INDIAN FINANCIAL

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM

Meaning of Indian financial system

The financial system enables lenders and borrowers to exchange funds. India has a
financial system that is controlled by independent regulators in the sectors of
insurance, banking, capital markets and various services sectors.

Thus, a financial system can be said to play a significant role in the economic
growth of a country by mobilizing the surplus funds and utilizing them effectively
for productive purposes.

FEATURES OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM:

• It plays a vital role in economic development of a country.

• It encourages both savings and investment.

• It links savers and investors.

• It helps in capital formation.

• It helps in allocation of risk.

• It facilitates expansion of financial markets.

COMPONENTS/ CONSTITUENTS OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM

The following are the four major components that comprise the Indian Financial
System:

1. Financial Institutions

2. Financial Markets

3. Financial Instruments/ Assets/ Securities

4. Financial Services.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
COMPONENT IS DISCUSSED BELOW:

FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Financial institutions are the intermediaries who facilitate smooth functioning of

the financial system by making investors and borrowers meet. They mobilize
savings of the surplus units and allocate them in productive activities promising a
better rate of return. Financial institutions also provide services to entities
(individual, business, government) seeking advice on various issue ranging from
restructuring to diversification plans. They provide whole range of services to the
entities who want to raise funds from the markets or elsewhere.

Financial institutions are also termed as financial intermediaries because they act
as middle between savers by accumulating Funds them and borrowers by lending
these fund.

It is also act as intermediaries because they accept deposits from a set of customers
(savers lend these funds to another set of customers (borrowers). Like - wise
investing institutions such ICCIC, mutual funds also accumulate savings and lend
these to borrowers, thus perform the role of financial intermediaries.

TYPES OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Financial institutions can be classified into two categories:

A. Banking Institutions

B. Non - Banking Financial Institutions

 INDIAN FINANCIAL
A. BANKING INSTITUTIONS (Reserve Bank of India)

Indian banking industry is subject to the control of the Central Bank. The RBI as
the apex institution organises, runs, supervises, regulates and develops the
monetary system and the financial system of the country. The main legislation
governing commercial banks in India is the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.

The Indian banking institutions can be broadly classified into two categories:

1. Organised Sector

2. Unorganised Sector.

1. Organised Sector

The organised banking sector consists of commercial banks, cooperative banks and
the regional rural banks.

(a) Commercial Banks: The commercial banks may be scheduled banks or non –
scheduled banks. At present only one bank is a non - scheduled hank. All other
banks are schedule banks. The commercial banks consist of 27 public sector banks,
private sector banks and foreign banks. Prior to 1969, all major banks with the
exception of State Bank of India in the private sector. An important step towards
public sector banking was taken in July 1969, when
14 major private banks with a deposit base of 50 crores or more were nationalised.
Later in 1980 another 6 were nationalised bringing up the total number banks
nationalised to twenty.

(b) Co-operative banks: An important segment of the organized sector of Indian

banking is the co-operative banking. The segment is represented by a group of
societies registered under the Acts of the states relating to co- operative societies.
In fact, co-operative societies may be credit societies or non-credit societies.

Different types of co-operative credit societies are operating in Indian economy.

These institutions can be classified into two broad categories:
(a) Rural credit societies which are primary agriculture, (b) Urban credit societies
which are primarily non-agriculture.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
For the purpose of agriculture credit there are different co-operative credit
institutions to meet different kinds of needs.

(c) Regional Rural Banks (RRBs): Regional Rural Banks were set by the state
government and sponsoring commercial banks with the objective of developing the
rural economy. Regional rural banks provide banking services and credit to small
farmers, small entrepreneurs in the rural areas. The regional rural banks were set
up with a view to provide credit facilities to weaker sections. They constitute an
important part of the rural financial architecture in India. There were 196 RRBs at
the end of June 2002, as compares to 107 in 1981 and 6 in 1975.

(d) Foreign Banks: Foreign banks have been in India from British days. Foreign
banks as banks that have branches in the other countries and main Head Quarter in
the Home Country. With the deregulation (Elimination of Government Authority)
in 1993, a number of foreign banks are entering India. Foreign Banks are: Citi
Bank. Bank of Ceylon.

2. Unorganised Sector.

In the unorganised banking sector are the Indigenous Bankers, Money Lenders.

1. Indigenous Bankers

Indigenous Bankers are private firms or individual who operate as banks and as
such both receive deposits and given loans. Like bankers, they also financial
intermediaries. They should be distinguished professional money lenders whose
primary business is not banking and money lending. The indigenous banks are
trading with the Hundies, Commercial Paper.

2. Money Lenders:

Money lenders depend entirely to on their one funds. Money Lenders may be rural
or urban, professional or non-professional. They include large number of farmer,
merchants, traders. Their operations are entirely unregulated. They charge very
high rate of interest.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
B. NON – BANKING INSTITUTIONS
The non – banking institutions may be categorized broadly into two
groups:
(a) Organised Non – Banking Financial Institutions.
(b) Unorganised Non – Banking Financial Institutions.

(a) Organised Non – Banking Financial Institutions

The organised non - banking financial institutions include:
1. Development Finance Institutions.
These include: The institutions like IDBT, ICICI, IFCI, IIBI, IRDC at all India
level.
The State Finance Corporations (SFCs), State Industrial Development
Corporations (SIDCs) at the state level.
Agriculture Development Finance Institutions as NABARD,LDBS etc.
Development banks provide medium and long term finance to the corporate and
industrial sector and also take up promotional activities for economic development
2. Investment Institutions.
These include those financial institutions which mobilise savings at the public at
large through various schemes and invest these funds in corporate and government
securities. These include LIC, GIC, LTT, and mutual funds. The non - banking
financial institutions in the organised sector) have been discussed at length in detail
in separate chapters of this book.
(b) Unorganised Non - Banking Financial Institutions The
unorganised non - banking financial institutions include number of non - banking
financial companies (NBFCs) providing whole range of financial services. These
include hire - purchase 300 consumer finance companies, leasing companies,
housing finance companies, factoring companies, Credit rating agencies,
merchant banking companies etc. NBFCs mobilise public funds and provide
loanable funds.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
FINANCIAL MARKET
It is through financial markets and institutions that the financial system of an
economic works. Financial markets refer to the institutional arrangements for
dealing in financial assets and credit instruments of different types such as
currency, cheques, bank deposits, bills, bonds etc.
Functions of financial markets are:
(i) To facilitate creation and allocation of credit and liquidity
(ii) To serve as intermediaries for mobilisaton of savings.
(iii) To assist the process of balanced economic growth.
(iv) To provide financial convenience.
(v) To cater to the various credit needs of the business houses. These

organised markets can be further classified into two they are

(i) Capital Market

(ii) Money Market

CAPITAL MARKET

The capital market is a market for financial assets which have a long or indefinite
maturity. Generally, it deals with long term securities which have a maturity period
of above one year. Capital market may be further divided into three namely:

(I) Industrial securities market

(II) Government securities market and

(III) Long term loans market

1. INDUSTRIAL SECURITIES MARKET:

As the very name implies, it is a market for industrial securities namely:

(i) Equity shares or ordinary shares,
(ii) Preference shares and
(iii) Debentures or bonds.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
It is a market where industrial concerns raise their capital or debt by issuing
appropriate instruments. It can be further subdivided into two. They are:
(i) Primary market or New issue market
(ii) Secondary market or Stock exchange

PrimaryMarket
Primary market is a market for new issues or new financial claims. Hence, it is also
called New Issue market. The primary market deals with those securities which
are issued to the public for the first time. In the
primary market, borrowers exchange new financial securities for long term funds.
Thus, primary market facilitates capital formation. There are three ways by which a
company may raise capital in a primary market. They are:

(i) Public issue

(ii) Rights issue
(iii) Private placement

The most common method of raising capital by new companies is through sale of
securities to the public. It is called public issue. When an existing company wants
to raise additional capital, securities are first offered to the existing shareholders on
a pre-emptive basis. It is called rights issue. Private placement is a way of selling
securities privately to a small group of investors.

