Organizational Development and Change

Understand self-designing organization

Self-designing organizations prioritize adaptability, autonomy, and continuous learning,

empowering teams and individuals to shape their work environments and processes. Rooted
in systems theory and complexity science, they view organizations as living systems.

Key Characteristics of Self-Designing Organizations:

Autonomy: Teams have the freedom to make decisions regarding their work processes, goals, and
methods. This autonomy fosters innovation and responsiveness to change.

Continuous Learning: These organizations prioritize learning at all levels. Employees are
encouraged to experiment, share knowledge, and reflect on their experiences to improve
performance.

Fluid Structures: Instead of fixed hierarchies, self-designing organizations often employ fluid
structures that allow for dynamic team formations based on project needs or challenges.

Collaborative Culture: A strong emphasis is placed on collaboration across different teams

and departments. This culture supports open communication and collective problem-solving.

Feedback Mechanisms: Regular feedback loops are established to ensure that teams can
assess their performance and adapt accordingly.
Example of a Self-Designing Organization:
One prominent example of a self-designing organization is W.L. Gore & Associates, the
company behind GORE-TEX products. W.L. Gore operates with a unique organizational
model characterized by minimal hierarchy and an emphasis on employee autonomy.
Employees, referred to as “associates,” are encouraged to pursue projects they are passionate
about without strict managerial oversight. The company fosters a culture of collaboration
where associates form teams based on shared interests rather than formal job titles or
departments.
In this environment, associates engage in continuous learning through experimentation with
new materials and technologies while receiving feedback from peers rather than top-down
evaluations. This approach has led to significant innovations in product development while
maintaining high employee satisfaction rates.

Examine OD interventions that enable organizations to change continuously

Organizational Development (OD) interventions are systematic efforts aimed at improving an
organization’s capability through the enhancement of its processes, structures, and culture.
Continuous change is essential in today’s dynamic business environment, where
organizations must adapt to evolving market conditions, technological advancements, and
shifting consumer preferences. Various OD interventions facilitate this continuous change by
promoting adaptability, learning, and innovation within organizations.
Key OD Interventions for Continuous Change
Action Research: This intervention involves a cyclical process of planning, acting, observing,
and reflecting. Organizations engage in action research to identify problems and develop
solutions collaboratively with stakeholders. This participatory approach fosters a culture of
continuous improvement as employees are actively involved in the change process.
Team Building: Effective team dynamics are crucial for fostering collaboration and
innovation. Team-building interventions focus on enhancing interpersonal relationships
among team members, improving communication skills, and clarifying roles and
responsibilities. By strengthening teams, organizations can respond more effectively to
changes in their environment.
Training and Development: Continuous learning is vital for organizations aiming to remain
competitive. Training programs that focus on skill development not only enhance employee
capabilities but also promote a culture of lifelong learning. This intervention ensures that
employees are equipped with the necessary skills to adapt to new technologies and processes.
Culture Change Initiatives: Organizational culture plays a significant role in how change is
perceived and implemented within an organization. Interventions aimed at changing
organizational culture involve redefining values, beliefs, and behaviors that support
continuous change. This may include leadership development programs that emphasize
adaptive leadership styles conducive to change.
Feedback Mechanisms: Establishing robust feedback systems allows organizations to gather
insights from employees regarding ongoing changes. Regular feedback helps identify areas
for improvement and reinforces a culture of openness and transparency. This intervention
encourages iterative adjustments based on real-time data rather than relying solely on pre-
defined strategies.
Strategic Planning: Engaging in strategic planning processes enables organizations to
anticipate future challenges and opportunities systematically. By involving various
stakeholders in the planning process, organizations can create flexible strategies that allow
them to pivot quickly when necessary.
Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives: Promoting diversity within teams enhances creativity and
problem-solving capabilities by bringing together varied perspectives which can lead to
innovative solutions during times of change.
Conclusion
In summary, OD interventions play a crucial role in enabling organizations to embrace
continuous change effectively by fostering a culture of adaptability, collaboration, learning,
and innovation. The integration of these interventions into organizational practices not only
prepares employees for upcoming challenges but also positions the organization as a resilient
entity capable of thriving amidst uncertainty.

To explain how dynamic capabilities built into the organization enable it to adapt to rapidly
shifting environments constantly

Dynamic capabilities refer to an organization's ability to adapt to rapidly changing

environments, focusing on integrating, building, and reconfiguring competencies to
effectively sense opportunities and threats.
Explanation of Dynamic Capabilities
Sensing: Organizations must continuously scan their environment for changes that could
impact their operations. This involves gathering information about market trends, customer
preferences, technological advancements, and competitive actions. For instance, a company
in the Pacific region may utilize data analytics tools to monitor consumer behavior shifts due
to economic changes or natural disasters.
Seizing: Once opportunities are identified, organizations need to act decisively. This could
involve launching new products or services that meet emerging customer needs or entering
new markets that have been made accessible due to regulatory changes or shifts in consumer
demand. For example, a tech startup in the Pacific might pivot its business model from
hardware sales to software-as-a-service (SaaS) solutions in response to increasing demand for
remote work tools.
Transforming: Organizations must be willing to reconfigure their resources and processes in
response to environmental changes. This may include restructuring teams, investing in new
technologies, or forming strategic partnerships. A notable example can be seen with
companies in the Pacific Islands that have adapted their supply chains following disruptions
caused by climate change impacts on traditional shipping routes.
Examples of Dynamic Capabilities in the Pacific Region
Tourism Industry Adaptation: The tourism sector in the Pacific Islands has had to develop
dynamic capabilities due to fluctuating travel restrictions during global health crises like
COVID-19. Many resorts and travel agencies quickly shifted their marketing strategies
towards domestic tourism when international travel was restricted. They also enhanced health
protocols and created flexible booking options to regain customer trust.
Conclusion
Dynamic capabilities are essential for organizations operating within rapidly shifting
environments such as those found in the Pacific region. By developing robust sensing
mechanisms, seizing timely opportunities, and transforming organizational structures
accordingly, these entities can thrive amidst uncertainty.
Identify the steps for the application of knowledge management

Knowledge management is a systematic approach to managing, creating, sharing, and

utilizing knowledge within an organization, involving critical steps for effective handling of
knowledge assets.
Identification of Knowledge Assets: This initial step involves recognizing and cataloging the
existing knowledge within the organization. It includes both tacit knowledge (knowledge
gained from personal experience) and explicit knowledge (documented information). Tools
such as knowledge audits can be employed to assess what knowledge exists and where it
resides.

Knowledge Creation:
Organizations must foster an environment conducive to innovation and creativity,
encouraging employees to generate new ideas and solutions. This can involve collaborative
projects, brainstorming sessions, or research initiatives that stimulate the development of new
knowledge.
Knowledge Capture:
Once knowledge is created, it needs to be captured effectively. This can be achieved through
documentation processes such as reports, databases, or content management systems that
store valuable insights and experiences for future reference.
Knowledge Sharing:
Effective sharing mechanisms must be established to disseminate knowledge across the
organization. This may include training programs, workshops, online forums, or intranet
platforms where employees can exchange information and best practices.
Knowledge Utilization:
The ultimate goal of KM is to apply the shared knowledge in decision-making processes and
operational activities. Organizations should create frameworks that encourage employees to
leverage available knowledge in their daily tasks to improve efficiency and innovation.
Knowledge Evaluation:
Continuous assessment of KM practices is essential for improvement. Organizations should
evaluate how well their KM initiatives are functioning by measuring outcomes such as
employee engagement with KM tools, the impact on productivity, and overall organizational
performance.
Feedback Mechanism:
Establishing a feedback loop allows organizations to refine their KM processes based on user
experiences and changing needs within the organization. Regular feedback helps in adapting
strategies to better serve organizational goals.
Sustaining Knowledge Management Practices:
Finally, sustaining KM practices requires ongoing commitment from leadership and
continuous investment in technology and training
OD interventions: People and Process
Describe performance management and appraisal from both individual and group
perspectives.
Performance management and appraisal are critical components of organizational behavior
that focus on assessing and enhancing employee performance. These processes are essential
for aligning individual and group objectives with the broader goals of an organization. They
involve systematic approaches to evaluating employee contributions, providing feedback, and
fostering professional development.
Individual Perspective
From an individual perspective, performance management involves setting clear
expectations, monitoring progress, providing ongoing feedback, and conducting formal
appraisals. The process typically includes:
Goal Setting: Employees work with their managers to establish specific, measurable,
achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals.
Continuous Feedback: Regular check-ins allow for real-time feedback on performance,
which can help employees adjust their efforts as needed.
Formal Appraisal: At the end of a designated period (often annually), a formal review is
conducted where performance against the established goals is assessed.
For example, in the Pacific region, a company like Air New Zealand may implement a
performance management system where flight attendants receive regular feedback on
customer service metrics. This could include passenger satisfaction scores collected through
surveys after flights. The annual appraisal would then evaluate how well each attendant met
their service targets over the year.
Group Perspective
From a group perspective, performance management focuses on team dynamics and
collective outcomes rather than just individual achievements. Key elements include:
Team Objectives: Establishing shared goals that require collaboration among team members.
Group Feedback Mechanisms: Implementing systems that allow teams to assess their
collective performance regularly.
Recognition of Team Achievements: Acknowledging not only individual contributions but
also how well teams work together to achieve common objectives.
In the Pacific context, consider a project team working on environmental conservation
initiatives in Fiji. The team might set collective goals such as reducing plastic waste in local
communities by 30% within a year. Performance appraisals would assess both individual
contributions (e.g., outreach efforts by each member) and overall team effectiveness in
achieving this goal.
Conclusion
Both individual and group perspectives on performance management and appraisal are vital
for fostering an environment of continuous improvement within organizations. By integrating
these approaches effectively, organizations can enhance productivity while also promoting
employee engagement and satisfaction.
Discuss the interpersonal processes of organization development (OD).

