A small flame is set for marking, along with a feed of fine Zn powder, applied to the plate

surface, fused and sticken to the plate. Cutting is done automatically without marking. Marking
is done for fitting the frames and bulkheads. O2 Pressure 8 to 10 bar, N2 at 83 bar.

Gouging: Both gas and arc welding may be modified to produce a shallow depression on plate,
called gouging. The electrode for gouging, making an arc of sufficient intensity to fuse the local
area of the workpiece and a stream of C.A is dis. The K. E of C.A removes the products of
fusion, produces a cut.

Types of flames:
Neutral flame O2 and C2H2 15 equal by volume.
Carborising : C2H2 is more than O2 by Volume.
Oxidising : O2 is more than C2H by Volume.

-72-

Tools: Measuring Tools.

Steel Rule: It is a most commonly used measuring tool in a workshop. 30 cm, 60 cm, 100 cm
and 150 cm rules are available. Centimeter scale is marked on one edge and inch scale is
marked on the other edge.

Measuring Tapes

Steel tapes made of lunar, Rubber coated cloth, Plastic tapes are available and some of it is
rolled and kept inside a spring loads bux. 1 M, 2M, 3M, 5M, 15M 30M are the available lengt of
tapes.

Vernier Caliper:

Pierre Vernier, a French man, deviced the principle of a vernier in 1631.

It has two scales, the main scale and the vernier scale. The main scale is fixed and the vernier
scale slides over the main scale.

In forward vernier (n-1) main scale divisions are divided into n vernier scale divisions.
Ie, 9mm on the main scale is divided into 10 parts on vernier, and each division measures
0.9mm. So it is possible to measure one-tenth of a millimetre accuracy.

-73-

Inside Caliper: The inside caliper is made with legs which are bent and outwards at the ends.
They are used to measure note diameters, distance between shoulders etc.

Outside Caliper: The outside Caliper has two legs which are bent inwards. It can be used for
measuring diameter, thickness and other outside dimensions by transferring the reading to steel
rule or vernier.

Jenny Caliper:. It is used to locate and test centres of Cylinder objects and also used to scribe
parallel lines.

Micrometer: Micro measure 10^-6 mm to 0.001 mm

Micrometer is one of the most common form of measuring instrument for precise measurement
with 0.01mm accuracy.It works on the principle of a screw and a nut. when nut completes one
revolution, it advances one pitch distance. The circumference of the
screw nut is divided into an equal number of parts,
say O to 50 If one pitch in 0.5mm.

The least count = 0.5/50=0.001mm.

A. Centre Punch: Point angle is 90°. It is used to make a deep pop to locate the centre of a
drill. It is made of high Carbon steel.

B. Dot Punch: Point angle is 60°. The punch mark is used to locate the line even after the line
is rubbed.

C. Prick Punch: Point angle is 30°. It is used to make a deep impression on the work piece.
-74

D. Hollow Punch of is used to make holes on gaskets etc Number punches, Letter punches are
also available.

Scriber: A scriber is a piece of hardened steel with sharp points at ends, angle is about 15°. It is
used like a pencil to make scratch or lines on the workpiece.

Divider: It is used to check and compare the dimensions to draw circles, arcs, and to divide a
line or an arc in equal parts.

Try square: It is used to check the squareness of a work piece to draw perpendicular lines on
the workpiece. It has two parts, a stoke, which may be made of cast iron and a blade, made of
high Carbon steel. The length of the blade indicates the size of the try square.

Hammer: Hammer is a simple striking tool. It is made of high carbon steel, and surface
hardened. Eye hole portion is not hardened. A wooden handle is fixed in the hammer to hold it
conveniently. Hammers are classified according to its shape and weight.

a. Ball Peen Hammer: This is the most common form of hammer.

b. Straight Peen Hammer: Peen across the handle.

c. Cross Peen Hammer: Peen Parallel to the handle.

d Sledge Hammer: Both ends are uniform and parallel. The body has octagonal cross section.
It is used for Slogging purposes.

e claw hammer: It is used for striking, as well as to pull nails from wood.
f Mallet: It is a striking tool made of hardwood, rubber ον teflon, used by Carpenters or sheet
metal workers.

-75-

Hack saw: It is a hand tool for cutting. It consists of a frame and a blade. Blade is a thin strip
made of hardened alloy steel. It is measured by length, width and thickness.

I.e, 300×12x1mm. TPl 18 or 24.