SecondaryMarket
Secondary market is a market for secondary sale of securities. In other words,
securities which have already passed through the new issue market are traded in
this market. Generally, such securities are quoted the Stock Exchange and it
provides a continuous and regular market to buying and selling of securities. This
market consists of all stock exchanges recognised by the Government of India. The
stock exchanges in India are regulated under the Securities Contracts (Regulation)
Act 1956. The Bombay Stock Exchange is the principal stock exchange in India
which sets the tone of the other stock markets.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
II. GOVERNMENT SECURITIES MARKET

It is otherwise called Gilt - Edged securities market. It is a market where

Government securities are traded. In India there are many kinds of Government
Securities - short term and long term. Long term securities are traded in this market
while short term securities are traded in the money market. Securities issued by the
Central Government, State Governments, Semi Government authorities like City
Corporations, Port Trusts etc. Improvement Trusts, State Electricity Boards, All
India and State level financial institutions and public sector enterprises are dealt in
this market.

III. LONG TERM LOANS MARKET

Development banks and commercial banks play a significant role in this market by
supplying long term loans to corporate customers.

Long term loans market may further be classified into:

(1) Term loans market

(ii) Mortgages market

(iii) Financial Guarantees market.

Term Loans Market

In India, many industrial financing institutions have been created by the

Government both at the national and regional levels to supply long term and
medium term loans to corporate customers directly as well as indirectly. These
development banks dominate the industrial finance in India. Institutions like IDBI,
IFCI, ICICI, and other financial corporations come under this category.

Mortgages Market

A mortgage loan is a loan against the security of immovable property like real
estate. The transfer of interest in a specific immovable property to secure a loan is
called mortgage. This mortgage may be equitable mortgage or legal one.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
MONEY MARKET

Money market is a market for dealing with financial assets and securities which
have a maturity period of upto one year. In other words, it is a market for purely
short term funds. The money market may be subdivided into four. They are:

(i) Call money market

(ii) Commercial bills market

(iii) Treasury bilis market

(iv) Short term loan market.

Call Money Market

The call money market is a market for extremely short period loans say one day to
fourteen days. So, it is highly liquid. The loans are repayable on demand at the
option of either the lender or the borrower. In India, call money markets are
associated with the presence of stock exchanges and hence, they are located in
major industrial towns like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Delhi, Ahmedabad etc. The
special feature of this market is that the interest rate varies from day to day and
even from hour to hour and Centre to Centre. It is very sensitive to changes in
demand and supply of call loans.

Commercial Bills Market

It is a market for Bills of Exchange arising out of genuine trade transactions. In the
case of credit sale, the seller may draw a bill of exchange on the buyer. The buyer
accepts such a bill promising to pay at a later date specified in the bill. The seller
need not wait until the due date of the bill. Instead, he can get immediate payment
by discounting the bill.

Treasury Bills Market

It is a market for treasury bills which have ' short - term ' maturity. A treasury bill
is a promissory note or a finance bill issued by the Government.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
It is highly liquid because its repayment is guaranteed by the Government. It is an
important instrument for short term borrowing of the Government There are two
types of treasury bills namely (i) ordinary or regular and (ii) ad hoc treasury bills
popularly known as ' ad hocs’. Ordinary treasury bills are issued to the public,
banks and other financial institutions with a view to raising resources for the
Central Government to meet its short term financial needs. Ad hoc treasury bills
are issued in favour of the RBI only. They are not sold through tender or auction.
They can be purchased by the RBI only. Ad hocs are not marketable in India but
holders of these bills can sell them back to RBI.

Short - Term Loan Market

It is a market where short - term loans are given to corporate customers for meeting
their working capital requirements. Commercial banks play a significant role in
this market. Commercial banks provide short term loans in the form of cash credit
and overdraft Over draft facility is mainly given to business people whereas cash
credit is given to industrialists. Overdraft is purely a temporary accommodation
and it is given in the current account itself. But cash credit is for a period of one
year and it is sanctioned in a separate account.

FINANCIAL INSREUMENTS

Financial instruments refer to those documents which represents financial claims

on assets. As discussed earlier, financial asset refers to a claim to a claim to the
repayment of a certain sum of money at the end of a specified period together with
interest or dividend. Examples: Bill of exchange, Promissory Note, Treasury Bill.

Financial securities can be classified into:

(i) Primary or direct securities.

(ii) Secondary or indirect securities.

 INDIAN FINANCIAL
Primary Securities

These are securities directly issued by the ultimate investors to the ultimate savers.
Eg. shares and debentures issued directly to the public.

Secondary Securities

These are securities issued by some intermediaries called financial intermediaries

to the ultimate savers. Eg. Unit Trust of India and mutual funds issue securities in
the form of units to the public and the money pooled is invested in companies.

Again these securities may be classified on the basis of duration as follows:

(i) Short - term securities

(ii) Medium term securities

(iii) Long - term securities.

Short - term securities are those which mature within a period of one year. Eg,
Bill of Exchange, Treasury bill, etc. Medium term securities are those which have
a maturity period ranging between one and five years. Eg. Debentures maturing
within a period of 5 years, Long - term securities are those which have a maturity
period of more than five years. Eg, Government Bonds maturing after 10 years.

FINANCIAL SERVICES

Efficiency of emerging financial system largely depends upon the quality and
variety of financial services provided by financial intermediaries. The term
financial services can be defined as “activities, benefits, and satisfactions,
connected with the sale of money, that offer to users and customers, financial
related value. within the financial services industry the main sectors are banks,
financial institutions, and non-banking financial companies.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
KINDS OF FINANCIAL
SERVICES

Financial services provided by various financial institutions, commercial banks and

merchant bankers can be broadly classified into two categories.

1. Asset based/fund based services.

2. Fee based/advisory services.

Asset based/fund based services

The asset/ fund based services provided by banking and non - banking financial
institutions as discussed below briefly.

1. Equipment Leasing/ Lease Financing

Leasing is a arrangement that provides a firm with the use and control over assets
without buying and owning the same. It is a form of renting assets. However, in
making an investment, the firm need not own the asset. It is basically interested in
acquiring the use of the asset. Thus, the firm may consider leasing of the asset
rather than buying it.

In comparing leasing with buying, the cost of leasing the asset should be compared
with the cost of financing the asset through normal sources of financing, i. e. debt
and equity. Since payment of lease rentals is similar to payment of interest on
borrowings and lease financing is equivalent to debt.

2. Hire Purchase and Consumer Credit

Hire purchase means a transaction where goods are purchased and sold on the
terms that (i) payment will be made it installments, (ii) the possession of the goods
is given to the buyer immediately, (iii) the property ownership) in the goods
remains with the vendor till the last installment is paid,(iv) the seller can repossess
the goods in case of default in payment of any instalment, and (v) each instalment
is treated as hire charges till the last instalment is paid.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
Consumer credit includes all asset based financing plans offered to individuals to
help them acquire durable consumer goods. In a consumer credit transaction the
individual/ consumer/ buyer pays a part of the cash purchase price at the time of
the delivery of the asset and pays the balance with interest over a specified period
of time.

3.VENTURE CAPITAL

In the real sense, venture capital financing is one of the most recent entrants in the
Indian capital market. There is a significant scope for venture capital companies in
our country because of increasing emergence of technocrat entrepreneurs who lack
capital to be risked. These venture capital companies provide the necessary risk
capital to the entrepreneurs so as to meet the promoters contribution as required by
the financial institutions. In addition to providing capital, these VCFS (venture
capital firms) take an active interest in guiding the assisted firms.