Organization Development (OD) is a systematic approach to enhance organizational

effectiveness by implementing changes in culture, processes, and structures, focusing on
interpersonal relationships for collaboration and trust.
Communication: Effective communication is foundational to successful OD. It involves not
only the transmission of information but also active listening and feedback mechanisms.
Open lines of communication help to clarify expectations, reduce misunderstandings, and
foster a culture of transparency. In OD, communication strategies may include regular
meetings, workshops, and feedback sessions that encourage dialogue among team members.
Trust Building: Trust is a pivotal element in any organization undergoing development. It
facilitates cooperation and reduces resistance to change. Trust-building activities can include
team-building exercises, shared experiences, and consistent follow-through on commitments
made by leadership. When employees feel trusted and valued, they are more likely to engage
positively in OD efforts.
Conflict Resolution: Conflicts are inevitable in any organization; however, how these
conflicts are managed can significantly impact the success of OD initiatives. Interpersonal
processes involve recognizing conflict as a natural occurrence and addressing it
constructively through negotiation and mediation techniques. Training in conflict resolution
can empower employees to handle disputes effectively without escalating tensions.
Collaboration: Collaboration is essential for leveraging diverse perspectives within an
organization. Interpersonal processes that promote collaboration include cross-functional
teams, joint problem-solving sessions, and collaborative decision-making frameworks. By
encouraging teamwork across different departments or levels of hierarchy, organizations can
enhance innovation and adaptability during the OD process.
Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback is crucial for continuous improvement within an
organization undergoing development. Establishing structured feedback mechanisms allows
employees to share their insights about organizational practices openly. This could take the
form of surveys, performance reviews, or informal check-ins that encourage candid
discussions about what is working well and what needs improvement.
Empowerment: Empowering employees involves giving them autonomy over their work
while providing support for their professional growth. This process fosters a sense of
ownership among staff members regarding changes implemented during OD initiatives.
Empowerment can be achieved through delegation of responsibilities, involvement in
decision-making processes, and opportunities for skill development.
Cultural Change: Interpersonal processes also play a significant role in shaping
organizational culture during OD efforts. Culture encompasses shared values, beliefs, and
behaviors that influence how work gets done within an organization. Initiatives aimed at
cultural change often require interpersonal engagement at all levels—leaders must model
desired behaviors while employees need opportunities to express their views on cultural
norms.
In summary, the interpersonal processes involved in Organization Development are integral
to fostering an environment conducive to change and growth within organizations. By
focusing on communication, trust-building, conflict resolution, collaboration, feedback
mechanisms, empowerment, and cultural change—organizations can navigate the
complexities associated with development effectively.
Discuss the human resource management (HRM) processes of OD.

HRM processes in Organizational Development (OD) enhance workplace productivity and

effectiveness by strategic managing human capital, with a symbiotic relationship between
HRM practices and OD initiatives.
Key HRM Processes
Recruitment and Selection: This process involves identifying the need for new personnel,
attracting candidates, and selecting individuals who align with the organization’s goals and
culture. In OD, recruitment strategies may focus on finding individuals who not only possess
the necessary skills but also exhibit adaptability and a willingness to engage in continuous
learning—traits essential for thriving in an evolving organizational landscape.
Training and Development: Training programs are designed to enhance employee skills and
knowledge, aligning them with organizational objectives. In the context of OD, training often
emphasizes change management, team dynamics, leadership development, and innovation.
Continuous professional development is crucial for preparing employees to adapt to changes
within the organization.
Performance Management: This process involves setting performance standards, evaluating
employee performance against those standards, providing feedback, and implementing
improvement plans when necessary. In OD contexts, performance management systems may
be adapted to support cultural shifts or new strategic directions by incorporating 360-degree
feedback mechanisms or aligning individual goals with broader organizational change
initiatives.
Employee Engagement: Engaging employees is vital for ensuring their commitment to
organizational goals. HRM processes related to engagement include communication
strategies that foster transparency and inclusion during periods of change. Effective
engagement practices can mitigate resistance to change by involving employees in decision-
making processes related to OD efforts.
Succession Planning: This process ensures that organizations have a pipeline of talent ready
to fill key positions as they become available. Succession planning is particularly relevant in
OD as it prepares organizations for future challenges by identifying potential leaders within
the organization who can drive change initiatives effectively.
Organizational Culture Assessment: Understanding an organization’s culture is critical for
successful OD interventions. HRM plays a role in assessing cultural alignment through
surveys or focus groups that gauge employee perceptions of values, norms, and behaviors
within the organization.
Change Management: This aspect of HRM focuses on preparing and supporting employees
through transitions resulting from organizational changes such as restructuring or new
technology implementation. Effective change management requires clear communication
strategies, training programs tailored to new systems or processes, and ongoing support
mechanisms.
Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives: Promoting diversity within the workforce enhances
creativity and problem-solving capabilities while reflecting a commitment to equitable
practices. HRM processes aimed at fostering diversity are essential for creating an inclusive
environment where all employees feel valued during periods of transformation.
Evaluation of Organizational Effectiveness: Finally, measuring the success of both HRM
practices and OD initiatives is crucial for continuous improvement. Metrics may include
employee turnover rates, satisfaction surveys, productivity measures, and overall business
performance indicators.
Conclusion
In summary, the interplay between Human Resource Management processes and
Organizational Development is fundamental for cultivating an adaptable workforce capable
of navigating change effectively. By integrating these functions strategically, organizations
can enhance their resilience in dynamic environments while promoting employee growth and
satisfaction.

Explain the different ways an organization can respond to its environment.

Organizations operate within dynamic environments that can significantly influence their
strategies, operations, and overall success. The ways in which an organization can respond to
its environment can be categorized into several strategic approaches:
1. Reactive Response
Organizations may choose to react to changes in their environment after those changes have
occurred. This approach often involves crisis management or damage control when
unforeseen events arise. For instance, a company might alter its marketing strategy in
response to a competitor’s new product launch.
2. Proactive Response
In contrast to reactive responses, proactive responses involve anticipating environmental
changes and preparing for them in advance. Organizations that adopt this strategy conduct
market research and trend analysis to predict shifts in consumer behavior or industry
standards. For example, a tech company might invest in research and development to
innovate before competitors do.
3. Adaptive Response
Adaptive responses are characterized by the organization’s ability to adjust its operations and
strategies based on feedback from the environment. This could involve modifying products or
services based on customer feedback or changing operational procedures in response to
regulatory changes.
4. Defensive Response
Some organizations may adopt a defensive posture towards their environment, focusing on
protecting their current market position rather than seeking growth opportunities. This could
involve legal action against competitors or lobbying for regulations that favor their business
model.
5. Collaborative Response
Organizations may also choose to collaborate with other entities within their environment,
such as forming partnerships or alliances with other companies, non-profits, or governmental
agencies. This approach can enhance resource sharing and innovation while mitigating risks
associated with competition.
6. Innovative Response
An innovative response involves leveraging creativity and technology to create new products
or services that meet emerging needs within the environment. Organizations that prioritize
innovation often lead their industries by setting trends rather than following them.
7. Strategic Planning
Organizations engage in strategic planning processes that allow them to align their goals with
environmental conditions systematically. This includes SWOT analysis (Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) which helps organizations understand internal
capabilities relative to external challenges and opportunities.
Conclusion
The choice of how an organization responds to its environment is influenced by various
factors including organizational culture, leadership style, available resources, and the specific
characteristics of the external environment itself.

Describe the guidelines for open systems planning.