Hand saw: It is used to cut thick wooden pieces. It has a length of 650mm.

Tenon saw: It is used for short straight cuts. It has a parallel blade of length of 400 and width 5
to 8 mm. A stiffner is provided on blade in order to avoid bonding.

File: File is a cutting tool to remove a small quantity of surplus metal on the surface of an object.
It is made of high carbon steel and hardened other than tang.Files are specified according to its
Cross sectional Shapes flat, half round, round, triangular, square and knife edge, length, i.e 4”,
6”, 8”, 10”, 12", 16", 18", 24” and type of teeth, say smooth rough the.

Its body is parallel to a length of 2/3 of its total length. Tail or tang is not included in the length.
Files are classified according to their type of teeth cut; say single cut, double cut, rasp cut file
etc. Rasp Cut is made on round and half round files. Needle files are also there.
-76-

Chisel: It is a cutting tool made from high carbon steel, and has a rounded rectangular,
hexagonal or octagonal body. It is classified according to the length and shape of the cutting
edge, flat, cross cat, round nose, diamond point etc.

Snips: It is a cutting tool used to cut thin sheets. It is classified according to the shape of the
cutting edge and overall length i.e straight snips, bend snips etc.

Plier: It is used for gripping small objects, as well as for cutting wires by manual power. It is
made of high carbon Steel. It is classified by the shape of mouth and overall length cutting plier,
Flat nose, round nose, long nose circlip etc.

Spanner:

Spanner is used to hold bolt head and nut to loose or to tight it. It is made by the method of drop
forging. The alloy to make a spanner is first made powder, then forging is done at the
recommended temperature in a specified die to get the shape. Spanners are classified as single
end, double end, ring, ‘c’ box, adjustable, monkey, slogging, pin etc.

Bench Vice: It is the most widely used device for holding the workpiece in position during
various operations in a fitting shop. It consists one movable jaw and one fixed jaw, made of high
carbon steel, grips attached.

Body is made of Cast iron and is fixed on a workbench at convenient height. A square threaded
spindle is separated for the movement of movable jaw. It is classified according to the width of
the Jaw.
Pipe vice: It is a device used to hold pipes or cylindrical objects firmly while cutting, threading,
tightening, loosening. The fixed and movable Jaws are 'v' shaped. Body is made of cast iron,
Jaws are of high carbon steel. Stepped teeth is cut on jaws to get grip with the object.

Pipe wrench: It is used for tightening or loosening pipe fittings and other cylindrical objects. It is
made by the method of drop forging. It can be used for gripping a range of pipe sizes depending
upon the rack provided on the movable part of the tool. The overall length is specified as the
size of the wrench.

Taps and wrench: Taps are used to cut thread internally. It is made of high speed steel. Tap is
a cylindrical rod having threads, shank and square head on top for holding wrench. It has
grooves running lengthwise to form cutting edges. A set of taps include first tap or taper tap,
second trap or Intermediate tap and third tap.

Die and Stock: It is an external thread cutting toot on a pipe or on a rod. Dies are made of high
speed steel. The die holding device is called a stock.
Method of thread Culling: Check the diameter of the object and select the suitable die. Fix the
die in the stock properly. Place the die on the job at level and give an even force. Supply plenty
of oil while thread cutting. Proceed the rotating left and right for smooth cutting. Adjust the depth
to suit the sample.

Hydraulic Pipe Bending Machines

Bending of pipes is done by means of a pipe bending machine. It is mounted on a tripod and
can swing about its axis at any angle. So as to give a wide range of operation. A number of dies
are available as 15 NB, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50 65 and 80 NB . Outer formers are at according to the
size of pipe at the recommended slots. Die is moved forward by hydra whe force, by operating a
pump lever.

Bourdon-Tube:

Bourdon tube pressure gauge is the most commonly used one to measure the static pressure
above the atmospheric pressure. The tube is usually of elliptical Cross section and is bent to the
shape of 'C', when pressure is applied, an elastic deformation results proportional to the
pressure. The end is connected to a linkage which amplifies, and makes an angular rotation of
the needle. The dial is calibrated with the pressure rating as kg/em^2, psi.
Water Meter:

To determine the quantity of water flowing through pipes, some device is used, are called water
meters. It is used to measure the quantity of water supplied to private houses, industries, public
buildings etc.

When water flows across the meter, the flow takes place in a helical path due to inclined holes
and the propeller rotates operating a series of gears. The quantity of water flowing through the
meter can be directly read from the circular dial.