4. Insurance Services

Insurance is a contract where by the insurer e. insurance company agrees/

undertakes, in consideration of a sum of money (premium) to make good the loss
suffered by the insured (policy holder) against a specified risk such as fire or
compensate the beneficiaries (insured) on the happening of a specified event such
as accident or death. The document containing the terms of contract, in black and
white, between the insurer and the insured is called policy. The property which is
insured is the subject matter of insurance. The interest which the insured has in the
subject matter of insurance is known as insurable interest. Depending upon the
subject matter, insurance services are divided into (i) life (ii) general.

5. Factoring

Factoring, as a fund based financial service provides resources to finance

receivables as well as it facilitates the collection of receivables. It is another
method of raising short - term finance through account receivable credit offered by
commercial banks and factors.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
A commercial bank may provide finance by discounting the bills or invoices of its
customers. Thus, a firm gets immediate payment for sales made on credit. A factor
is a financial institution which offers services relating to management and
financing of debts arising out of credit sales.

B. FEE BASED ADVISORY SERVICES

(i) Merchant Banking

Fee based advisory services includes all these financial services rendered by
Merchant Bankers. Merchant bankers play an important role in the financial
services Sector. The Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI)
was the first development finance institution to initiate such service in 1974. After
mid - seventies, tremendous growth in the number of merchant banking
organisations les taken place. These include banks financial institutions, non -
banking financial companies (NBFCS), brokers and so on. financial Services
provided by these organisations include loan syndication portfolio management,
corporate counselling project counselling debenture trusteeship, mergers
acquisitions.

(ii) Credit Rating

Credit rating is the opinion of the rating agency on the relative ability and
willingness of the issuer of debt instrument to meet the debt service obligations as
and when they arise. As a fee based financial advisory service, credit rating useful
to investors, corporates (borrowers), banks and financial institutions. For the
investors, it is an indicator expressing the underlying credit quality of a (debt) issue
programme. The investor is fully formed about the company as any effect of
changes in business/ economic conditions on the agency company is evaluated and
published regularly by the rating agency.

(iii) Stock - Broking

Prior to the setting up of SEBI, stock exchanges were being supervised by the
Ministry of Finance under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act (SCRA) and
were operating more or less self-regulatory organisations.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
The need to reform stock exchanges was felt, when malpractices crept into
Trading and in order to protect investor's interests, SEBI was set up to ensure that
stock exchange perform their self - regulatory role properly. Since then, stock
broking has emerged as a professional advisory service Stockbroker is a member of
a recognised stock exchange who buys, sells or deals in shares/ securities. It is
mandatory for each stockbroker to get him/ herself registered with SEBI order to
act as a broker. SEBI is empowered to impose conditions while granting the
certificate of registration.

FINANCIAL MARKET
It is through financial markets and institutions that the financial system of an
economic works. Financial markets refer to the institutional arrangements for
dealing in financial assets and credit instruments of different types such as
currency, cheques, bank deposits, bills, bonds etc.
Financial market classified into two they are:

(i) Money Market

(ii)Capital Market

(i) Money Market

Money market is a market for dealing with financial assets and securities which
have a maturity period of upto one year. In other words, it is a market for purely
short term funds.

The importance/functions of the money market is highlighted as under:

1. Economic development: The money market provides short term funds to both
public and private institutions. These institutions need money to finance their
capital needs.
In other words, the money market assures supply of funds; the financing is done
through discounting of the trade bills, commercial banks, acceptance houses,
discount houses and brokers. In this way, the money market helps in the economic
development by providing financial help to trade, commerce and industry. The
businessmen take advantage by investing their cash in
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
highly liquid assets to earn income and also to enjoy liquidity because these assets
can be converted into cash without much difficulty.

2. Profitable investment: The commercial banks deal with the deposits of their
customers. The banks are required to put their assets into cash form to meet the
directions of the central bank on the one hand, while on the other, they have to put
their excess reserves into productive channels to earn income on them. The aim of
the commercial banks is to maximize profits. The excess reserves of the banks are
invested in near money assets.

3. Borrowings by the government:

The money market helps the government in borrowing short term funds at very low
interest rates. The borrowing is done on the basis of treasury bills. But in case the
government resorts to deficit financing or to print more currency or to short term
funds at the money supply over and above the borrow from the central bank, it will
merely raise Thus it is clear that the needs of the economy and hence the price
level will boost up. Money market is very useful for the government since it meets
its financial needs.

4. Importance for central bank:

If the money market is well - developed, the central bank implements the monetary
policy successfully. It is only through the money market that the central bank can
control the banking system and thus contribute to the development of trade and
commerce. The money market is very sensitive a change in one sub – market
affects the other sub - markets immediately. It means the central bank can affect
the whole money market by changing just one sub - market.

5. Mobilisation of funds:

The money market helps in transferring funds from one sector to another. The
development of any economy depends on availability of finance. No country can
develop its trade, commerce and industry until and unless the financial resources
are mobilized.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
6. Savings and investment

The money market is that it helps in promoting liquidity and safety of financial
assets. By doing so it can help in encouraging savings and investment. The saving
and investment equilibrium of demand and supply of loanable funds helps the
allocation of resources.

CAPITAL MARKET

The capital market is a market for financial assets which have a long or indefinite
maturity. Generally, it deals with long term securities which have a maturity period
of above one year.

FUNCTIONS OF CAPITAL MARKET

' The major functions performed by a capital/ security market are:

1. Helps in capital formation.

The capital market plays an important role in mobilisation of savings and channel
them into productive investments for the development of commerce and industry.
As such, the capital market helps in capital formation and economic growth of the
country.

2. Act as link between savers and investors.

The capital market acts as an important link between savers and investors. The
savers are lenders of funds while investors are borrowers of funds. The savers who
do not spend all their income are called "Surplus units" and the borrowers are
known as " deficit units. The capital market is the transmission mechanism
between surplus units and deficit units. It is a conduit through which surplus unity
lend their surplus funds to deficit units.

3. Helps in increasing national income.

Funds come into the capital market from individuals and financial intermediaries
and are used by commerce, industry and government. It thus facilitates the transfer
of funds to be used more productively and profitability to increases the national
income.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
4. Facilitates buying and selling.

Surplus units buy securities with their surplus funds and deficit wits ells
securities to raise the funds they need. Funds flow from lenders to borrowers
either directly or indirectly through financial institutions such as banks, unit
trusts, mutual funds, etc. The borrowers issue primary securities which are
purchased by lenders either directly or indirectly through financial institutions.

5. Channelizes funds from unproductive to productive resources.

The capital market provides a market mechanism for those who have savings and
to those who need funds for productive investments. It divers resources from
wasteful and unproductive channels such as gold, jewellery, real estate,
conspicuous consumption, etc, to productive investments

6. Minimises speculative activities.

It does so by providing capital to the needy al reasonable interest rates and helps in
minimising speculative activities.

7. Brings stability in value of stocks.

A well - developed capital market comprising expert banking and non - banking
intermediaries brings stability in the value of stocks and securities..

8. Promotes economic growth. The capital market encourages economic

growth. The various institutions which operate in the capital market give
quantities and qualitative direction to the flow of funds and bring rational
allocation of resources. They do so by converting financial assets into
productive physical assets. This leads to the development of commerce and
industry through the private and public sector, thereby inducing economic
growth.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
Primary Market / New Issue Market

Primary market is a market for new issues or new financial claims. Hence, it is also
called New Issue market. The primary market deals with those securities which are
issued to the public for the first time.

In the primary market, borrowers exchange new financial securities for long term
funds. Thus, primary market facilitates capital formation. There are three ways by
which a company may raise capital in a primary market.

FEATURES OF PRIMARY MARKETS

(i) This is the market for new long term equity capital. The primary market is the
market where the securities are sold for the first time. Therefore it is also called the
new issue market (NIM).

(ii) in a primary issue, the securities are issued by the company directly to
investors.

(iii) The company receives the money and issues new security certificates to the
investors

(iv) Primary issues are used by companies for the purpose of setting up new
business or for expanding or modernizing the existing business.