Open systems planning is a strategic approach that recognizes organizations as part of larger
systems, interacting with various external environments. This perspective emphasizes the
importance of adaptability, stakeholder engagement, and continuous feedback loops in the
planning process. Below are detailed guidelines for open systems planning, along with
examples to illustrate each guideline.
Guidelines for Open Systems Planning
Holistic Perspective:
Open systems planning requires viewing the organization as part of a larger ecosystem. This
means understanding how external factors such as economic conditions, social trends,
technological advancements, and regulatory changes impact organizational goals.
Example: A healthcare organization might analyse demographic shifts in its community to
adjust its services accordingly, ensuring it meets the needs of an aging population.
Stakeholder Engagement:
Engaging stakeholders—including employees, customers, suppliers, and community
members—is crucial for gathering diverse perspectives and fostering collaboration.
Example: A city government may hold public forums to gather input from residents about
urban development projects, ensuring that community needs are reflected in planning
decisions.
Feedback Mechanisms:
Implementing feedback loops allows organizations to continuously assess their performance
and adapt strategies based on real-time data and stakeholder input.
Example: A technology company might use customer feedback from product reviews to
iterate on software updates more effectively.
Flexibility and Adaptability:
Open systems must be flexible enough to respond to changes in the environment. This
involves creating plans that can evolve rather than being rigidly fixed.
Example: An educational institution may develop a curriculum that can be adjusted based on
emerging job market trends or technological innovations in teaching methods.
Scenario Planning:
Developing multiple scenarios helps organizations prepare for potential future developments
by considering various possibilities rather than relying on a single forecast.
Example: An energy company might create scenarios based on different regulatory
environments regarding renewable energy adoption to guide investment decisions.

Discuss planned change initiatives, including trans-organizational development, restructuring,

and re-engineering.
Planned change initiatives are systematic approaches to improving an organization’s
effectiveness and adaptability in response to internal and external pressures. These initiatives
can take various forms, including trans-organizational development, restructuring, and re-
engineering. Each of these strategies has distinct characteristics and applications, particularly
in dynamic environments such as those found in the Pacific region.
Trans-Organizational Development
Trans-organizational development (TOD) refers to collaborative efforts among multiple
organizations to achieve common goals. This approach is particularly relevant in the Pacific,
where diverse cultures and economies interact. TOD emphasizes partnerships and networks
that transcend traditional organizational boundaries. For instance, in the Pacific Islands,
various NGOs and governmental agencies often collaborate on environmental sustainability
projects. A notable example is the partnership between the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP) and local governments to address climate change impacts
through shared resources and knowledge.
Restructuring
Restructuring involves reorganizing a company’s structure or operations to improve
efficiency or adapt to market changes. This can include downsizing, merging departments, or
altering reporting relationships. In the Pacific context, many businesses have undergone
restructuring due to economic challenges or shifts in consumer behavior. For example, during
the COVID-19 pandemic, several tourism-dependent businesses in Fiji had to restructure
their operations by diversifying their services or pivoting towards domestic tourism as
international travel restrictions were imposed.
Re-engineering
Re-engineering focuses on fundamentally rethinking business processes to achieve dramatic
improvements in performance metrics such as cost, quality, service, and speed. This initiative
often involves leveraging technology to streamline operations. In the Pacific region, a
pertinent example is seen in the telecommunications sector where companies like Digicel
have implemented re-engineering strategies by adopting new technologies that enhance
service delivery while reducing operational costs.
Conclusion
In summary, planned change initiatives such as trans-organizational development,
restructuring, and re-engineering play crucial roles in enhancing organizational effectiveness
within the Pacific region. By fostering collaboration across organizations (TOD), adapting
structures for efficiency (restructuring), and innovating processes through technology (re-
engineering), organizations can better navigate challenges unique to this area.

Explain the three approaches to work design

Work design is a critical aspect of organizational behavior and management, focusing on how
tasks, responsibilities, and roles are structured within an organization. There are three
primary approaches to work design: the mechanistic approach, the motivational approach,
and the biological approach. Each of these approaches has its own principles and applications
that influence how work is organized and performed.
1. Mechanistic Approach
The mechanistic approach to work design is rooted in principles derived from classical
management theories. This approach emphasizes efficiency, specialization, and
standardization of tasks. It is characterized by a clear division of labor where each employee
has specific duties that contribute to the overall productivity of the organization.

Example: In a manufacturing setting, assembly line production exemplifies the mechanistic

approach. Workers are assigned specific tasks such as assembling parts, painting products, or
packaging items. Each task is designed to be repetitive and efficient, allowing for maximum
output with minimal variability.

2. Motivational Approach
The motivational approach focuses on enhancing employee satisfaction and motivation
through job design. This perspective draws from theories such as Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory and Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model. The goal is to create jobs that
not only fulfill organizational needs but also engage employees by providing them with
meaningful work.

Example: A software development company may implement agile methodologies that allow
team members to take ownership of projects, collaborate closely with others, and have a say
in decision-making processes. By providing opportunities for skill variety, task identity,
autonomy, and feedback, employees are more likely to feel motivated and satisfied with their
work.
3. Biological Approach
The biological approach considers the physical aspects of work design with an emphasis on
ergonomics and employee well-being. This perspective aims to reduce physical strain on
workers by designing jobs that accommodate human capabilities and limitations. It seeks to
enhance safety, comfort, and health in the workplace.

Example: In an office environment, ergonomic furniture such as adjustable desks and chairs
can be implemented to promote better posture among employees who spend long hours at
their desks. Additionally, incorporating regular breaks into the work schedule can help reduce
fatigue and improve overall productivity.
Conclusion
Three approaches to work design: mechanistic, motivational, and biological, offer distinct
perspectives on efficiency, employee engagement, and health, enabling organizations to
create a balanced work environment.

Define and explain transformational change.

Transformational change is a significant shift in an organization, community, or system, often
triggered by external or internal challenges, requiring a reevaluation of existing paradigms.
Transformational change involves a radical rethinking of processes, requiring clear vision,
strong leadership, and stakeholder engagement, leading to enhanced performance,
adaptability, and alignment with societal goals.

Examples of Transformational Change in the Pacific

Economic Diversification Efforts: The economies of several Pacific Islands have
historically relied heavily on tourism or agriculture. However, transformational changes are
occurring as these nations seek to diversify their economic bases. For example, Samoa has
begun investing in renewable energy sources such as solar power while promoting
sustainable fishing practices that reduce reliance on traditional industries.
Education Reform: Countries like Papua New Guinea have initiated transformational
changes within their educational systems by integrating local languages into curricula
alongside English instruction. This approach aims to enhance educational outcomes while
preserving cultural heritage and ensuring that education is relevant to local contexts.
Health System Overhauls: In response to public health crises such as the COVID-19
pandemic, many Pacific nations have undertaken transformational changes in their healthcare
systems. For instance, telehealth services were rapidly expanded in countries like Vanuatu to
ensure continued access to medical care while minimizing risks associated with virus
transmission.
These examples illustrate how transformational change manifests across various sectors in
the Pacific region as communities adapt to new realities while striving for sustainability and
resilience.
Describe the systemic nature of transformational change.
Transformational change refers to profound and fundamental shifts in the way organizations
operate, often necessitating a rethinking of their strategies, structures, processes, and cultures.
This type of change is systemic in nature, meaning that it affects multiple interconnected
components within an organization or system. Understanding the systemic nature of
transformational change involves examining how various elements interact and influence one
another.
Systemic Nature of Transformational Change
Holistic Perspective: A systemic approach to transformational change emphasizes the
importance of viewing the organization as a whole rather than focusing on isolated
components. This holistic perspective ensures that all aspects of the organization are aligned
with the new vision or strategy. For example, if a company aims to become more customer-
centric, it must align its marketing strategies, product development processes, and customer
service practices accordingly.
Feedback Loops: Transformational change often involves feedback loops where outcomes
from one part of the system inform adjustments in others. For instance, if a new policy leads
to unintended consequences in employee behavior or performance metrics, those insights can
prompt further changes in management practices or organizational policies.
Stakeholder Engagement: Engaging stakeholders at all levels is crucial for systemic
transformational change. Stakeholders include employees, customers, suppliers, and
community members who may be affected by the changes being implemented. Their input
can provide valuable insights into potential challenges and opportunities during the
transformation process.
Sustainability: Finally, for transformational change to be effective over time, it must be
sustainable within the broader context of the organization’s environment—economic
conditions, regulatory frameworks, technological advancements—and internal capabilities
such as workforce skills and resource availability.

In summary, transformational change is inherently systemic because it involves

interconnected elements that collectively contribute to an organization’s ability to adapt and
thrive amidst evolving circumstances.

Discuss integrated strategic change.