Requirements of a good meter: It should not offer any resistance to the flow of water. It should
measure the discharge accurately. Parts should be non-corrosive. It should be easily
maintained and repaired.
1 gallon = 4.54L (I Pound = 454 gram) = 3.79L, American
1 barrel = 159L
1 drum = 205 L

Drill bit
Body: Part of the drill that is fluted or relieved
Shank: The part that fits into the holding device.
Diameter of the drill is the distance between two
lands or margin.
The recommended drill point angles for different materials.

For ordinary purposes :118°

Wood :70°

Stainless steel : 130°-140°

PUMPS

Pump is a device used to lift a fluid, also to pressurise. Pumps can be classified as positive
displacement type and non-positive displacement type.

1. Centrifugal Pump:

It is a commonly used pump for various purposes.

It has a casing. in which the impeller is rotating.
The impeller may be rotated with the help of
electric power or steam engines.

Casing must be filled with the liquid primarily to get

automatic suction is called Priming. In case of a
domestic pumps, a foot valve may be attached to the
suction pipe in order to maintain water inside permanently.

When impeller rotates, the liquid inside the casing is thrown centrifugally, and makes a vacuum.
To the vacuum space inside the impeller casing, liquid is rushed through the suction pipe
automatically, because of atmospheric pressure.

The height of the suction pipe must be within the limit of atmospheric head. In case of water it in
less than 10m. Much larger pressure cannot be developed using a centrifugal pump.

2. Reciprocating pumps:

It is a positive displacement type pump.

Pumping action may be created by the
to and fro motion of a piston inside a
cylinder, by the aid of a connecting rod
and a rotating mechanism.
Firstly the inlet valve 1 opens, fluid enters into the cylinder spacing the trapped fluid is being
compressed, pressure is developed, valve 2 opens, fluid is being discharged through the
delivery pipe.

It is used for developing high pressure also. Air compresssor may be reciprocating type.
Pressure testing of pipelines and valves using water is conducted by reciprocating pump. Both
liquids and gases can be pumped.
Jet Pump: It is a pumping device works under the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem. (The total
energy at every point in a system is constant). In this arrangement a high pressure drive is
passed through a pipe containing a nozzle at its end.

While passing through the nozzle, most of the pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy
pressure around the nozzle drops almost to zero, causes the flow of water to be delivered flows
through the Suction pipe. The two flows meet at the throat of the vent*** pipe. This portion is
known as mixing nozzle

The major advantage of this pump is that it requires no prime mover and the liquid can be
pumped from a great depth. The suction head must be within the limit of atmospheric head.

Gear Pump The simplest and robust displacement Pump,

having just two moving parts, is the gear pump.
The trapped fluid gets compressed and developed
pressure between the gears. It can discharge fluid in
either direction on depending upon the direction of gear rotation.
In hydraulic system Oil pressure is developed by gear pump.
In no time high pressure is attained. The fluid must be
free from any solid particles, which will damage the system.
A pressure relief valve must be attached to the discharge to Control pressure..

Diaphragm Pumps:
are positive displacement pumps that uses a combination of reciprocating action and either a
flapper valve or a ball valve to transfer liquids. It is also called as a membrane pumps. It is a self
priming pump and is ideal for viscous liquids.

Most pumps are driven by electric motors, engines, manually, or either pneumatically. or
hydraulically. It can transfer for almost any kind of slurry, debris laden waste, food processing
residue, liquid, stones sugar, oil Sludge, refinery waite, mud, clay etc.

Screw Pumps:

These are more complicated type of rotary pumps featuring two or three screws with opposing
thread, that is one screw turns clockwise and other turns anti clockwise. The screws are each
mounted on shafts that run parallel to each other. The shafts also have gears on them that
mesh with each other in order to turn the shafts together and keep everything in place. The
turning of the screws, and consequently the shafts to which they are mounted, draws the fluid
through the pump. Clearance between the moving parts and casing is minimum.

Vane Pumps: It consists of vanes mounted to a rotor that rotates inside a cavity. It is commonly
used as high-pressure hydraulic pumps and in automobiles. Rotary vane pumps are also a
commonly used as vacuum pumps with two stage pumps able to reach pressures below 6 bar.

Valves:

Valve is a device used to control the flow of a fluid.