(v) The primary market performs the crucial function of facilitating capital
formation in the economy.

(vi) The new issue market does not include certain other sources of new long term
external

finance, such as loans from financial institutions. Borrowers in the new issue
market may be raising capital for converting private capital into public capital, this
is known as " going public. "
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
FUNCTIONS OF NEW ISSUE MARKET

A three service functions:

The main functions of a new issue sue market can divided into new project.

1. Origination.

It refers to the work of investigation analysis and processing of new project

proposals.. It starts before an issue is actually floated in the market. This function
is done by merchant bankers who may be commercial banks, all India financial
institutions or private firms. At present, financial institutions and private firms also
perform this service is highly important the success of the issue depends, to a large
extent on the efficiency of the market.

2. Underwriting.

It is an agreement whereby the underwriter promises to subscribe to specified

number of shares or debentures or a specified amount of stock in the event of
public not subscribing to the issue. If the issue is fully subscribed, then there is no
liability for the underwriter. If a part of share issues remains unsold, the
underwriter will buy the shares. Thus, underwriting is a guarantee for marketability
of shares. There are two types of underwriters in India - Institutional (LIC, UTI,
IDBI, ICICI) and Non - institutional are brokers.

3. Distribution.

It is the function of sale of securities to ultimate investors. This service is

performed by specialized agencies like brokers and agents who maintain a regular
direct contact with the ultimate investors.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
SECONDARY MARKET

Secondary market is a market for secondary sale of securities. In other words,

securities which have already passed through the new issue market are traded in
this market. Generally, such securities are quoted the Stock Exchange and it
provides a continuous and regular market to buying and selling of securities. This
market consists of all stock exchanges recognised by the Government of India. The
stock exchanges in India are regulated under the Securities Contracts (Regulation)
Act 1956. The Bombay Stock Exchange is the principal stock exchange in India
which sets the tone of the other stock markets.

FUNCTIONS OF STOCK EXCHANGE

The stock exchanges play an important role in the economic development of a

country.

The importance of stock exchange will be clear from the functions they
perform and discussed:

as follows: provide a place where shares and stock

1. Ensure Liquidity of Capital.

The stock exchanges where buyers and sellers are converted into cash. The
exchanges provide a ready market. Had are always available and those who are
in need of hard cash can sell their holdings this not been possible then many
persons would have feared for blocking their savings in Securities as they can
not again convert them into cash.

2. Continuous Market for Securities.

The stock exchanges provide a ready market in securities. The securities once
listed continue to be traded at the exchanges irrespective the fact that owners go
on changing. The exchanges provide a regular market for trading in securities.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
3. Mobilising Surplus Savings.

The stock exchanges provide a ready market for various securities. The investors
do not have any difficulty in investing their savings by purchasing shares, bonds
etc, from the exchanges. If this facility is not there then many persons who want to
invest their savings will not find avenues to do so. In this way stock exchanges
play an important role in mopping up surplus funds of investors.

4. Helpful in Raising New Capital.

The new and existing concerns need capital for their activities. The new concerns
raise capital for the first time and existing units increase their capital for expansion
and diversification purposes. The shares of new concerns are registered at stock
exchanges and existing companies also sell their shares through brokers etc, at
exchanges. The exchanges are helpful in raising capital both by nets old concerns.

5. Safety in Dealings.

The dealings at stock exchanges are governed by well - defined rules and
regulations of Securities Contract (Regulation) Act, 1956. There is no scope
manipulating transactions. Every contact is done according to the procedure laid
down and there is no fear in the minds of contracting parties. The safety in dealings
brings confidence in the minds of all concerned parties and helps in increasing
various dealings.

6. Listing of Securities.

Only listed securities can be purchased at stock exchanges. Every company

desirous of listing its securities will apply to the exchange authorities. The listing is
allowed only after a critical examination of capital structure, management and
prospects of the company. The listing of securities gives privilege to the company.
The investors can form their own views about the securities because listing a
security does not guarantee the financial stability of the company.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
.7. Smoothens the Price Movements.

A stock exchange smoothens the price movements of stocks in the market by

ensuring a continuous flow of securities,

8. Investor Protection.

The stock exchange renders safeguarding activities for investors in securities. It

provides a grievance redressal mechanism for investors. Stock exchanges also
operate a compensation fund for the protection of investors.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
UNIT-3 FINANCIAL SERVICES

FINANCIAL SERVICES

Efficiency of emerging financial system largely depends upon the quality and
variety of financial services provided by financial intermediaries. The term
financial services can be defined as “activities, benefits, and satisfactions,
connected with the sale of money, that offer to users and customers, financial
related value. within the financial services industry the main sectors are banks,
financial institutions, and non-banking financial companies.

FACTORIN
G

INTRODUCTION

Receivables constitute a significant portion of Current Assets of a firm. But for

investment in receivables, a firm has to incur certain costs such as Lusts financing
receivables and costs of collection from receivables. Further, there is a risk of had
debts also, it is therefore, very essential to have a proper control and management
of receivables. In fact, maintaining of receivables poses to types of problems; the
problem of raising funds to finance the receivables, and
(ii) the problems relating to collection, delays and defaults of the receivables. A
small firm may handle the problem of receivables management of its own, but it
may not be possible for a large firm to do so efficiently as it may be exposed to the
risk of more and more bad debts. In such a casts, a firm nay avail the services of
specialised institutions engaged in receivable management, called factoring firms.

MEANING & DEFINITION

Factoring may broadly be defined as the relationship, created by an agreement

between the seller of goods/ services and a financial institution called the factor,
whereby the later purchases the receivables of the former and also controls and
administers the receivables of the former

Factoring may also be defined as a continuous relationship between Financial

institution (the factor) and business concern selling goods and/ or providing
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
service (the client) to a trade customer on an open account basis, whereby the factor
purchases the client’s book debts( account receivables) with or without recourse to
the client , thereby controlling the credit extended to the customer and also
undertaking to administer the sales ledgers relevant to the transaction.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FACTOR

These are the functions of factor:

1. Administration of Sales Ledger.

The factor maintains sales ledger in respect of each client. When the sales
transaction action takes place an invoice is prepared in duplicate by the client one
copy is given to customer and second copy is sent to the factor. Entries are made in
the ledger on open - item method.

Each receipt is matched against the specific invoice. Periodic reports are sent by
factor to the client with respect to current status of receivables and amount
received from customers. Depending upon the volume of transactions, the
periodicity of report is decided. Thus, the entire sales ledger administration
responsibility of the client gets transferred to the factor.

2. COLLECTION OF RECEIVABLES

The main functions is to collect the receivables on behalf of the client and to
relieve him from all the botheration/ problems associated with the collection. This
way the client can concentrate on other major areas of his business on one hand
and reduce the cost of collection by way of savings in labour, time and efforts on
the other hand.

3. PROVISION OF FINANCE

Finance, which id the life blood of a business, is made available easily by the
factor to the client. A factor purchases the book debts of his client and debts are
assigned in favour of the factor. 75 % to 80 percent of assigned debts is given as an
advance to the client by the factor.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
(i) Where an agreement is entered into between the client (seller) and the factor for
the purchase of receivables without recourse, the factor becomes responsible to the
seller on the date of the invoice whether ether or not the buyer makes the payment
to the factor.

4. PROTECTION AGAINST RISK

This service is provided where the debts are factored without recourse. The factor
fixes the credit limits (i.e. the limit up to which the client can sell goods to
customers) in respect of approved customers and factor collect that fixed trade
debt.

The factor not only relieves the client from the collection work And also advises
the client on the creditworthiness of potential customers.

The credit standing of the customer is assessed by the factors on the basis of
information collected from credit rating reports, bank reports, trade reference,
financial statement.

