning
To clasp his hand, to speak with him: I met him,
I led him, proudly, to Pheneus’ city,
And when he left, he gave me a fine quiver
With Lycian arrows, a cloak with gold embroidered,
A pair of golden bridles; my son Pallas
Rejoices in them now. The bond you ask for
Is given, the treaty made. To-morrow morning
My escort will attend your leave, my riches
Be at your service. Meanwhile, since you come here
As friends of ours, join us in celebrating
These yearly rites of ours. It is not permitted
Our people to postpone them. In your kindness,
Become accustomed to your allies’ tables.”

He gave the orders for the feast’s renewal.

Once more the cups are set; the king, in person,
Conducts his guests to places on the greensward,
Reserving for Aeneas, in special honor,
A maple throne, draped with the skin of a lion.
Chosen attendants and the priest of the altar
Bring the roast portions, pile the bread in baskets,
Serve Bacchus’ wine. Aeneas and the Trojans
Feast on the consecrated food.

When hunger
Was satisfied, and the wine went round, Evander
Told them a story:—“No vain superstition,
No ignorance of the gods, enjoins upon us
These solemn rites, this feast, this deep devotion
To a mighty power’s altar. O Trojan guest,
We are grateful men, saved from a cruel danger,
We pay these rites each year, each year renewing
A worship justly due. Look up at the cliff
Hung on the high rocks yonder, see the scattered
Rubble of rock, the ruin of a dwelling,
The jumble of toppled crags. There was a cave there
Once on a time; no man had ever measured
Its awful depth, no sunlight ever cheered it.
The half-man, Cacus, terrible to look at,
Lived in that cave, and the ground was always reeking
With the smell of blood, and nailed to the doors, the faces
Of men hung pale and wasted. Vulcan fathered
This monster; you would know it if you saw him
With the black fire pouring from mouth and nostrils,
A bulk of moving evil. But time at last
Brought us the help we prayed for; a great avenger,
A god, came to our rescue, Hercules,
Proud in the death and spoil of triple Geryon,
Drove his huge bulls this way, the great herd filling
Valley and river. And the crazy Cacus,
Who never would lose a chance for crime or cunning,
Made off with four of the bulls and four sleek heifers,
Dragging them by their tails; the tracks would never
Prove he had driven them to his rocky cavern.
He hid them in the darkness; whoever looked
Would think they had gone not to, but from, the cave.
Meanwhile, as Hercules drove the well-fed herd
Out of the stables to the road again,
Some of them lowed in protest; hill and grove
Gave back the sound, and from the cave one heifer
Lowed in return. That was the doom of Cacus.
Black bile burned hot in Hercules; he grabbed
His weapons, his great knotted club, went rushing
Up to the mountain-top. Never before
Had men seen terror in the eyes of Cacus.
Swifter than wind, he dove into his cavern,
Shut himself in, shattered the links of iron
That held aloft the giant boulder, dropped it
To block the doorway, and Hercules came flinging
His angry strength against it, to no purpose.
This way he faced, and that, and gnashed his teeth
In sheer frustration; he went around the mountain
Three times, in burning rage; three times he battered
The bulkhead of the door; three times he rested,
Breathless and weary, on the floor of the valley.
Above the cavern ridge, a pointed rock,
All flint, cut sharp, with a sheer drop all around it,
Rose steep, a nesting place for kites and buzzards.
It leaned a little leftward toward the river.
This Hercules grabbed and shook, straining against it;
His right hand pushed and wrenched it loose; he shoved it,
With a sudden heave, down hill, and the heaven thundered,
The river ran backward and the banks jumped sideways,
And Cacus’ den stood open, that great palace
Under the rock, the chambered vault of shadows.
An earthquake, so, might bring to light the kingdoms
Of the world below the world, the pallid regions
Loathed by the gods, the gulf of gloom, where phantoms
Shiver and quake as light descends upon them.
So there was Cacus, desperate in the light,
Caught in the hollow rock, howling and roaring
As Hercules rained weapons down upon him,
Everything he could use, from boughs to millstones,
But Cacus still had one way out of the danger:
A cloud of smoke rolled out of his jaws; the cave
Darkened to utter blackness, thick night rolling
With fitful glints of fire. This was too much
For Hercules in his fury; he jumped down through it,
Through fire, where the smoke came rolling forth the thickest,
Where the black billows seethed around the cavern.
And Cacus, in the darkness, to no purpose
Poured forth his fire and smoke. Hercules grabbed him,
Twisted him into a knot, hung on and choked him
Till the eyes bulged out and the throat was dry of blood.
He tore the doors loose, and the house was open;
People could see the lost and stolen plunder,
And Hercules dragged the shapeless ugly carcass
Out by the feet, a fascinating object
For the gaze of men, the terrible eyes, the muzzle,
The hairy chest, and the fire dead in the gullet.
Ever since then we keep this day, rejoicing
In honor of our deliverance; Potitius
Was founder of the rite, Pinaria’s household
Custodian of the service. In this grove
We set our altar, calling it the greatest,
And greatest it shall be, to me, forever.
Join with us, then, in honor of all that glory,
Bind wreaths around your temples, reach the wine-cup,
Call with good-will upon our common god.”
He veiled his hair with the two-colored poplar
In Hercules’ honor, and held out the goblet;
All made libation and prayer.