Integrated strategic change is a strategy that combines organizational elements like structure,
culture, processes, and strategies to achieve common goals, often necessary in response to
external pressures like market competition or technological advancements.
Key Components of Integrated Strategic Change
Alignment of Strategy and Culture: For integrated strategic change to be effective, there must
be alignment between the organization’s strategy and its culture. A strategy that does not
resonate with the existing culture may face resistance from employees, making it crucial for
leaders to address cultural aspects when implementing new strategies.
Change Management Frameworks: Various frameworks exist to guide organizations through
integrated strategic change. Models such as Kotter’s Eight Steps for Leading Change or
Lewin’s Change Management Model provide structured approaches for managing transitions
effectively.
Continuous Learning and Adaptation: Integrated strategic change is not a one-time event but
rather an ongoing process that requires continuous learning and adaptation. Organizations
must remain flexible and responsive to changing conditions in their environment while
consistently evaluating the effectiveness of their strategies.
Measurement and Evaluation: To assess the success of integrated strategic change initiatives,
organizations should establish metrics for evaluation. This includes measuring performance
outcomes against predefined goals and adjusting strategies based on feedback from these
evaluations.
Challenges in Integrated Strategic Change
Organizations often face several challenges when attempting integrated strategic change:
Resistance to Change: Employees may resist changes due to fear of uncertainty or loss of job
security.
Communication Barriers: Ineffective communication can lead to misunderstandings about the
purpose and benefits of changes.
Resource Constraints: Limited financial or human resources can hinder the implementation
of comprehensive changes.
Complexity of Integration: Coordinating multiple aspects of an organization during a
transition can be complex and time-consuming.
Conclusion
In summary, integrated strategic change is essential for organizations seeking long-term
sustainability in a dynamic environment. By adopting a holistic approach that considers all
facets of the organization, leaders can facilitate smoother transitions that align with both
internal capabilities and external demands.

Define and explain organizational design. Analyse the cultural aspects of change and
organizational design.
Organizational design refers to the process of structuring an organization in a way that aligns
its resources, processes, and systems with its strategic objectives. It encompasses the
arrangement of roles, responsibilities, communication systems, and authority within an
organization. The primary goal of organizational design is to create a framework that
enhances efficiency, fosters collaboration, and enables effective decision-making.

The concept of organizational design can be broken down into several key components:
Structure: This involves determining how tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated.
Common structures include functional (grouping by function), divisional (grouping by
product or market), matrix (a hybrid of functional and divisional), and network structures.
Processes: These are the workflows and procedures that dictate how work is performed
within the organization. Effective processes ensure that resources are utilized efficiently and
that there is clarity in how tasks are executed.
Culture: Organizational culture plays a critical role in shaping behavior within the
organization. It encompasses shared values, beliefs, norms, and practices that influence how
employees interact with one another and approach their work.
Technology: The tools and technologies employed by an organization can significantly
impact its design. The integration of technology into organizational processes can enhance
communication, streamline operations, and facilitate innovation.
Environment: Organizations operate within external environments that can affect their design
choices. Factors such as market dynamics, regulatory requirements, competition, and
technological advancements must be considered when designing an organization.
Cultural Aspects of Change in Organizational Design
Change is an inherent aspect of organizational life; however, it often meets resistance due to
established cultural norms. Culture influences how change is perceived and enacted within an
organization. When considering cultural aspects in organizational design during periods of
change, several factors come into play:
Shared Values: An organization’s culture is rooted in shared values among its members.
When changes are introduced—such as restructuring or new processes—these values may
either support or hinder acceptance of the change.
Communication: Effective communication is essential for successful change management.
Cultural norms dictate how information flows within an organization; thus, understanding
these norms can help leaders communicate changes more effectively.
Employee Engagement: Engaging employees in the change process fosters a sense of
ownership and reduces resistance to change. Cultures that prioritize employee involvement
tend to adapt more readily to new designs.
Leadership Style: Leadership plays a pivotal role in shaping organizational culture during
times of change. Leaders who embody the desired cultural attributes can inspire others to
embrace new structures or processes.
Adaptability: A culture that promotes flexibility and adaptability will likely respond
positively to changes in organizational design. Conversely, rigid cultures may struggle with
transitions due to entrenched behaviors or mindsets.
In summary, organizational design is a multifaceted process aimed at aligning structure with
strategy while considering cultural dynamics during periods of change is crucial for
successful implementation.

Recognise and relate examples of worldwide organization development (OD).

Organization Development (OD) is a systematic approach to improving organizational
effectiveness through planned change in processes, structures, and culture. It encompasses
various strategies and practices aimed at enhancing the overall health of an organization.
Below are several examples of worldwide OD initiatives that illustrate its application across
different contexts.
Global Leadership Development Programs: Many multinational corporations, such as
Unilever and IBM, have implemented global leadership development programs designed to
cultivate leaders who can navigate the complexities of international markets. These programs
often include cross-cultural training, mentoring, and experiential learning opportunities that
prepare leaders to manage diverse teams effectively.
Change Management Initiatives: The merger between Daimler-Benz and Chrysler in the
late 1990s serves as a case study in OD through change management. The integration of two
distinct corporate cultures required extensive OD efforts to align values, practices, and
operational procedures. This involved workshops, team-building exercises, and ongoing
communication strategies to facilitate a smoother transition.
Employee Engagement Surveys: Organizations like Gallup have pioneered the use of
employee engagement surveys on a global scale to assess workforce morale and productivity.
By analyzing survey data from various countries, companies can identify areas for
improvement and implement targeted interventions that enhance employee satisfaction and
retention.
These examples highlight how organizations around the world utilize OD principles to adapt
to changing environments, improve performance, and foster sustainable growth.

Discuss international, global, multinational, and transnational strategic orientations

International, Global, Multinational, and Transnational Strategic Orientations
In the realm of international business and strategic management, organizations adopt various
orientations to navigate the complexities of operating across borders. These orientations can
be categorized into four primary types: international, global, multinational, and transnational.
Each orientation reflects different approaches to market entry, resource allocation, and
operational strategies.
1. International Strategic Orientation
International strategic orientation refers to a company’s approach to expanding its operations
beyond its domestic market while maintaining a significant level of control over its foreign
subsidiaries. Companies adopting this orientation typically export their products or services
to foreign markets without substantial investment in local production facilities. The primary
goal is often to leverage existing capabilities and resources in new markets.
Example: A classic example of an international strategic orientation is Coca-Cola’s approach
during its early expansion phases. The company focused on exporting its syrup to bottling
partners around the world while retaining control over brand management and marketing
strategies.
2. Global Strategic Orientation
Global strategic orientation involves a more integrated approach where companies view the
world as a single marketplace rather than a collection of national markets. Organizations with
this orientation standardize their products and marketing strategies across different countries
to achieve economies of scale and enhance brand consistency. This strategy often leads to
centralized decision-making processes.
Example: Apple Inc. exemplifies a global strategic orientation by offering standardized
products like the iPhone worldwide with minimal variations in features or branding. The
company’s marketing campaigns are also consistent across different regions, reinforcing its
global brand identity.
3. Multinational Strategic Orientation
Multinational strategic orientation emphasizes local responsiveness and adaptation to
individual markets. Companies adopting this strategy typically establish subsidiaries in
various countries that operate independently and tailor their products or services to meet local
preferences and regulations. This approach allows for greater flexibility but may lead to
higher operational costs due to the lack of standardization.
Example: Unilever operates under a multinational strategic orientation by customizing its
product offerings based on regional tastes and cultural preferences. For instance, it offers
different flavors of ice cream or personal care products tailored specifically for local markets
in Asia compared to Europe.
4. Transnational Strategic Orientation
Transnational strategic orientation combines elements from both global and multinational
strategies, aiming for both efficiency through global integration and responsiveness through
local adaptation. Companies with this orientation seek to leverage their global presence while
being sensitive to local market conditions. This requires complex organizational structures
that facilitate knowledge sharing across borders while allowing for localized decision-
making.
Example: Nestlé is often cited as an example of a transnational corporation because it
balances global efficiency with local adaptation by producing a wide range of food products
that cater specifically to regional tastes while maintaining strong central control over core
brands.
Conclusion
Understanding these four strategic orientations—international, global, multinational, and
transnational—enables businesses to choose appropriate strategies based on their goals,
resources, market conditions, and competitive landscape when operating internationally.
Define and describe examples of global social change

Global social change refers to significant alterations over time in behavior patterns, cultural
norms, values, and social structures that affect societies on a worldwide scale. These changes
can arise from various factors, including technological advancements, economic shifts,
political movements, environmental challenges, and cultural exchanges. Global social change
is often characterized by its complexity and interconnectedness; it reflects the dynamic nature
of human societies as they adapt to new realities.
Examples of Global Social Change
Technological Advancements: The rise of the internet and digital communication has
transformed how people interact, work, and access information. For instance, social media
platforms have enabled global connectivity and activism, leading to movements such as
#MeToo and Black Lives Matter that transcend national boundaries.
Environmental Movements: Increasing awareness of climate change has led to a global
shift in attitudes towards sustainability. Initiatives like the Paris Agreement illustrate how
countries are coming together to address environmental issues collectively. This change is
reflected in the growing popularity of renewable energy sources and sustainable practices
across various sectors.
Migration Patterns: Globalization has facilitated increased migration for economic
opportunities or refuge from conflict. This movement has resulted in multicultural societies
where diverse cultures coexist but also raises challenges related to integration and social
cohesion.
Gender Equality Movements: The fight for gender equality has gained momentum globally,
with movements advocating for women’s rights in various contexts—from reproductive
rights to equal pay. This shift is evident in legislative changes in many countries aimed at
promoting gender equity.