Gate valve: In a gate valve, the flow is controlled by sliding a gate operated by means of a
spindle to move the gate opening and closing. It gives full and unrestricted flow.

It is made of cast Iron, cast Steel or gunmetal.

When the bonnet is removed for overhauling, care must be taken to keep the valve fully open
while filling back the bonnet.

It is a Common valve used in water distribution systems.

Globe Valves: The shape of the body of this value is almost like a globe, sod is known as globe
valve. Straight body and 90° angular body are available.

It is made of cast iron and gun metal.

It is also used as a non-return valve when it is non-return, the connecting pin of the spindle and
lid is detached and the lid is seated because of gravity. Therefore the valve must be fitted,
keeping the Spindle vertical with wheel on top. So it is called SDNR (Screw Down Non-Return).

When the flow Comes, the disc is lifted and flow becomes possible.

Storm Value: It is an automatic valve, which opens in one direction only. It is fitted in overboard
lines for the discharge of soil, waste water Etc. from toilets, urinals and bath rooms of a ship. It
is filled below but very close to the load water line of a ship. It is made of gun metal, to avoid
repair as maximum as possible.

Butterfly valve : It is just a flow Control value filled in low pressure lines It is having simply a disc
fitted inside a rubber seating, operated by a spindle attached to the disc. The main advantage of
this valve is, less space is only needed no flanges on the valve . It is fitted as a spacer between
two flanges of the connecting pipes. Open and close positions are indicated by the direction of
the handle.
Flanged butterfly valves are also available.
Ball valve: It is a special type of valve. A mirror finished steel ball is fitted inside two tu***ffon
hemispheres. It is used in high pressure lines, especially in hydralic lines. Handle of the valve
indicates the open and close positions.
Needle Valve: It is a modified form of globe valve, and is used where small quality of flow is
needed. It is filled On the top most point of a system to purge the line.
Foot Valve: It is a non-return, automatic valve fitted in suction line of a Centrifugal pump. It
opens in upwand direction only, to enter water to the sucction pipe. At close position it prevents
return flow of water, by which maintains the suction line always filled.

Flush value: This valve is fitted in flush lines to flush out urinals and toilets.

Pressure Relief valves: It is a spring attached valve, and is fitted to the lines to discharge the
exess pressure developed is the line. On Compressed air reciever, in Steam lines etc. it is fitted
to maintain the maximum pressure

Pressure Reducing Valve: It is a spring attached valve, and is filled to reduce the pressure. A
pressure gauge in also attached, and the pressure in set as requred.

Swing Check Valve: It is an automatic non-return value. the lid of the valve is hinged. It has no
spindle or wheel to operate. Valve body must be horizontal with Cover on top is the fitting
position.

It may be provided at the starting point of the delivery pipe of a pump in order to prevent the
return flow. In other case it is fitted along with an **eductor to pump out water from an isolated
sumps.

Air Relief Valve:

when water enters a pipe line, it also carries Some quantity of air, and which accumulates at the
highest points of the pipe line.when quantity of air increases it will affect the flow. So when air
relief valve is filled in the system it will automatically remove the air lock from the system. The
main parts are, Puppet valve, normally closed when no air lock. When the chamber is filled with
air , float comes down, puppet valve opens, air lock escapes, Float Contains a weight less ball
and a lever is hinged at the other end chamber , in which puppet value and float is arranged.

Bib Cock: These ave water tapes, fitted at the end of water pipes, from which the consumer
Obains water.
Various types of bib-Cocks are: S**orw down, push tap, half turn, self Closing Etc. The main
parts of bib-Cock are Body, lid, Seat, spindle, gland and wheel.

3-Way Cock: It is a special arrangement. It has one Inlet and two out lets. when one out opens
other gets Closed. It may work automatically. In oily water separator, it opens and closes
automatically according to the Calculated P.P.M of oil in discharge water. An electronic device
having a sensor may be attached to select the discharge
If temperature Control Valve it works as per the temp. In kitchen sinks, 3 way cocks are fitted to
control the flow of hot water and Cold water.

Weighted lever Cocks: it is a device fitted at the top end of of a sounding pipe, especially in
engine room of a ship. It is always kept closed with the aid of a weight. To take Sounding of a
tank, the weight is lifted, cock gets opened.

Quick closing Valve: It is a spring loaded mechanism attached globe valve, acting as a trap,
when the mechanism gets disturbed, the valve closes quickly like a trap . A wire rope may be
lead to open space, normally at upper deck, to close the valve when an emergency occurs.