5. Advisory Services

These services arise out of the close relationship between a factor and a client.
Since the factors are better knowledge and wide experience in field of finance, and
possess extensive credit Information about customer's standing, they provide
various advisory services on the matters relating to:

(i) Customer ' s preferences regarding the clients products,

(ii) Changes in marketing policies/ strategies of the competitors.

(iii) Suggest improvements in the procedures adopted for invoicing, delivery and
sales return.

(iv) Helping the client for raising finance from banks/ financial institutions, etc.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
TYPES OF FACTORING

A number of factoring arrangements are possible depending upon the agreement

reached between the selling firm and the factor. The most common feature of
practically all the factoring transactions is collection of receivables and
administration of sale ledger. However, following are some of the important types
of factoring arrangements.

(i). Recourse and Non - recourse Factoring

In a recourse factoring arrangement, the factor has recourse to the client (selling
firm) if the receivables purchased turn out to be bad, i.e. the risk of bad debts is to
be borne by the client and the factor does not assume credit risks associated with
the receivables. Thus the factor acts as an agent for collection of bills and does not
cover the risk of customer 's failure to pay debt or interest on it. The factor has a
right to recover the funds from the seller client in case of such defaults as the seller
takes the risk of credit and creditworthiness of buyer. The factor charges the selling
firm for maintaining the sales ledger and debt collection services and also charges
interest on the amount drawn by client (selling firm) for the period.

Whereas, in case of non - recourse factoring, the risk or loss on account of non -
payment by the customers of the client is to be borne by the factor and he cannot
claim this amount from the selling firm. Since the factor bears the risk of non -
payment, commission or fees charged for the services in case of non - recourse
factoring is higher than under the recourse factoring. The additional fee charged by
the factor for bearing the risk of bad debts/ non - payment on maturity is called Del
credere commission.

(ii) Maturity Factoring

Under this type, the factor does not provide immediate cash payment to the client
at the time of assignment of debts. He undertakes to pay cash as and when
collections are made from the debtors. The entire amount collected less factoring
fees is paid to the client immediately. Hence it is also called
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
collection Factoring '. In fact, under this type, no financing is involved. But all
other services are available.

(iii) Bulk Factoring

Under this type, the factor provides finance after disclosing the fact of assignment
of debts to the debtors concerned. This type of factoring is resorted to when the
factor is not fully satisfied with the financial condition of the client. The work
relating to sales ledger administration, credit control, collection work etc., has to be
done by the client himself. Since the notification has been made, the factor simply
collects the debts on behalf of the client. This is otherwise called as " Disclosed
Factoring " or " Notified Factoring "

(iv) Agency Factoring

The word agency has no meaning as far as factoring is concerned, Under this type,
the factor and the client share the work between themselves as follows:

(i) The client has to look after the sales ledger administration and collection work
and

(ii) The factor has to provide finance and assume the credit risk.

(v) International Factoring

Under this type, the services of a factor in a domestic business are simply extended
to international business. Factoring is done purely the basis of the invoice prepared
by the exporter. Thus, the exporter able to get immediate cash to the extent of 80%
of the export invoice under international factoring. International factoring is
facilitated with the help of export factors and import factors.

(vi) Suppliers Guarantee Factoring

This type of factoring is suitable for business establishments which sell goods
through middlemen Generally goods are sold through wholesalers, retailers or
through middlemen. In such cases, the factor guarantees the supplier of goods
against invoices raised by the supplier upon another supplier. The bills are
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
assigned in favour of the factor who guarantees payment of those bills. This
enables the supplier to earn profits without much financial involvement.

(vii) Limited Factoring

Under this type, the factor does not take up all the invoices of a client. He
discounts only selected invoices on merit basis and converts credit bills into cash in
respect of those bills only.

(ix) Buyer Based Factoring

In most cases, the factor is acting as an agent of the seller. But under this type, the
buyer approaches a factor to discount his bills. Thus, the initiative for factoring
comes from the buyers ' end. The approved buyers of a company approach a factor
for discounting their bills to the company in question. In such cases, the claims on
such buyers are paid by discounting the bills without recourse to the seller and the
seller also gets ready cash. This facility is available only to reputed credit worthy
buyers and hence it is also called selected Buyer Based Factoring,

(x) Seller Based Factoring

Under this type, the seller, instead of discounting his bills, sells all his accounts
receivables to the factor, after invoicing the customers. The seller ' s job is over as
soon as he prepares the invoices. Thereafter, all the documents connected with the
sale are handed over to the factor who takes over the remaining functions. This
facility is extended to reputed and credit worthy sellers and hence it is also called
Selected Seller Based Factoring!
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
LEASING

INTRODUCTION

The main objective of a business is to maximise the owner ' s economic welfare.
The firm makes investments to maximise stockholder’s wealth. After identifying
attractive projects, the firm considers various methods of financing them. In
addition to debt and equity financing, leasing has emerged as a third important
source of intermediate and long - term financing of corporate enterprises during the
recent few decades. It is widely used in western countries to finance investments.
Prior to 1950, leasing was primarily concerned with real estate, i. c. land and
buildings. But today, almost all types of fixed assets can be leased. In India, leasing
is a recent development and equipment leasing was introduced by First Leasing
Company of India Limited in 1973 only. Since then, a number of medium to large -
sized companies, financial institutions like ICICI, IRCI, SICOM and CIC have also
entered the field of leasing.

MEANING

Leasing is an arrangement that provides a firm with the use and control over assets
without buying and owning the same. It is a form of renting assets. Lease is a
contract between the owner of the asset (lessor) and the user of the asset called the
lesser, whereby the lessor gives the right to use the asset to the lessee over an
agreed period of time for a consideration called the lease rental. The lease contract
is regulated by the terms and conditions of the agreement. The lessee pays the lease
Tent periodically to the lessor as regular fixed payments over a period of time. The
rentals may be payable at the beginning or end of a monthly, quarter, half - year or
year. The lease rentals can also be agreed both in terms of amount and timing as
per the profits and cash flow position of the lessee. At the expiry of the lease
period, the asset reverts back to the lessor who is the legal owner of the asset.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF LEASING

1. No. of Parties to the Contract. There are always two parties to a contract of
lease financing

(a) The user or the lessee (b) The owner or the lessor

2. Asset. The subject matter of a lease financing contract may be an asset, property
equipment e.g. plant and machinery, land and building etc.

3. Consideration. The right to use an asset is given to lessee for a consideration

called lease rental. Lease rent is determined by the lessor taking into consideration
the capital invested in the asset, depreciation, interest on capital, repairs etc.

4. Lease Period. A contract of leasing is usually undertaken for a fixed period (no.
of years). It may sometimes spread over the entire economic/ useful life of the
asset. At the expiry of the lease period, the asset reverts back to the lesser who is
the legal owner of the asset.

5. Use VIS. Ownership. During the term of lease, ownership of the asset remains
with the lessor where as the possession of asset lies with the lessee. He is allowed
to use the asset during the tenure of lease agreement.

Types of Leasing

1. Operating Leasing

2. Financial Leasing
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
OPERATING OR SERVICE LEASE

An operating lease is usually characterised by the following features:

(i) It is a short - term lease on a period to period basis. The lease period in such a
contract is less than the useful life of the asset.

(ii) The lease is usually cancellable at short - notice by the lessee.

(iii) As the period of an operating lease is less than the useful life of the asset, it
does not necessarily amortize the original cost of the asset. The lessor has to make
further leases or sell the asset to recover his cost of investment and expected rate of
return.

(iv) The lessee usually has the option of renewing the lease after the expiry of
lease period.

(v) The lessor is generally responsible for maintenance, insurance and taxes of the
asset. He may also provide other services to the lessee.

As it is a short - term cancellable lease, it implies higher risk to the lessor but
higher lease rentals to the lessee Operating or service leasing is common to the
equipment which require expert technical stat for maintenance and are exposed to
technological developments, e.g. computers, vehicles

II. FINANCIAL LEASE

A lease is classified as financial lease if it ensures the term of the lessor for
amortisation of the entire cost of investment plus the expected return on capital
outlay during the term of the lease. Such a lease is usually for a longer period and
non - cancellable. As a source of funds, the financial leases is an alternative similar
to debt financing. Most of the leases in India are financial leases that are
commonly used for leasing land, building, machinery and fixed equipment.