Explain the role of change agents.

Change agents are individuals or groups that facilitate and promote change within
organizations, communities, or societies. Their primary role is to act as catalysts for
transformation, helping to implement new ideas, processes, or technologies that can lead to
improved outcomes. The concept of a change agent is rooted in various disciplines including
organizational development, sociology, and management studies.

Change agents are often characterized by their ability to influence others and drive change
initiatives. They possess strong communication skills, emotional intelligence, and a deep
understanding of the systems they operate within. They may be formal leaders within an
organization or informal influencers who have the respect and trust of their peers.

Change agents can be classified into several categories:

Internal Change Agents: These are individuals within an organization who advocate for
change. They understand the organizational culture and dynamics and can navigate internal
politics effectively.
External Change Agents: These are consultants or experts from outside the organization who
bring fresh perspectives and specialized knowledge to facilitate change.
Champions of Change: These individuals actively support and promote change initiatives,
often taking on leadership roles in driving the process forward.
Functions of Change Agents:
Assessment: Change agents assess the current state of an organization or community to
identify areas needing improvement.
Planning: They develop strategic plans for implementing changes that align with
organizational goals.
Communication: Effective communication is crucial; change agents must articulate the vision
for change clearly to all stakeholders.
Training and Support: They provide training and resources necessary for individuals affected
by the change to adapt successfully.
Monitoring Progress: After implementation, change agents monitor progress towards goals,
making adjustments as needed based on feedback.
Challenges Faced by Change Agents:
Resistance to Change: One of the most significant challenges faced by change agents is
overcoming resistance from employees or stakeholders who may be comfortable with the
status quo.
Organizational Culture: The existing culture can either facilitate or hinder change efforts;
understanding this culture is essential for effective intervention.
Resource Constraints: Limited resources—be it time, money, or personnel—can impede the
ability of change agents to execute their plans effectively.
Impact on Organizations and Communities:
Successful change agents can lead organizations through transitions that enhance efficiency,
improve employee satisfaction, foster innovation, and ultimately contribute to achieving
strategic objectives. In communities, they can mobilize resources for social improvements
such as health initiatives or educational reforms.
In summary, change agents play a critical role in guiding organizations through periods of
transition by leveraging their skills in assessment, planning, communication, training, and
monitoring. Their effectiveness hinges on their ability to navigate complex human dynamics
while fostering a culture receptive to innovation.

Apply an open systems view of the environment to strategic change management.

The open systems view of the environment is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the
interdependence between an organization and its external environment. This perspective is
crucial for understanding strategic change management, as it recognizes that organizations do
not operate in isolation but are influenced by various external factors, including economic,
social, technological, and political forces.
Key Concepts of Open Systems Theory
Interdependence: Organizations are part of a larger system and must interact with various
stakeholders, including customers, suppliers, competitors, and regulatory bodies. This
interdependence means that changes in one part of the system can have significant effects on
others.
Feedback Loops: Open systems rely on feedback from their environment to adapt and evolve.
Feedback mechanisms allow organizations to monitor their performance and make necessary
adjustments in response to external changes.
Adaptability: Organizations must be flexible and responsive to changes in their environment.
This adaptability is essential for survival and success in a dynamic market landscape.
Resource Dependence: Organizations depend on resources from their environment (e.g.,
human capital, financial resources) to function effectively. Strategic change management
involves recognizing these dependencies and managing them proactively.
Boundary Spanning: Organizations must engage with their environments through boundary-
spanning roles that facilitate communication and collaboration with external entities. This
engagement helps organizations gather information about trends and shifts that may
necessitate strategic change.
Application to Strategic Change Management
In applying an open systems view to strategic change management, organizations can better
navigate the complexities of their environments by:
Conducting Environmental Scans: Regularly assessing external factors such as market trends,
technological advancements, regulatory changes, and competitive dynamics allows
organizations to identify opportunities for change.
Engaging Stakeholders: Actively involving stakeholders in the change process ensures that
diverse perspectives are considered, which can enhance buy-in and reduce resistance to
change.
Implementing Continuous Learning: Organizations should foster a culture of continuous
learning where feedback from both internal processes and external interactions informs
decision-making.
Developing Flexible Strategies: Strategies should be designed with flexibility in mind so that
they can be adjusted as new information emerges or as conditions change within the
environment.
Monitoring Outcomes: After implementing strategic changes, organizations must monitor
outcomes closely to assess effectiveness and make further adjustments as needed based on
environmental feedback.
By adopting an open systems perspective in strategic change management, organizations can
enhance their resilience and capacity for innovation while ensuring alignment with the
evolving demands of their environments.

Define and describe competitive strategies.

Competitive strategies refer to the methods and tactics that organizations employ to gain an
advantage over their rivals in the marketplace. These strategies are essential for businesses
aiming to achieve superior performance, enhance market share, and ensure long-term
sustainability. Competitive strategies can be broadly categorized into three primary types:
cost leadership, differentiation, and focus.
Cost Leadership: This strategy involves becoming the lowest-cost producer in an industry.
Companies adopting this approach aim to attract a broad customer base by offering products
or services at lower prices than competitors. Achieving cost leadership often requires
significant investments in technology, efficient production processes, and economies of scale.
For example, Walmart employs a cost leadership strategy by leveraging its vast supply chain
network and bulk purchasing power to offer low prices on a wide range of products.
Differentiation: Differentiation strategies focus on creating unique products or services that
stand out from competitors. This uniqueness can stem from various factors such as quality,
features, branding, or customer service. Companies that successfully differentiate themselves
can command premium prices due to perceived value among consumers. An example of
differentiation is Apple Inc., which offers innovative technology products with distinctive
designs and user experiences that set them apart from other brands.
Focus Strategy: The focus strategy involves concentrating on a specific market segment or
niche rather than targeting the entire market. Companies using this strategy tailor their
offerings to meet the particular needs of their chosen segment, whether through cost focus
(offering lower prices) or differentiation focus (providing specialized products). An example
of a company employing a focus strategy is Rolls-Royce, which targets the luxury automobile
market with high-end vehicles tailored for affluent customers.
In addition to these primary strategies, businesses may also adopt hybrid approaches that
combine elements of both cost leadership and differentiation to create competitive advantages
tailored to their specific markets.

Discuss a range of collaborative strategies

Collaborative strategies are essential in various fields, including education, business, and
community development. These strategies facilitate teamwork and enhance productivity by
leveraging the diverse skills and perspectives of individuals. Below is a detailed discussion of
a range of collaborative strategies, along with examples to illustrate their application.
1. Team-Based Collaboration
This strategy involves forming teams that work together towards a common goal. Team
members contribute their unique skills and knowledge, fostering an environment where ideas
can be shared freely.
Example: In a corporate setting, a product development team may consist of engineers,
designers, and marketing specialists who collaborate to create a new product. Regular
meetings allow for brainstorming sessions where each member contributes insights based on
their expertise.
2. Cross-Functional Collaboration
Cross-functional collaboration occurs when individuals from different departments or areas
of expertise come together to work on a project. This approach encourages innovation by
integrating diverse viewpoints.
Example: A healthcare organization might form a cross-functional team comprising doctors,
nurses, IT professionals, and administrative staff to improve patient care processes. By
sharing their distinct perspectives, the team can develop comprehensive solutions that address
various aspects of patient care.
5. Digital Collaboration Tools
With advancements in technology, digital tools have become integral to facilitating
collaboration across distances. These tools enable real-time communication and document
sharing among team members regardless of location.
Example: A global marketing team may use platforms like Slack or Microsoft Teams for
daily communication while utilizing Google Drive for collaborative document editing on
marketing campaigns. This allows for seamless interaction among team members spread
across different countries.
Conclusion
The effectiveness of collaborative strategies lies in their ability to harness collective
intelligence through structured interactions among diverse participants. By implementing
these strategies thoughtfully, organizations can foster innovation, improve problem-solving
capabilities, and achieve shared objectives more efficiently.

Explain how to manage network change.

Effective network change management is crucial for maintaining IT infrastructure integrity,
performance, and security. It involves a systematic approach, minimizing disruption, and
involving all stakeholders.
Steps to Manage Network Change

Assessment and Planning: The first step in managing network change is to conduct a
thorough assessment of the current network environment. This includes identifying existing
hardware and software components, understanding traffic patterns, evaluating performance
metrics, and recognizing potential vulnerabilities. Once this assessment is complete, a
detailed plan for the proposed changes should be developed. This plan should outline
objectives, timelines, resource allocation, risk assessments, and contingency plans.