Scour Valve: it is also called blow off valve or wash out valves. It is normally fitted at the dead
ends of distribution line, to flash out waste of deposited, along with flowing water.

Pipe making materials and Pipes:

Stone Ware Pipes: It is made of good quality clay. After moulding the shape, it is baked in a
furnace, thus it becomes harder and stronger. A chemical is applied on its Surface to get
glazing. Spigot and socket is the joining method. Cement mortor is used in Joints.
Absorption test and hydrolic tests are conducted to test the quality of pipe. It is used in sanitary
systems.

Cast Iron Pipes: These are made of Cast iron. They are durable, strong and easily Connected.
They are heavy and brittle. It is made either in sand mould or by Centrifugal Casting. In a
speedily rotating mould, the molten metal is poured, the rotation Continues till the temparature
becomes 815°C. These pipes are dipped in motten bituminous situation to protect it from
corrosion. on other type of pipe coaltar is Coated . Cast iron pipes are classified according to
the quality and wall the thickners

Water Supply pipe:

most wall thickners and made of good quality Cast iron.
Drain and Sewer Pipe: It has high Compressive strength. It is possible to lay even below roads
and railway lines.

Soil Pipe: used to Convey discharge from toilets

waste pipe used to carry waste water

Light rain water pipe: used to drain rain water Etc.Joining method is bell and spigot.
The plain end *** or spigot is inserted into a large diameter of bell end. H** is used to maintain
the alignment, and molten lead is poured into the joint; process is called load caulking.
Asbestose Cement Pipe: These are made from a mixture of pure asbestose fibers, silica and
Cement. Its surface is smooth. It is strong
brittle, Cheap, light in weight and joining of pipes is very easy. It cannot with stand impact loads.

It is classified as AC Pressure Pipes: used in water distri bution and socketlers. The joint
consists a cylindrical Steeve and two collars with rubber ring. Tightened together with bolts and
nuts. A.C. sanitary pipes are socketed type. It is used as waste pipe and drain pipes. Cement
mortar is used at joint.

Cement Concrete Pipes: These pipes may be plain or reinforced. Plain ppes are used upto a
pressure of less than 1.5 kg/cm² and RCC upto 7.5 kg/cm²
The reinforement Consists rings of fron and longitudinal Steel rods. It is placed in the mould and
cement Contrete is poured into it. The mould is rotated at great speed around its longitudinal
axis. It is also known as 'Hume Pipes'.
The method of joining is bell and spigot. Alignment of pipe is done with the help of jute or hemp;
space is filled with Cement mortar.

Vitrified clay pipes. It is made of various clay. These are used to carry sewage and drain water.
It is having vary Smooth surface and are free from any kind of decay.
Sewage traps, wasth basin, water closets, urinals Etc. are made from Vitrified clay. Bell and
spigot is the joining method, and joint is filled with cement mortar.

Lead Pipe. It is a formerly used pipe to the conveyance of water. It will cause lead poisoning So
now a days it is not used to make pipes. They can be easily bent.

Copper Pipe: Copper has high thermal Condu chivity. Therefore it is used to convey hot water,
as well as chilled water.

PVC Pipe: This is the pipe of present age. It is made of poly Vinyl chloride. Its various use in
many fields have made it very popular. A number of fittings and connections are available in the
market. These are durable and Posses enough Strength to resist impact, sunlight and
atmospheric action. It is free from Corrosion, and are good electric insulators. These are very
light in weight easy to bent, joint and install.

solvent cement is the joining media. chemical reaction is taking place at the joint.

Terms in sanitary Engineering.

sewage: Sewage includes waste from toilets, urinals, water from bathroom, dirty water from
sinks etc. Industrial waste Consists salts, chemicals and even fuels.
Discharge from water closet and urinals are called soil sewage and discharge from kitchen
sinks, bathroom and washbasin are called sullage.
Soil Pipe: The pipes which carries soil sewage is called Soil pipe. It must have positive slope for
easy discharge.

waste pipe: The pipes which carries sullage, called waste pipe
Vent pipe: It is a pipe provided to escape air locks, and foul gases formed in side the saritary
System.

Vent Cowl: It is the lid of the vent pipe. It has narrow elliptical holes on the rode of its body
through which the air and foul gases escape.