A financial lease is usually characterised by the following features:

(1) The present value of the total lease rentals payable during the period of the
lease exceeds or is equal to substantially the whole of the fair value of the
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
leased asset. It implies that within the lease period, the lessor recovery his
investment in the asset along with an acceptable rate of return.

(2) As compared to operating lease, a financial lease is for a longer period of time.

(3) It is usually non - cancellable by the lessee prior to its expiration date.

(4) The lessee is generally responsible for the maintenance, insurance and service
of the asset. However, the terms of lease agreement, in some cases. may require the
lessor to maintain and service the asset. Such an arrangement is called '
Maintenance or gross lease’.

(5) A financial lease usually provides the lessee an option of renewing the lease
for further period at a nominal rent.

Forms of Financial Lease arrangements:

The following are the important forms of financial lease arrangements:

(i) Sale and Leaseback. A sale and leaseback arrangement involves the sale of an
asset already owned by a firm (vendor) and leasing of the same asset back to the
vendor from the buyer.

This form of lease arrangement enables a firm to receive cash from the sale of asset
and also retain the economic use of the asset in consideration of periodic lease
payments. A sale and leaseback arrangement is generally preferred by firms facing
shortage of working capital funds. The lessors engaged in sale and lease back
include insurance companies, pension funds, private finance companies and
financial institutions.

(ii) Direct Leasing. In contrast with sale and leaseback, under direct leasing a
firm acquires the use of an asset that it does not already man. A direct lease may be
arranged either the manufacturer supplier directly or through the leasing company.

In the first case, the manufacturer/ supplier himself acts as the lessor while in the
second case the lessee firm arranges the purchase of the asset for the
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
leasing company (lessor) from the manufacturer or the supplier and also enters into
an agreement with the lessor for the lease of on the asset.

(iii) Leveraged Lease. A leveraged lease is an arrangement under which the

lessor borrows funds for purchasing the asset, from a third party called lender
which is usually a bank, finance company. The loan is usually secured by the
mortgage of the asset and the lease rentals to be received from the lessee. The loan
is paid back out of the lease rentals, may be directly by the lessee by paying only
the excess amounts to the lessor. The lessor acts as the owner as well as the
borrower and the lender is usually a bank insurance company financial institution
or a private financing company.

(iv)Straight Lease and Modified Lease. Straight lease requires the lessee firm to
pay lease rentals over the expected service life of the asset and does not provide for
any modifications to the terms and conditions of the basic lease.

Modified lease, on the other hand, provides several options to the lessee during the
lease period. For example, the option of terminating the lease may be provided by
either purchasing the asset or returning the same.

(v) Primary and Secondary Lease (Front - ended and Back - ended Lease).
Under primary and secondary lease, the lease rentals are charged in such a manner
that the lesser recovers the cost of the asset and acceptable profit during the initial
period of the lease and then a secondary lease is provided at nominal rentals. In
simple words, the rentals charged in the primary period are much more than that of
the secondary period. This form of lease arrangement is also known as front -
ended and back - ended lease.

OTHER TYPES OF LEASES

(1) Floating Rental Rate Lease Contracts. Frequent changes in the interest rates
in the last few years have led to this type of lease contract. Under this type of lease,
lease rentals are reduced or increased according to the borrowing rates by the
lessor. This type of lease contract permits the lessee to undertake the risk and enjoy
the benefits of interest rate variations
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
(2) Domestic Lease and International Lease. When the lessor, lessee and the
equipment supplier involved in the lease contract are resident in the same country,
the lease transaction is said to be domestic lease. When the parties to the lease
contract are residing in different countries it is known as international lease.

It is of two types:

(a) Import Lease. In this type of lease, both the lessor and lessee are residing in
the same country but the equipment supplier belongs to different country. The
lessor first imports the equipment and leases it to the lessee.

(b) Cross Border Lease. When a lessor - leases an equipment to a lessee who is
not falling in the jurisdiction of the lessor ' s country then the lease is known as
cross Border leasing, the domicile of the supplier is immaterial.

(3) Sale - Aid Leasing. Under this type of leasing, a manufacturer directly
extends facility of leasing either by one of his own subsidiaries of through a third
party. The leasing enables a manufacturer to have direct liaison with the customer,
ensure regular updating or replacement of equipment and improve sales position.
The lessee is also at great advantage because he gels asset on monthly payment
basis spread out on a very long period. He gets the asset installed and operational
without incurring capital expenditure.

CONSUMER FINANCE

Consumer Finance/ Consumer Credit includes all asset based financing plans
offered to individuals to help them acquire durable consumer goods. In a consumer
credit transaction the individual/ consumer/ buyer pays a part of the cash purchase
price at the time of the delivery of the asset and pays the balance with interest over
a specified period of time.

IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF CONSUMER FINANCE

Consumer finance plays an important role in the mass production and distribution
of consumer durables such as motorcars, refrigerators, TV sets. radios, typewriters,
sewing machines, electrical Appliances and many other
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
goods. Offering credit is a great convenience to consumers. Further, credit has
come to occupy an important place in the modern competitive market. It is used as
a selling device and also as an ideal method of sale promotion.

Following arguments can be given in favour of consumer of consumer

finance:

(i) Enjoying Possession of Goods. An important benefit of consumer credit is that

it allows people the possession of goods without having to pay for them
immediately. The user does not have to wait and save money for purchasing a
dream product.

(ii) Compulsory Saving. Consumer credit allows for a mechanism of

compulsory saving. This has the effect of inducing people into using their income
more wisely. It promotes thrift among people and enables people with limited
means to acquire goods.

(iii) Easy Mode of Purchase. Consumer credit through the open account
system, offers a convenient mode of acquiring consumer durables.

(iv) To Meet Emergency Needs. Consumer credit is useful in meeting

emergencies, such as illness, accident and death, which involve expected expenses.
This also helps save the esteem of the consumer in dire circumstances.

(v) Maximization of Revenue. Consumer credit facilitates speedy disposal of

goods, which would have remained unsold in the absence of a credit facility to
customers. Credit induces more business. This is quite true with regard to non
- essential or luxury goods, such as motorcars, trucks, refrigerators, typewriters, all
kinds of electrical appliances, TV sets, sewing machines, etc. It is therefore
possible for the manufacturers and dealers to secure ever - increasing sales and
profits through credit sales.

(vi) Realization of Dreams. Consumer credit is a boon for a consumer who can
enjoy the possession of goods without paying for them immediately. The
installments can be conveniently paid, spread over a fixed future period.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
Consumers are in a position to budget for the purchase of even expensive capital
items out of their regular, fixed and limited income .

1. AUTOMOBILE FINANCE (VEHICLE FINANCE)

The changing paradigm of society and further in this era of fast life every one
wants to own a vehicle of his own. Thus, auto loans have become a need of the
hour because the people who do ne have sufficient funds prefer to buy today and
pay tomorrow Under the banks auto loan scheme the is a vehicle loan for every
classic 2 wheeler ' s loan, 2nd hand car loans, new car loan. The market auto loans
is large and lot of opportunity exists there for the banks and other finance
companies who by adopting customer friendly policies and mass advertising can
surely make auto loan schemes a success.

Eligibility. Auto loan facility is extended to

(i) Permanent employees of government, public/ private sector with minimum of 3

years’ service.

(ii) Professionals and self-employed such as doctors, CAs, Company Secretaries,

engineers architects and MBAs etc.

(iii) Persons engaged in agricultural and allied activities.

Purpose. Auto loans are extended for the purchase of vehicle both for personal and
professional.