Example: A company may decide to upgrade its routers to improve bandwidth. The IT team
would assess current router capabilities against projected traffic demands and create a plan
that includes selecting new equipment, scheduling installation during off-peak hours, and
preparing rollback procedures in case of failure.

Stakeholder Engagement: Engaging stakeholders—such as IT staff, management, end-

users, and external partners—is crucial for successful change management. Communication
should be clear regarding what changes will occur, why they are necessary, how they will
impact users, and what support will be available during the transition.

Example: Prior to implementing a new firewall system that could affect internet access
speeds for employees, the IT department might hold meetings with staff to explain the
benefits of enhanced security measures while also addressing concerns about potential
disruptions.

Implementation: The implementation phase involves executing the planned changes

according to the established timeline. It is essential to follow best practices during this stage
to minimize risks. This may include conducting pilot tests in controlled environments before
full deployment.

Example: If a company is migrating its data center operations to a cloud-based solution, it

might first run parallel systems where both on-premises servers and cloud services operate
simultaneously until confidence in the new system’s reliability is established.
Monitoring and Evaluation: After implementing changes, continuous monitoring is
necessary to evaluate their effectiveness against predefined success criteria (e.g., performance
improvements or reduced downtime). Tools such as network monitoring software can provide
real-time insights into how well the new configurations are performing.

Example: Following an upgrade of network switches aimed at reducing latency issues in data
transmission between departments, IT staff would monitor traffic flow and user feedback
closely for several weeks post-implementation.

Documentation and Review: Finally, documenting all aspects of the change process—
including planning documents, implementation steps taken, issues encountered during
deployment, and outcomes—is vital for future reference. A review meeting with stakeholders
can help identify lessons learned that can inform future network changes.

Example: After completing an overhaul of their wireless network infrastructure across

multiple office locations, an organization might compile a report detailing what worked well
versus challenges faced during deployment for use in future projects.
Conclusion
Managing network change effectively requires careful planning and execution while ensuring
stakeholder engagement throughout each phase of the process. By following structured
methodologies like those outlined above—assessment & planning; stakeholder engagement;
implementation; monitoring & evaluation; documentation & review—organizations can
navigate network changes smoothly while minimizing disruptions.
 Tutorial 6 - Organisation development and change
Question 1

How does OL differ from individual learning?

Learning organisations are those with the ability to learn how to change and improve themselves
constantly.

Individual learning, which focuses on the knowledge, skills and abilities of the individual employee,
this intervention helps organisations move beyond solving existing problems to gaining the capability
to improve continuously.

It results in the development of a learning organisation where empowered members take responsibility
for changing the organisation and learning how to do this better and better. Organisational learning
and knowledge management practices gather, organise and disseminate the knowledge and skills of
members, who are located throughout the organisation and, sometimes, around the world.

Question 2

Explain ‘single-loop’ and ‘double-loop’ learning.

Single-Loop Learning

Definition: Single-loop learning occurs when individuals, groups, or organizations modify their
actions or strategies in response to an error or problem, but without altering the underlying
governing values or assumptions. It’s about correcting mistakes within a given set of rules.

Process: In single-loop learning, the organization detects a problem, makes an adjustment (like
tweaking a process or changing a strategy), and continues operating as before. It’s a reactive
approach that doesn’t question or challenge the broader framework or goals.

Example: If a company experiences a decline in sales, it might respond by increasing its marketing
efforts. This is a single-loop response, as it focuses on adjusting the strategy without questioning the
underlying assumptions about the product, market, or customer needs.
Double-Loop Learning

Definition: Double-loop learning goes deeper by questioning and potentially altering the underlying
assumptions, values, or policies that led to the problem. It involves reflecting on the governing
norms and frameworks and may lead to significant changes in how an organization operates.

Process: In double-loop learning, when a problem is identified, the organization not only adjusts its
actions but also critically examines and possibly changes the underlying beliefs or values. This is a
more reflective and transformative process.

Example: In the same scenario of declining sales, a double loop learning approach would involve not
just increasing marketing but also questioning whether the product meets market needs, whether
the company’s strategic goals are aligned with customer demands, or whether the organizational
culture supports innovation.

Question 3

What is the difference between organisational learning and knowledge management?

Organizational Learning

Definition: Organizational learning is the process by which an organization improves its ability to
achieve its goals by developing new knowledge, skills, and capabilities over time. It involves the
collective learning of individuals within the organization and the integration of this learning into
organizational practices, culture, and processes.

Focus: The focus is on the continuous improvement and adaptation of the organization based on the
experiences and knowledge gained by its members. Organizational learning is often about change,
innovation, and the capacity of an organization to evolve in response to internal and external
factors.

Key Elements:

Learning from Experience: Organizations learn by reflecting on past successes and failures.

Adaptation: Organizations adapt their strategies, structures, and processes based on what they have
learned.

Knowledge Creation: New insights, ideas, and innovations emerge as a result of learning.

Cultural Change: The organization's culture evolves to support continuous learning and
improvement.

Example: A tech company reflects on the failure of a product launch, analysing what went wrong and
learning from the mistakes. They then implement new processes and strategies to ensure future
products are better aligned with market needs and customer expectations.
Knowledge Management

Definition: Knowledge management (KM) is the process of systematically capturing, organizing,

sharing, and using the knowledge within an organization to improve efficiency, innovation, and
decision-making. It focuses on managing the intellectual assets of the organization to ensure that
knowledge is accessible and used effectively.

Focus: The focus is on the practical management of knowledge as a resource. KM is concerned with
storing, sharing, and applying knowledge to enhance organizational performance.

Key Elements:

Knowledge Capture: Identifying and documenting valuable knowledge within the organization.

Knowledge Sharing: Ensuring that knowledge is distributed and accessible to those who need it.

Knowledge Utilization: Applying knowledge to improve processes, products, services, and decision-
making.

Knowledge Retention: Preserving critical knowledge, especially in the face of employee turnover.

Example: A consulting firm creates a database where consultants can document best practices, case
studies, and client insights. This database allows employees across the firm to access valuable
information, improving the quality and efficiency of their work.

Question 4

Define ‘built-to-change’. Give an example of each component.

The "built to change" (B2C) concept suggests organizations are designed to function reliably,
preventing change initiatives from failing. Lawler and Worley argue that the best long-term
competitive advantage is the capacity for continuous change. B2C designs aim to identify and
manage the best talent for change, using selection procedures to identify proactive,
professional, and change-loving individuals. Incentives are crucial for promoting and
sustaining change, linked to changing objectives and skill acquisition.B2C designs emphasize
lean, adaptable structures with decision-making authority for familiar workers. Organic
designs like process, matrix, and network keep the organization in constant contact with the
environment, enabling recognition of external changes and creative solutions.

B2C organizations use performance-based systems to disseminate information and decision-

making procedures, providing transparent, up-to-date data. Shared leadership expedites
decision-making and facilitates ongoing change, ensuring capable leaders are present to
maintain the transformation path. Trusted team members make decisions impacting the team.
Building-to-change involves creating a change-friendly environment, aligning with the
organization's future state, developing orchestration capabilities, and promoting strategic
adjustments.
.

Tutorial 7 Questions and Answers: Organisation development interventions: People and process

1. How does the performance management model enable organisations to influence employee
work behaviours and outcomes?

The performance management model consists of three stages: goal setting, performance
appraisal, and reward systems. It aims to define, assess, and reinforce (support) employee
work behaviours, aligning them with business strategy, employee involvement, and
workplace technology, resulting in high performance levels. Goal setting can clarify the
duties and responsibilities that are associated with a particular job or work group.
Performance appraisal is a systematic process of jointly assessing work-related achievements,
with strengths and weaknesses. Reward systems support goal-setting and feedback systems
by rewarding the kinds of behaviours required, implementing a particular work design or
supporting a business strategy

2. In a third-party consultation, what skill must the third party develop in order to be
successful?

Third-party intervention focuses on conflicts arising between two or more people within the
same organisation. Conflict is inherent in groups and organisations and can arise from a
variety of sources, including differences in personality, task orientation and perceptions
among group members, and competition over scarce resources. It is important to emphasize
that conflict is neither good nor bad per se. Conflict can enhance motivation and innovation
and lead to a greater understanding of ideas and views. On the other hand, conflict can
prevent people from working together constructively and destroy necessary task
interactions among group members. Consequently, third-party intervention is used primarily
in situations where conflict significantly disrupts necessary task interactions and work
relationships among members. Third-party consultants must acquire some skills in order to
be successful.

These include:

 Considerable skill at diagnosis, intervention and follow-up

 High sensitivity to their own feelings as well as those of others

 The ability to recognise that some tension and conflict is inevitable

 The knowledge that too much conflict can be dysfunctional to both individuals and an organisation

 Sensitivity to the situation and the ability to use different intervention strategies and tactics to help
 Professional expertise in third-party intervention

 The ability to be perceived as neutral and unbiased on the issues and outcomes of the conflict
resolution

3. What influence do secrecy and communication about remuneration have, either positive or
negative, on motivation in the workplace?