Sewer: The under ground channels or pipes through which Sevage is Conveyed are known as
sewer.
Sewerage: The entere science of collecting and carrying sewage by water carriage system
through sewers is known as sewerage and sewage thus Collected in Conveyed to a suitable
place for disposal. It includes branch sewer which collechs sewage from houses Etc. The entire
branch sewer in also called Collecting sewer.

The main pipe or tunnel is also called out fall sewer. The end of sever is called out fall,where it
discharge to sea or purified by proper treatment.

Inspection Chamber: These are chambers built at intervals of about 35 m, in sever lines to
inspect the blockage and to remove blockage. Man holes are also arrageged on sever lines to
enter into the sewers,

Invert: The lower area of the sewer pipe or channels is called invert

Catch Pipe: The sumps made in sewer lines to collect the solid particles, if included in the
flowing sewage. It is made near the man hole or inspection chambers.

Traps: It is a sanitary fitting Connected mainly with the water closets to keep water seal in it,
which will not permit to enter any foul gases formed inside the sanitary system. There are
various types of traps as S, P, Q. The type is selected according to the space available in the
toilet, to connect with the soil pipe.
The minimum height of water seal in 5 cm. If the toilet is not using a long period, the seal may
loose due to vaporization, some glyceryn is poured in the trap, which wll not permit
Vaporization.

Anti-Siphonage: A device used to preserve water seal in traps is known as anti- siphonage. It is
used in multi-storied torlet Connections. It maintains a proper ventilation and does not allow
Siphonic action to take place.

when the flow Comes from top floors, it may affect the water seal on lower floors, on such a
special arrangements on anti-siphonage trap, air can bypass, water seal maintains.
Floor Trapes: it is also called Nahni Trap. It is filled in bath rooms to Collect waste water and to
connect with the waste waliv pipe. A cover may be provided for cleaning perodically. It prevents
entry of Solid particles into the system.

Gully Traps: it is usually made of Stoneware with a grating on top as Cover. It is fitted inside a
masonary Chamber . The gully trap forms the starting point of horizontal flow of Sewage or rain
water. It is fitted just outside the building Intercepting Trap:
It Consists a water seal and an inspection arm with a plug.

Cess Pool: It is an under ground structure in the form of circular or rectangular tank. It acts only
as a storage tank. The rawage is Conveyed to the Cess pool through soil pipe from the toilets. It
must be constructed away from drinking water wells by at least a distance of 15 metres
Septic Tanks: It is the tank made for the disposal of Sewage in a proper way. It is suitable for
houses and small hotels. The tank in carefully Constructed without any leakage of water.
Digestion of soil takes place because of the action of aerobic bacteria and the result water is
directed to the sockpit, where the water disappears to earth. It is a rectangular tank, and is
separated into three in a special manner which allows the movement of Contents in a Zig-Zag
manner inside.
Move number of inlets can be provided for large tanks Air veut is provided to avoid air blocks
inside.

Flushing Cistern : In order to flush water closets and urinals a flush tank is provided and is made
of PVC. They are provided at a height of about 2m above the floor level
Capacity vaies 5L to 15L. They may be hand operated or automatic. The automatic flushing is
arranged at public Urinals. The tank Contains a valve and a waghten plastic ball. Different types
of flush Valves are also available.
Self Cleaning Velocity: the soil lines, sower Etc. must have a positive gradient to have a smooth
flow of the Contents. The floating bodies as well as deposits at the inlets also must be removed
along with the flowing water. The minimum velocity required to take place such a flow is called
the self cleaning velocity.
Testing of Sanitary pipe lines: All sanitary bipe lines and fitting must be pressure tested to
check the leakage after installation

Air test can be applied to test the lines. A particular Section is plugged at various points, air is
forced by a Suitable air pump and apply soap solution at every joint If found bubbles of air,
repair it, and test again. Newly installed system is tested in such a manner.

Smoke Test, is similar to air test, but smoke also provided along with air. Smoke will come out
through leaking joints. This test is generally conducted for detecting leakage on existing lines.

Hydraulic test is the most commonly used testing method of pipes . After plugging all ends, fill
water to a height of about 1 m above the highest point. check the level drop.
PH Value: It is a measure of hydrogen ions in a liquid. PH Value of fresh water is 7. PH value
of Strong aced is 1 and that of strong alkali, base, is 14.
When PH value is lower than 7, water shows acidic nature and some insoluble floes becomes
astable and floe disappears. on other hand if PH value of water is more than 7, Compounds like
aluminium hydroxide becomes Soluble.