Type of loan. Finance is provided in form of term loans extending for a period
from 1 to 5 years.

Rate of Interest. The rate of interest varies from bank to bank.

Security. All the banks ask for hypothecation of the financed automobile.

Insurance. All vehicles are insured. A comprehensive insurance policy is taken for
market value or 10 % above the loan amount whichever is higher. Bank ' s interest
is noted in policy.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
Processing Charges. Most of the banks do not charge any processing fee, or 250 to
500 may be collected as one time fee from the customers.

Price Discounts. Some banks offer various discounts to its customers in the form of
any of the

following:

(a) Volume discount of 0. 5 % is offered to customers taking a loan for more than
one car or an existing auto loan customer availing another loan subject loan. to
satisfactory conduct of earlier

(b) Relationship discount of 1. 0 % may be offered to applicant maintaining

current account or saving bank account satisfactory for atleast 3 months, customer
having an equivalent amount of FD with lien marked to bank and applicant
maintaining satisfactory working capital or term loan account.

(c) Good Credit Discount of 1. 0 % may be offered to credit card holders

maintaining satisfactory account for a minimum period of 12 months with no
adverse credit card history, and customers repaying previous car loans/ 2 wheelers
loans in time

(d) Income discount of 1. 0 % is offered to those applicants whose income

exceeds certain limit

For example, Bank of Punjab has limits:

Rs 1, 00, 000 for a standard segment car loan

Rs 1, 20, 000 for a middle segment car loan Rs

140, 000 for a premium segment car loan

(e) Professional discount of 10 % is offered to doctors. CAs and lecturers

 INDIAN FINANCIAL
UNIT-4 REGULATORY
INSTITUTIONS

Reserve Bank of India

Establishment:

The Reserve Bank of India was established in 1935 under the provisions of
the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 in Calcutta, eventually moved permanently to
Mumbai. Though originally privately owned, was nationalized in 1949.

Organisation and Management:

The Reserve Bank’s affairs are governed by a central board of directors. The
board is appointed by the Government of India for a period of four years, under
the Reserve Bank of India Act.

(i) Full-time officials : Governor and not more than four Deputy Governors.
The current Governor of RBI is Mr. Urjit Pattel. There are 3
Deputy Governors presently – B P Kanungo, N S Vishwanathan and Viral V
Acharya.

● Nominated by Government: ten Directors from various fields and two

government Officials

● Others: four Directors – one each from four local boards.

Let us make in-depth study of the functions and promotional roles of

Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

Functions:

The Reserve Bank of India is performing various functions related to monetary

management, banking operations, foreign exchange, developmental works and
research on problems of economy.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
The following are some of the major functions normally performed by the
Reserve Bank of India:

1. Note Issue:

Being the Central Bank of the country, the RBI is entrusted with the sole authority
to issue currency notes after keeping certain minimum reserve consisting of gold
reserve worth Rs. 115 crore and foreign exchange worth Rs. 85 crore. This
provision was later amended and simplified.

2. Banker to the Government:

The RBI is working as banker of the government and therefore all funds of both
Central and State Governments are kept with it. It acts as an agent of the
government and manages its public debt. RBI also offering “ways and means
advance” to the government for short periods.

3. Banker’s Bank:

The RBI is also working as the banker of other banks working in the country. It
regulates the whole banking system of the country, keep certain percentage of their
deposits as minimum reserve, works as the lender of the last resort to its scheduled
banks and operates clearing houses for all other banks.

4. Credit Control:

The RBI is entrusted with the sole authority to control credit created by the
commercial banks by applying both quantitative and qualitative credit control
measures like variation in bank rate, open market operation, selective credit
controls etc.

5. Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves:

The RBI is entrusted with sole authority to determine the exchange rate between
rupee and other foreign currencies and also to maintain the reserve of foreign
exchange earned by the Government. The RBI also maintains its relation with
International Monetary Fund (IMF).
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
6. Developmental Functions:

The RBI is also working as a development agency by developing various sister

organisations like Agricultural Refinance Development Corporation. Industrial
Development Bank of India etc. for rendering agricultural credit and industrial
credit in the country.

On July 12, 1986, NABARD was established and has taken over the entire
responsibility of ARDC. Half of the share capital of NABARD (Rs. 100 crore) has
been provided by the Reserve Bank of India. Thus, the Reserve Bank is performing
a useful function for controlling and managing the entire banking, monetary and
financial system of the country.

Regulatory and Promotional Roles of Reserve Bank of India:

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has been playing an important role in the
economy of the country both in its regulatory and promotional aspects. Since the
inception of planning in 1951, the developmental activities are gaining momentum
in the country. Accordingly, more and more responsibilities have been entrusted
with the RBI both in the regulatory and promotional area. Now-a-days, the RBI has
been performing a wide range of regulatory and promotional functions in the
country.

The following are some of the regulatory and promotional functions

performed by the RBI:

1. Regulating the Volume of Currency:

The RBI is performing the regulatory role in issuing and controlling the entire
volume of currency in the country through its Issue Department. While regulating
the volume of currency the RBI is giving priority on the demand for currency and
the stability of the economy equally.

2. Regulating Credit:

The RBI is also performing the role to control the credit money created by the
commercial banks through its qualitative and quantitative methods of credit control
and thereby maintains a balance in the money supply of the country.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
3. Control over Commercial Banks:

Another regulatory role performed by the RBI is to have control over the
functioning of the commercial banks. It also enforces certain prudential norms and
rational banking principles to be followed by the commercial banks.

4. Determining the Monetary and Credit Policy:

The RBI has been formulating the monetary and credit policy of the country every
year and thereby it controls the Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR), Cash Reserve
Ratio (CRR), bank rate, interest rate, credit to priority sectors etc.

5. Mobilizing Savings:

The RBI is playing a vital promotional role to mobilize savings through its member
commercial banks and other financial institutions. RBI is also guiding the
commercial banks to extend their banking network in the unbanked rural and semi-
urban areas and also to develop banking habits among the people. All these have
led to the attainment of greater degree of monetization of the economy and has
been able to reduce the activities of indigenous bankers and private moneylenders.

6. Institutional Credit to Agriculture:

The RBI has been trying to increase the flow of institutional credit to agriculture
from the very beginning. Keeping this objective in mind, the RBI set up ARDC in
1963 for meeting the long term credit requirement of rural areas. Later on in July
1982, the RBI set up NABARD and merged ARDC with it to look after its
agricultural credit functions.

7. Specialized Financial Institutions:

The RBI has also been playing an important promotional role for setting
specialized financial institutions for meeting the long term credit needs of large and
small scale industries and other sectors. Accordingly, the RBI has promoted the
development of various financial institutions like, WCI, 1DBI, ICICI, SIDBI,
SFCs, Exim Bank etc. which are making a significant contribution to industry and
trade of the country.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
8. Security to Depositors:

In order to remove the major hindrance to the deposit mobilization arising out of
frequent bank failures, the RBI took major initiative to set up the Deposit Insurance
Corporation of India in 1962. The most important objective of this corporation is to
provide security to the depositors against such failures.

9. Advisory Functions:

The RBI is also providing advisory functions to both the Central and State
Governments on both financial matters and also on general economic problems.

10. Policy Support:

The RBI is also providing active policy support to the government through its
investigation research on serious economic problems and issues of the country and
thereby helps the Government to formulate its economic policies in a most rational
manner. Thus, it is observed that the RBI has been playing a dynamic role in the
economic development process of the country through its regulatory and
promotional framework.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE BOARD OF INDIA (SEBI)

Under these circumstances, the government felt the need for setting up of an apex
body to develop and regulate the stock market in India Eventually, the Securities
and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Was set on April 12, 1998. To start with,
SEBI was set up as a non - statutory body.

It took almost four years for the government to bring about a separate legislation
in the name of Securities and Exchange Board of India Act 1992 conferring
statutory powers. The Act, charged to SEBI with comprehensive powers over
practically all aspects of capital market operations.