Cricket players' workplaces differ from other industries due to shift from top managers and
compensation professionals designing compensation to employee involvement, promoting
mutual respect and understanding, and addressing pay equity concerns.

Enhanced Trust and Transparency: Open communication regarding remuneration fosters an

environment of trust between employees and management. When employees are aware of how pay
structures are determined, they are more likely to feel valued and respected within the organization.
This transparency can lead to increased loyalty and commitment to the company, as employees
perceive fairness in compensation practices.

Decreased Morale Due to Perceived Inequity: When remuneration details are kept secret, it can
lead to feelings of inequity among employees. If individuals suspect that colleagues with similar roles
are being compensated differently without justification, it may result in resentment and decreased
morale. Employees may feel demotivated if they believe they are not being rewarded fairly for their
contributions.

4. What are the basic implications of the model for conflict resolution?

According to the conflict resolution paradigm, disagreements arise because some people care
about their personal results (distribution), while others care about the results of others
(integration). Additionally, how conflicts are resolved can affect people and organizations in
both positive and negative ways. While disruptive conflicts can result in intensely
unfavourable feelings among organization members, constructive conflicts can bring issues
that have previously been disregarded to the forefront.

Tutorial 8
Question 1

Explain two popular options available for a manager who wants to restructure an
organisation.
The more standard methods of separating the organization's overall activities, including
functional, self-contained unit and matrix structures, as well as more adaptable and
integrative forms, like process- and network-based structures, are examples of interventions
targeted at structural design. Which structure is suitable for organizational contexts,
technologies, and conditions can be ascertained with the aid of diagnostic criteria.

The goal of downsizing is to make an organization smaller in order to cut expenses and
bureaucracy. Layoffs, organizational reorganization, and outsourcing—which involves
assigning tasks outside the organization's core competencies to outside contractors—can all
be used to achieve this staff reduction. The organization's strategy is intimately linked to
successful downsizing.

The organization's fundamental work processes are completely redesigned through re-
engineering to provide closer connections and coordination across the many jobs. Task
performance is improved by this workflow integration, becoming quicker and more
responsive. Often, business process management is carried out using new information
technology that enables workers to better manage and coordinate work processes.

Question 2

Discuss the key ideas in each of three approaches to work design.

ANS:

The engineering approach focuses on efficiency and simplification, resulting in traditional job
and work group designs. It aims to find procedures that produce maximum output with
minimal input, resulting in high-specialization designs. These designs allow rapid task
learning, short work cycles, and reduced costs due to easy hiring and training of lower-skilled
individuals.

Motivational theories guide work design, aiming to enhance the work experience by focusing
on member needs and satisfaction. This approach enhances employee performance by
providing autonomy, responsibility, and feedback, while ensuring high levels of meaning.

Sociotechnical systems methods optimize work systems by managing boundaries, allowing

resources exchange, and protecting against external disruptions. Self-managed teams are a
popular form of work design, leveraging this perspective.

Question 3

How might people react to job enrichment interventions?

ANS:
 Not everyone react to job enrichment interventions in the same way. Reactions to job
enrichment interventions can vary (different in size) widely among individuals within an
organization. While many will likely respond positively with increased motivation,
satisfaction, and skill development, others may experience anxiety or resistance due to
changes in workload or expectations. Effective implementation requires careful consideration
of employee needs and ongoing support throughout the transition process.
Question 4

How do technical and personal factors affect work design?

ANS:
Work design approaches like engineering, motivational, and sociotechnical enhance
employee satisfaction and productivity, but their effectiveness depends on the workplace's
combination of technical and personal factors.

Shop floor changes are influenced by technical dimensions like interdependence and
uncertainty, with traditional jobs suitable for low-interaction, self-control jobs.

Work should be tailored to traditional work groups, individual jobs, and self-managed teams,
meeting social and growth needs. Traditional jobs are most effective for employees with low
social and growth needs.

Traditional work groups cater to employees with high social needs but low growth, while
enriched jobs offer variety, discretion, and feedback, and self-managed teams offer
significant social interaction.

A company must balance technical and human needs in work-design success. Aligning
technology and people is preferable to compromise designs, especially when heavy change
constraints are imagined rather than actual.

Tutorial 9

OD interventions: Strategy and structure (Chapter 8)

1. What constitutes (form) the organisation’s general environment? How would this impact
on decisions made by a change agent?
The general environment consists of all external forces that can influence an organisation or
department, and includes technological, legal and regulatory, political, economic, social and
environmental factors. Each of these forces can affect the organisation in both direct and
indirect ways. For example, the early 1980s recession that followed a disruption in the global
oil supply in 1979. Economic recessions can directly affect the demand for a company’s
product. The general environment can also indirectly affect organisations by virtue of the
links between external forces. For example, an organisation may have trouble obtaining raw
materials from a supplier because a consumer group has embroiled (argument, conflict) the
supplier in a labour dispute with a national union, a lawsuit with a government regulator or a
boycott (withdraw from commercial or social relations with (a country, organization, or person)
as a punishment or protest). These parts of the organisation’s general environment can affect
the organisation, even though they have no direct connection to it.

2. Through what strategies do organisations gain ‘control’ over their environments? What
implications does this have for how change is managed?

Organisations analyze customer needs through focus groups and surveys, understand
competitor strategies through press releases and sales force behaviours, monitor the
environment through scanning units, and make proactive responses to influence external
forces in favourable directions, with a wide range of options. Collective structures help
organizations cope with environmental dependence and uncertainty by increasing
coordination and performing tasks that are too costly and complicated for a single
organization to perform alone.

3. From your work experience, or from companies you have read about, describe an example
of each of the approaches to work design discussing why you think that approach was chosen.

The three approaches to work design discussed in the text are:

1 the engineering approach, which focuses on efficiency, simplification, and results. It is

associated with traditional job and work group designs. This approach is based on Taylor’s
scientific management and allows workers to learn to perform simple tasks quickly and
efficiently. On the downside, it ignores the increasing complexity of work and education of
the workforce.

2 motivational theories and attempts to enrich the work experience. Job enrichment
involves designing jobs with high levels of meaning, discretion and knowledge of results.
This approach, based on Herzberg’s motivational factors provides autonomy, responsibility
and closure from completing a job. Together, these aspects provide feedback on performance.
Lack of employee involvement in the process has cast doubt on the usefulness of Herzberg’s
original theory. The research of Hackman and Oldham represents this more recent trend in
job enrichment.

3 sociotechnical systems methods. This more recent perspective seeks to optimise both the
social and the technical aspects of work systems. It has led to the development of a popular
form of work design called ‘self-managed teams. This approach, which recognises that work,
in organisations, is a system with both social and technical aspects open to and interacting
with the environment, is based on action research in both public and private organisations in a
wide range of cultural settings.

4. Outline the four types of basic process intervention. When are they used?

T-groups derived from the early laboratory training stem of OD. They are used mainly today
to help managers learn about the effects of their behaviour on others.

Process consultation is another OD technique for helping group members to understand

diagnoses and improve their behaviour.

Third-party intervention focuses directly on dysfunctional interpersonal conflict.

Team building is aimed both at helping a team to perform its tasks better and at satisfying
individual needs.
 Tutorial 10

Organisational Transformation and Change (Chapter 9)

1. What are the external and internal disruptions that can affect an organisation?
Provide current examples of each and explain your selections.

Organizational transformation can be triggered by internal or external disruptions, often

resulting in disruptive changes that pose a threat to survival, except in highly unstable
environments like the telecommunications industry, where regular transformational changes
are necessary to meet external pressures. A struggling company must continuously transform
itself to achieve a winning formula, with careful diagnosis and planning minimizing
repetition. Successful mergers or acquisitions necessitate transformational change to merge
two autonomous corporate cultures, requiring radical changes to systems, structures,
processes, and people, potentially leading to business failure.

Internal disruptions, such as the appointment of a new CEO or board, can be triggered by
management style, market changes, government regulation, privatisation, technology
introduction, industry life cycle changes, and high executive turnover.

2. Define organisational culture. What are the major elements at different levels of
awareness?
Organisational culture is the shared assumptions, values, and norms within an organisation,
which can impact strategy formulation, implementation, and performance. Culture change
involves diagnosing and altering these assumptions and values. Corporate culture
encompasses aspects like vision, mission statement, values, policies, and internal politics.

Organisational culture includes four major elements existing at different levels of awareness:
• Artefacts refer to the observable behaviours and physical elements such as
structures, systems, policies and procedures.
• Norms dictate the generally accepted mode of behaviour in varying situations.
• Values define what is important and what should be prioritised
 Basic assumptions are shared way in which people in the organisation
perceive, think and feel about aspects of their external environment.