And evening came,

And the priests went forth, Potitius first; they wore
The skins of beasts, and they were bearing torches.
The feast renewed, they brought the welcome viands
To a second table, loading, too, the altars.
And the Dancing Priests around the sacred altars
Lit fire and sang their songs. They too wore poplar,
Both groups, one old, one young, and chanted verses
In praise of Hercules, his deeds, his glories,
How first he strangled in his grip twin serpents,
The monsters Juno sent; how, great in war,
Troy and Oechalia went down before him;
How, under King Eurystheus, he bore
A thousand heavy toils, at Juno’s order.
“Hail, O unvanquished hero, whose hand brought low
Pholus, Hylaeus, the cloud-born double shapes,
Monsters of Crete and the Nemean lion.
The Stygian lakes trembled at Hercules’ crossing,
And Cerberus was frightened, in his cavern,
Lying on bones half-eaten. O unafraid
Of any monster, even Typhoeus, towering
High in his arms, even the snake of Lerna
With all its hissing heads,—hail, son of Jove,
Hail, glorious addition to the heavens!
Favor our rites and yours with gracious blessing!”
So they sang praises, and they crowned the service
With the tale of Cacus, that fire-breathing monster,
And hill and woodland echoed to the singing.
 Then back to the city again; and old Evander
Kept his son Pallas near him and Aeneas,
Talking of various matters, so the journey
Was lightened, and the landscape charmed Aeneas,
Who wondered as he watched the scene, and questioned,
And learned its early legend. King Evander
Began the story:—“Native Nymphs and Fauns
Dwelt in these woodlands once, and a race of men
Sprung from the trunks of trees, or rugged oak,
Men primitive and rude, with little culture:
They had no knowledge of ploughing, none of harvest;
The fruits of the wild trees, the spoils of hunting,
Gave them their nourishment. Then Saturn came here,
Fleeing Jove’s arms, an exile from his kingdom.
He organized this race, unruly, scattered
Through the high mountains, gave them law and order.
He gave the place a name; Latium, he called it,
Since once he lay there safely, hiding in shelter.
Under his rule there came those golden ages
That people tell of, all the nations dwelling
In amity and peace. But little by little
A worse age came, lack-luster in its color,
And the madness of war, and the evil greed of having.
Then came the Ausonian bands, Sicanian peoples,
And the land of Saturn took on other names,
And the kings came, and the fierce giant Thybris
For whom we named our river; we forgot
Its older title, Albula. Here I came
An exile from my country, over the seas,
Driven by fate and fortune, which no man
Can cope with or escape. The nymph Carmentis,
My mother, led me here with solemn warnings
Under Apollo’s guidance.”