Pipe Supports:
It is an essential part to fix a pipe in position, and to avoid Vibration.
U-bolt is the most commonly used pipe support. A rod of recommended diameter is bent into the
shape of 'U' with ends threaded. It is attached to the pipe using a base made of angle iron or flat
bar with nuts and washer. A Packing of suitable matierial may be used between the and pipe
support.

NGALNB

10

10 30

40

80

12

105

120

16

10

35

47

100 16

135
147

2010

40

53

125 16

160

167

25 10

45

60

150

16

185

192

32 10

55

68

200

20

240

250
40

10

62

74

250

20

295

300

65/12

50

10

75

86

300

24

90108

350

351

350

24

385

395
A

Threaded Joints : Threaded joints are made by elements such as Screws, bolts, studs and
nuts. They are found extensively in industrial applications because:
- Can transmit considerable axial forces

- Can be fixed in any postion

-Giver accurate reading

-Helps for quick setting.

Screw Thread: A screw thread is a helical groove formed around an external cylindrical surface.
The part with internal cylindrical hole in which the helical groove is formed is called a nut.

The bolt has an external thread which extends along a part of the shank from one end while
other end is upset to form a head.

Bsw British Standard Whitworth.

It follows inch, its fractions and multiples.

It has rounded crests and roots, H/6 which reduces the Stress concentration at sharp corners.
BSF British Standard Fine: It has fine pitches and is used for precision works such as
instruments and electrical fittings. It's angle is 47.5° and round off is H/4

1/6 ^ prime prime

1-587

60

3-175

40

x_{4} deg

6.36

20
3/8

523

16

12-7

12

10

5/8

15.875

3/4

19.05

25.4

8.

Metric Thread: M
This form of thread is approved by BIS for thread fastenings. Thread angle is 60°
American National Standard Thread angle 60

Square Thread: These are widely used in power transmission and its mechanical efficiency is
higher thaw V threads. These threads are strong and are used in press, Screw jacks, vices Etc.

Acme Thread: These are widdy used for power trausmission These thread is used in pipe
wrenches.

Buttrers Thread: 45 + 7 =52 deg

It is used when it is desired to transmit power in one direction or to resist the thrust in one
direction.

Knuckle Thread: It is used for rough threads, used in railway Carriage couplings.

BsP British standard Pipe: Thread angle is 55°

NPT , National Pipe Threads: Thread angle is 60°. It has a taperners of 1° 47'24", as it forwards
a wedge action takes place and gives more tightners and thus a perfect high pressure leak
proof joint.

Thread seal like tuflon tape, Paste ave used to get a perfect joint. The thread sed paste
Contains linseed oil.

BSP

NPT

SIZE

OD

OD

ID

28

9-73

8-56

27

10-27

877

19

13-16

11.46

18

13.57

11-31
3/8"

19

16.66

14 96

18

17.06 15.36

12

14

20.96

18.64

14

21.22

1832

5/8

14

22.91

20.6

3/4

14

2649

24.13

14
26.57

2439

7/8

14

30-2

27.81

33.25

30.3

11/2

33-23

296

14

3896

11/2

41.99

38-45

1½

47.8

4486

11/2

48.05

44 52
5961

56.67

11/2

60.09

56.56

Table for Metric Threads:

SIZE

DRILL

PITCH M

PFINE

SPANNER

M8

6.7

1.25

100

13

MIO

85

15

1-25

17

M12
10-25

1-75

1-25

19

M 14

12.0

2.0

1-5

22

M16

140

1.5

20

24

M 18

15.5

1.5

27

2.5

15

30

M 20
17.5

25

32

15

M 22

19.5

2.5

36

21.0

3.0

2.0

M 24

M 30

265

3.6

2.0

46

Bearings A machine element uwhich supports another element and at the same time constrains
the relativee motion of the Part with minimum friction, called bearing.

Radial Beaung: In thi's case load acts radial to the axis Journal bearing of the shaft. They are
also reffered as

bearing

Journal.
when the auple of Contact is 368, in called full yourund other wise partial Journal.

beaving.

Full

-97-

Bushed Bearing. It consists of a cast iron block, and a bush made of brass or gunmetal. At the
top of bearing an oil hole is provided to facilitate lubrication.
Plummer block or Pedestal Bearing: These are used to support long shafts at several
intermediate points. It consists a base (placed on the seat) a cap and split bush.