3. Describe the deep assumptions approach to culture change with

Reference to examples.

Deep assumptions highlight the most fundamental aspects of organizational culture, the
suggested and widely held beliefs that influence member behavior and frequently have a
significant influence on the efficacy of the organization. Students' own experiences, such as
their time in secondary school, might serve as examples.

4. Define and explain transformational change.

Transformational change refers to a fundamental shift in an organization’s operations,
culture, or structure. This type of change is often triggered by external factors such as
market trends, technological advancements, or shifts in consumer behavior. The
importance of transformational change lies in its ability to significantly alter how an
organization functions and delivers value.

Organizations must face serious threat to their survival in order to be inspired to

implement transformative change because of the high level of resources needed.

According to Tushman, Newman and Romanellivi showed that transformational

change occurs in response to at least three kinds of disruption:
1 Industry discontinuities. Sharp changes in legal, political, economic and
Technological conditions that shift the basis for competition within an
Industry.
2 Product life-cycle shifts. Changes in product life cycle that require different
business strategies.
3 Internal company dynamics. Changes in size, corporate portfolio strategy or
executive turnover.
 Tutorial 11

Change in a chaotic and unpredictable environment (Chapter 10)

Question 1

Identify three significant political and economic changes in the past five years that would
require businesses to adjust their practices to consider the changes.

The international diffusion of OD derives from three important trends:

Foreign economies are developing quickly, including the reorganization of socialist and
communist economies and strong expansion in developing nations such as those in South
Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific. As the Middle East, China, Russia, and South Africa
undergo political disruption, the European Union is fostering integration through fiscal
policies, luring new nations, and streamlining economic norms.

Foreign governments and organizations have found it easier to grow and flourish as a result
of the increasing worldwide availability of technical and financial resources, especially
through the internet and e-commerce. Increased access to finance and technology, especially
in the field of information technology, which has made the globe smaller and more
interconnected, was a major factor in the growth of Chilean businesses in the 1980s.

The global economy's emergence, China's instability, global terrorism, and global warming's
impact highlight the interconnectedness of global markets. Foreign organisations are
expanding globally through free trade agreements, removal of regulations and privatisation,
requiring adaptation of structures, information systems, processes, and human resources
practices across various countries.

Question 2

Explain the three key facets in worldwide strategic orientation. Give examples that are not in
the book.
The style of arrangement of products/services, organisation and personnel enables businesses
to compete in the global marketplace.

1 A multinational corporation needs to actively manage significant direct interests in multiple

countries and provide goods and services there. The organization must be ready to adapt to
the various demands of each nation, including individual product requirements, tariffs, value-
added taxes, governmental restrictions, transportation rules, and trade agreements. Due to a
free trade agreement between China and New Zealand, Chinese businesses have taken an
aggressive stance when it comes to conducting business in New Zealand. The people of New
Zealand have long believed that the reverse would happen.

2 Global corporations must strike a balance between geographical concerns of time, distance,
and culture and product and functional considerations. For instance, Chinese New Year,
which occurs just as Australian businesses are starting up again after their Christmas and
New Year's holidays, has a 27-day impact that Australian companies who manufacture in
China need to take into account. Inadequate management of manufacturing schedules might
result in time losses exceeding six weeks.

3 International businesses use a diverse range of workers, including local staff, short-term
and long-term business travelers, and expatriates, to function across cultural barriers.
Employees from diverse cultural origins need to be managed in a way that promotes the
organization's overall objectives and image. In order to achieve operational goals and suit the
culture, human resource management must be modified. With almost 3 million people
departing the Philippines annually for medium-term jobs abroad, the country is a significant
exporter of human resources. This necessitates advanced inbound and outbound health
screening.

Question 3

What are the characteristics of the global design? How do these differ from the characteristics
of the multinational orientation and transnational design?

The concept of global design is centered on standardized products with the aim of achieving
efficiency through volume. It is a centralized organization with a global product division and
activities that are balanced and coordinated. Human resource functions and formal
information systems will be ethnocentric, meaning that the policies are based on the cultural
viewpoint of the host country. OD interventions include conflict resolution, team building for
senior management, career planning, role clarity, and employee involvement.

In contrast multinational companies specialize in local responsiveness, have decentralized

operations, centralized planning, and global geographic divisions. They focus on intergroup
relations, local management team building, and strategic alliances.
.

Transnational design companies focus on market-specific products, integrating learning and

responsiveness through global coordination, with decentralized structures and clan-oriented
control in their information systems. Human resource strategies focus on geocentric selection,
extensive election and rotation, organizational cultural development, intergroup relations, and
corporate vision building through OD interventions.

Question 4

Describe what is meant by ‘worldwide organisational development’ and offer some best-
practice examples.

Worldwide organisation development applies to organisations that are operating across

multiple geographic and cultural boundaries. It has come about due to free-trade legislation
that has globalised markets, facilitated by the growth of the internet.

Worldwide organisations can be defined in terms of three key facets:

1 offering products or services in more than one country and actively managing substantial
direct investments in those countries.

2 balancing product and functional concerns with geographic issues of distance, time and
culture

3 carrying out coordinated activities across cultural boundaries.

The airline, automobile and oil refining industries are timely examples in Australia.
Discussion of the issues that Qantas, Ford, Toyota, deal with on a daily basis, as a
consequence of being worldwide organisations undergoing (often transformational)
development, are regularly in the news.
 Tutorial 12

Competitive and Collaborative Strategies (Chapter 11)

Question 1

Distinguish between competitive and collaborative strategies. What type of environment

would be beneficial for each?

Competitive strategies are the choices that organisations make to improve their competitive
situation, including integrated strategic change and mergers and acquisitions (see
Competitive Strategies. Collaborative strategies help organisations to deal with
environmental dependence and uncertainty as well as included alliances and networks.
Examples may include bargaining, contracting, co-opting and creating joint ventures,
federations, strategic alliances and consortia (see Collaborative Strategies).

Question 2

Select two of the competitive strategies. After explaining the characteristics of each, compare
them.

Competitive strategies include integrated strategic change, mergers and acquisitions.

Integrated strategic change is a comprehensive OT intervention aimed at a single organisation
or business unit. It suggests that business strategy and organisation design must be aligned
and changed together to respond to external and internal disruptions. Mergers and
acquisitions represent a second strategy of competition. These interventions seek to leverage
the strengths (or shore up the weaknesses) of one organisation by combining with another
organisation. This complex strategic change involves integrating many of the interventions
previously discussed in this text, including human process, techno structural and human
resource management interventions.

Question 3

Why would an organisation choose to merge rather than acquire another company?
A merger refers to two independent organisations integrating and becoming one new
organisation. An acquisition refers to one organisation purchasing another where the latter
becomes subsumed within the former. A merger is likely to occur where the two
organisations become equal partners in the new entity. An acquisition is likely to occur where
the purchased organisation is markedly smaller than the buying entity. (However, ‘reverse
takeovers’, where the buyer is smaller than the organisation being purchased, are known.)

Question 4

What are the advantages and disadvantages of alliances? Give examples where appropriate.

An alliance is a relationship between one or more – typically two – organisations. ‘An

alliance is a formal agreement between two organisations to pursue a set of private and
common goals through the sharing of resources, including intellectual property, people,
capital, technology, capability, and physical assets’

Advantages of Strategic Alliances

Sharing Resources and Expertise: Strategic alliances allow companies to combine their
strengths, leading to a deeper understanding of products, enhanced sales strategies, or
improved marketing knowledge. For example, a technology firm might partner with a
marketing agency to leverage each other’s expertise for better product launches.

Expanded Production Capabilities: By forming alliances, companies can scale their

production and distribution capabilities more efficiently. An example is automotive
manufacturers partnering with parts suppliers to streamline production processes and meet
increasing demand.

Speed and Agility: In a fast-paced business environment, strategic alliances enable partners
to respond quickly to market changes and customer needs by pooling resources and expertise.

Disadvantages of Strategic Alliances

Increased Liability: Both organizations share the risks associated with the alliance’s
outcomes. If one partner fails to deliver on its commitments or if issues arise (like production
delays), both companies may suffer reputational damage and financial losses.
Complexity in Management: Managing an alliance requires effective communication and
coordination between different organizational cultures and structures, which can be
challenging.

Dependency Risks: Over-reliance on a partner for critical resources or capabilities can create
vulnerabilities if one party encounters difficulties.

Question 5

Define and describe competitive strategies.

Competitive strategies are strategies to increase performance and gain comparative advantage
through alignment with the environment. They include integrated strategic change, mergers
and acquisitions. Integrated strategic change is a comprehensive OT intervention aimed at a
single organisation or business unit. Mergers and acquisitions seek to leverage the strengths
(or shore up the weaknesses) of one organisation by combining with another organisation.
The theories are based on the premises that organisations have access to unique resources and
add value in a variety of ways that are difficult to imitate.