So Evander
Finished the tale, resumed the walk. They came,
First, to an altar and a gate: Carmental
The Romans call it, in honor of that nymph
Who first foretold the greatness of the Romans,
The glory of Pallanteum. Past the portal
They came to a spreading grove, a sanctuary
Restored by Romulus, and under the cold cliff
The Lupercal, named, in Arcadian fashion,
For the great god Pan. And then Evander showed him
The wood of Argiletum, and told the legend
Of the death of Argus, once a guest. From there
They went to the Tarpeian house, and a place
Golden as we now know it, once a thicket,
Once brush and briar, and now our Capitol.
Even then men trembled, fearful of a presence
Haunting this wood, this rock. “A god lives here,”
Evander said, “What god, we are not certain,
But certainly a god. Sometimes my people
Think they have seen, it may be, Jove himself
Clashing the darkening shield, massing the storm-cloud.
Here you can see two towns; the walls are shattered,
But they remind us still of men of old,
Two forts, one built by Janus, one by Saturn,
Janiculum, Saturnia.”

So they came,
Conversing with each other, to the dwelling
Where poor Evander lived, and saw the cattle
And heard them lowing, through the Roman forum,
The fashionable section of our city,
And as they came to the house itself, Evander
Remembered something,—“Hercules,” he said,
“Great victor that he was, bent head and shoulders
To enter here, and this house entertained him.
Dare, O my guest, to think of wealth as nothing,
Make yourself worthy of the god, and come here
Without contempt for poverty.” He led him,
The great Aeneas, under the low rafters,
Found him a couch, nothing but leaves, and the bedspread
A Libyan bear-skin. And night came rushing down
Dark-wingèd over the earth.

And Venus’ heart

Was anxious for her son, and with good reason,
Knowing the threats and tumult of the Latins.
She spoke to Vulcan, in that golden chamber
Where they were wife and husband, and her words
Were warm with love:—“When the Greek kings were tearing
Troy’s towers as they deserved, and the walls were fated
To fall to enemy fire, I sought no aid
For those poor people, I did not ask for weapons
Made by your art and power; no, dearest husband,
I would not put you to that useless labor,
Much as I owed to Priam’s sons, however
I sorrowed for my suffering Aeneas.
But now, at Jove’s command, he has made a landing
On the Rutulian coast; I come, a suppliant
To the great power I cherish, a mother asking
Arms for her son. If Thetis and Aurora
Could move you with their tears, behold what people
Unite against me, what cities sharpen weapons
Behind closed gates, intent on our destruction!”
So Venus pleaded, and as she saw him doubtful,
The goddess flung her snowy arms around him
In fondlement, in soft embrace, and fire
Ran through him; warmth, familiar to the marrow,
Softened his sternness, as at times in thunder
Light runs through cloud. She knew her charms, the goddess,
Rejoicing in them, conscious of her beauty,
Sure of the power of love, and heard his answer:—
“No need for far-fetched pleading, dearest goddess;
Have you no faith in me? You might have asked it
In those old days; I would have armed the Trojans,
And Jupiter and the fates might well have given
Another ten years of life to Troy and Priam.
Now, if your purpose is for war, I promise
Whatever careful craft I have, whatever
Command I have of iron or electrum,
Whatever fire and air can do. Your pleading
Is foolish; trust your power!” And he came to her
With the embrace they longed for, and on her bosom
Sank, later, into slumber.

And rose early

When night was little more than half way over,
The way a housewife must, who tends the spindle,
Rising to stir and wake the drowsing embers,
Working by night as well as day, and keeping
The housemaids at the task, all day, till lamplight,
A faithful wife, through toil, and a good mother,
Even so, like her, with no more self-indulgence,
The Lord of Fire rose early, from soft pillows
To the labor of the forge.