Thrust Bearing: it carries axial load. If the Shaft is vertical and terminates in the bearing, is
called a pivot or foot step bearing. It is used for carrying light loads at low speed.

Collar bearing: if the shaft Continues through the bearing, then it is called a Collar bearing.

Ball bearing: Ball bearing consists of balls, positioned between hardened steel races. There are
outer race and inner race. A Cage is provided to keep the ball in position.
Races and balls are made of Carbon, Cr steel, while cage is usually made of light alloy having
low co-efficent of friction. The main advantage of ball bearing is rolling fiction is very less than
sliding friction.

Lubricants: are used to reduce friction between the Contacting surfaces and to carry away the
heat generated by friction. Liquid lubricants like L. O are usually preferred where they Can be
retained and reused. Semi-solid lubricants like grease have higher Viscosity and are employed
at low speed and high pressure. Solid lubicants like graphite are used where a film of lubricant
cannot be maintained because of pressure and temparature.

The desired properties of a good lubricant are, they should have sufficient viscosity , sufficient
oiliness, during opseration it must not produce any gases. the Viscosity of oil decreases with
increase in temperature.The unit of Viscosity is centi-Poise.

Hardness of Water:

Hardness of water is the characteristics" which prevents the lathering of soap". This is due to
the presence of Some Salts in water.

Temporary Hardners: It is caused by the presence of dissolved bi carbonates of Ca, Mg Etc.

Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2
Temporary hardners of water can be easily removed by boiling the water. while heating the salt
decomposes, the yielding Carbonate is Insoluble in water, and which is deposited at the
bottom, can be removed periodically.

Ca(HCO3)2 →CaCO3+H2 + CO₂

Permement Hardners: It is due to the presence of dissolved Chlorides and sulphates of Ca,Mg,
Fe, Al Etc.

Ca Ca, Mg Clz, CaSO4, FeSO4 Al2(SO4)3 Etc.

Permement hardners cannot be removed by boiling the water. so suitable chemical Compounds
must be added to water.

Effects of hardness in water:

Hard water does not make lather with soap. So more water may be needed for washing

In boilers it forms scales on tubes, CaCO3 may be deposited on sides of the tubes, thus
efficiency becomes less.

In Concrete mixing, affects the hydration of Cement, and gives poor result.

Boiling point of water becomes higher, hence it leads to the Consumption of more fuel.

Drinking of hard water affects our digestive system. There is possibility of forming calcium
oxalate in urinary tracks.

Zeolite Proces to remove Hardners:

Hydrated sodium Aluminium Silicate in added to water. green in Colour, so it is also called
green sand or glocomite.when hard water in allowed to pass through a bed of zeolite the
Contents of ca, and Mg are filtered and supplies Na to water; Thus water becomes soft. Green
Sand in naturally available.

Zeolite can be made artificially, white in colour called Permutite. After a duration, the presence
of sathium becomes less, and therefore the solution of sodium chloride is added to reinstate Na,
process in called regeneration.

Lime Proces to remove T. hardners:

Lime or Ca(OH), is added to water, due to chemical reaction Carbonates are de composed,
water becomes soft.
Lime Soda Proess

The mixture of lime and soda ash are added to water to remove both hardnesses

Purification of Water

a. Screening: This method involves passing of water through Screens having large number of
holes in order to remove large floating matters

b. Sedimentation: In this method water is allowed to stay undisturbed for 2 to 6 hours in order to
settle the suspended sediments in water by force of gravity. Coagulation is the process of
adding Coagulants like alum (Aluminium Sulphate) in water to take place the sedimentation
process easily.

C. Filteration: This method involves passing the water through a bed of fine sand or other proper
sized grannular materials to remove colloidal matters and other fire suspe nded Particles.

d. Removal of micro- organism:

Decease making bacteria, micro organisms Can be removed from water by the process of
disinfection.

1 Boiling of water. Almost all the decease making bacteria Can be removed by boiling the water
for a period of about 10 to 15 minutes.

2. Addition of bleaching Powder: Adding 1 kg of bleaching powder per 1000 kilo litres of water
and keeping undisturbed for several hours.

CaoCl2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2

Cl2 + H2O → HCl + Hocl (hypochlorous acid)

Hol Hl+ [0], Nascent oxy gen, makes required disinfection.

3. addition of Chlorine gas to water:

Cl2 + H2O →HCI+ HOCI → HCl+[0]

4 By adding ozone: O3→O2+[0]