An island rises
Near the Sicanian coast and Lipare,
Aeolian land, steep over smoking rocks.
Below them roars a cavern, hollow vaults
Scooped out for forges, where the Cyclops pound
On the resounding anvils; lumps of steel
Hiss in the water, and the blasts of fire
Pant in the furnaces; here Vulcan dwells,
The place is called Vulcania, and here
The Lord of Fire comes down. In the great cave
The smiths were working iron; a thunderbolt
Such as Jove hurls from heaven, was almost finished,
Shaped by the hands of Brontes, Steropes,
And naked-limbed Pyracmon. They had added
Three rods of twisted rain and three of cloud,
And three of orange fire and wingèd wind,
And now they were working in the flash, the sound,
The fear, the anger, the pursuing flame.
Elsewhere a chariot for Mars was building
To harry men and cities; and for Pallas
An awful shield, with serpent scales of gold,
Snakes interwoven, and the Gorgon’s head,
Awaiting polish. The neck was severed, the eyes
Already seemed to roll, when Vulcan came
Crying, “Away with this! Another task
Demands your toil, your thought. Arms for a warrior!
Use all your strength, you need it now; exert
The flying hands, ply all your master skill,
Break off delay!” And all, obedient, bent
To the great task; the bronze, the golden ore
Run down like rivers, and the wounding steel
Melts in the furnace as they shape the shield,
Welding it, orb on orb, a sevenfold circle
Made one, for all the weapons of the Latins.
Some keep the bellows panting, others dip
The hissing bronze in water, and the anvil
Groans under the hammer-stroke. In turn they raise
Their arms in measured cadence, and the tongs
Take hold of the hot metal, twist and turn it.
So sped the work on Lemnos.

And Evander
Was wakened by the kindly light of morning
And bird-song under the eaves, and the old man rose,
Donned simple tunic and sandals, and hung on
His simple sword, and over his shoulders twisted
The panther hide, out of the way of the hilt.
Two hounds were all his bodyguard; he came,
So, to Aeneas’ cabin; he remembered
His words and promised service, found his guest
An early riser also; hand met hand,
And soon companions joined them, young prince Pallas,
Loyal Achates. They stroll a while, then settle
Themselves for conversation, and Evander
Is first to speak:—“Great captain of the Trojans,
I cannot, while you live, consider Troy
A beaten town, I cannot see her people
As anything but victors. I am sorry
Our power to help is meager. On one side
A river hems us in, and on the other
Rutulian armies thunder at our walls.
Still, I can find you, or I think so, allies,
Great people, an encampment rich in kingdoms,
An unexpected aid. The fates have brought you
To the right place. Not far away, Agylla,
A city built of ancient stone, lies waiting,
A town the Lydians founded; you know the race,
Renowned in war. It was a prosperous city
For many years, until Mezentius ruled it,
A cruel, arrogant man, sadist and savage.
God pay him back in kind! I cannot tell you
All his foul deeds: this will suffice;—he fastened
Live men to dead men, strapped their hands together,
Tied face to face, and killed them, slowly, slowly,
In the waste and stain and clasp of that long death.
They suffered long, his subjects, but at last
They rose in arms against him, his mad household,
Hurled fire to his roof-top, slaughtered his companions.
He fled that ruin to Rutulian fields,
Where Turnus’ weapons shielded him. Now all
Etruria, risen in arms, demands,
With threat of war, the king for punishment,
And you shall be the leader of those thousands
Who throng the shore with ships, whose cry is Forward!
But an old prophet holds them back, those warriors,
The pride and glory of an ancient people,
Whom a just grievance and a righteous anger
Inflames against Mezentius. It is not fated,
He says, for any native-born Italian
To tame a race so proud. Choose foreign leaders!
And so the Etruscan battle-lines have settled
Unwarlike on the plain, through heaven’s warning.
Tarchon himself has sent me envoys, bearing
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