Objectives of SEBI

According to the preamble of the SEBI Act, the primary objective of the SEBI is to
promote healthy and orderly growth of the securities market and secure investor
protection. For this purpose, the SEBI monitor the activities of not only stock
exchanges but also merchant bankers etc. The objectives of SEBI are as follows:

1. To protect the interest of investors so that there is a steady flow of savings into
the capital market.

2. To regulate the securities market and ensure fair practices by the issuers of
securities so that they can raise resources at minimum cost.

3. To promote efficient services by brokers, merchant bankers and other

intermediaries so that they become competitive and professional.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
Functions of SEBI

Section 11 of the SEBI Act specifies the functions as follows:

1. Regulatory Functions:

(a) Regulation of stock exchange and self regulatory organisations.

(b) Registration and regulation of stock brokers, sub - brokers, registrar to all
issue, merchant bankers, underwriters, portfolio managers and such other
intermediaries who are associated with securities market.

(c) Registration and regulation of the working of collective investment schemes

including mutual funds.

(e) Prohibit insider trading in securities.

(f) Regulating substantial acquisitions of shares and take over of companies

2. Developmental Functions:

(a) Promote investor ' s education.

(b) Training of intermediaries

(c) Conducting research and published information useful to all market

participants.

(d) Promotion of fair practices. Code of conduct for self regulatory organisations.

(e) Promoting self regulatory organisations.

Powers of SEBI

SEBI has been vested with the following powers:

1. Power to call periodical returns from recognised stock exchanges.

2. Power to call any information or explanation from recognised stock exchanges

or their members.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
3. Power to direct enquiries to be made in relation to affairs of stock exchanges or
their members.

4. Power to grant approval to bye - laws of recognised stock exchanges.

5. Power to make or amend bye - laws of recognised stock exchanges.

6. Power to compel listing of securities by public companies.

7. Power to control and regulate stock exchanges.

8. Power to grant registration to market intermediaries.

9. Power to levy fees or other charges for carrying out the purpose of regulation

10. Power to declare applicability of Section 17 of the Securities Contract

(Regulation) Act is any state or area to grant licences to dealers in securities.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
UNIT-5 MUTUAL FUNDS AND VENTURE

CAPITAL MUTUAL FUND

Mutual funds have become a hot favourite of millions of people all over the world.
The driving force of mutual funds is the ‘safety of the principal’ guaranteed, plus
the added advantage of capital appreciation together with the income earned in the
form of interest or dividend. People prefer mutual funds to bank deposits, life
insurance and even bonds because with a little money, they can get into the
investment game.

What is Mutual Fund

To state in simple words, a mutual fund collects the savings from small investors,
invest them in Government and other corporate securities and earn income through
interest and dividends, besides capital gain.

IMPORTENCE OF MUTUAL FUNDS

(i) DIVERSIFICATION:

A large number of investors have small savings with them. They can at the most
buy shares of one or two companies. When small savings are pooled and entrusted
to mutual funds then these can be used to buy shares of many different companies.
Thus, investors can participate in a large basket of shares of different companies.

(ii) Liquidity

A peculiar advantage of a mutual fund is that investment made in its schemes Can
be converted back into cash promptly without heavy expenditure on brokerage,
delays, etc. According to the regulations of SEBI, a mutual fund in India is
required to ensure liquidity. For open ended schemes, the investor can always
approach the Mutual Fund to repurchase units at declared het assets value ' (NAV).
In case of close can easily be sold in the stock market. ended schemes, units
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
(iii) Reduced Risk.

As mutual funds invest in large number of companies and are managed

professionally, the risk factor of the investor is reduced. A small investor, on the
other hand, may not be in a position to minimise such risks.

(iv) Tax advantage. There are certain schemes of mutual funds which provide
lax advantage under the Income Tax Act. Thus, the tax liability of an investor is
also reduced when he invests in these schemes of the mutual funds.

(v) Low Operating costs.

Mutual funds have large investible funds at their disposal and thus can avail
economics of large scale. This reduces their operating costs by way of brokerage,
fees, commission etc. Thus, a small investor also gets the benefit of large scale
economies and low operating costs.

(vi) Flexibility.

Mutual funds provide flexible investment plans to its subscribers such as, regular
investment plans, regular withdrawal plans and dividend reinvestment plans, etc.
Thus, an investor can invest or withdraw funds according to his own requirements,

(vii) Higher Returns.

Mutual funds are expected to provide higher return to the investors as compared to
direct investment because of professional management, economies of scale,
reduced risk, etc.

(viii) Investor Protection.

Mutual funds are regulated and monitored by the Securities and Exchange Board
of India (SEBI). The SEBI Mutual Funds) Regulations, 1996 which have replaced
the regulations of 1993, provide better protection to the investors, impart a greater
degree of flexibility and facilitate competition
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
TYPES OF MUTUAL FUNDS

(A) Close - ended Funds

Under this scheme, the corpus of the fund and its duration are prefixed. In other
words, the corpus of the fund and the number of units are determined in advance.
Once the subscription reaches the pre - determined level, the entry of investors is
closed. After the expiry of the fixed period, the entire corpus is disinvested and the
proceeds are distributed to the various unit holders in proportion to their holding.
Thus, the fund ceases to be a fund, after the final distribution.

Features: The main features of the close - ended funds are:

(i) The period and/ or the target amount of the fund is definite and fixed
beforehand.

(ii) Once the period is over and/ or the target is reached, the door is closed for the
investors. They cannot purchase any more units.

(iii) These units are publicly traded through stock exchange and generally, there is
no repurchase facility by the fund.

(iv) The main objective of this fund is capital appreciation.

(B) Open - ended Funds

It is just the opposite of close - ended funds. Under this scheme, the size of the
fund and/ or the period of the fund is not pre - determined. The investors are free to
buy and sell any number of units at any point of time. Anybody can buy this unit at
any time and sell it also at any time at his discretion.

The Main Features of the Open - Ended Funds are:

(i) There is complete flexibility with regard to one’s investment or disinvestment.

In other words, there is free entry and exit of investors in an open - ended fund.
There is no time limit. The investor can join in and come out from the Fund as and
when he desires.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
(ii) These units are not publicly traded but, the Fund is ready to repurchase them
and resell them at any time.

(iii) The investor is offered instant liquidity in the sense that the units can be sold
on any working day to the Fund.

(iv) The main objective of this fund is income generation. The investors get
dividend, rights or bonuses as rewards for their investment.

(v) Since the units are not listed on the stock market, their prices are linked to the
Net Asset Value (NAV) of the units. The NAV is determined by the Fund and it
varies from time to time.

On the Basis of Income

A) Income Funds: As the very name suggests, this Fund aims at Generating and
distributing regular income to the members on a return is higher than periodical
basis. It concentrates more on the distribution that of income and it also sees that
the average the income from bank deposits.

The main features of the Income Funds are

(i) The investor is assured of regular income at periodic intervals. say half - yearly
or yearly and so on.

(ii) The main objective of this type of Fund is to declare regular dividends and not
capital appreciation.

(iii) The pattern of investment is oriented towards high and fixed income yielding
securities like debentures, bonds etc.

(iv) This is best suited to the old and retired people who may not have any regular
income.

(v) Il concerns itself with short run gains only.

 INDIAN FINANCIAL
(B) Pure Growth Funds (Growth Oriented Funds). Unlike the Income

Funds, Growth Funds concentrate mainly on long run gains i.e. capital
appreciation. They do not offer regular income and they aim at capital appreciation
in the long run. Hence, they have been described as " Nest Eggs " investments.

The Main features of the Growth Funds are.

(i) The growth oriented Fund aims at meeting the investors ' need for capital
appreciation.

(ii) The investment strategy therefore, conforms to the Fund objective by investing
the funds predominantly on equities with high growth potential.

(iii) The Fund tries to get capital appreciation by taking much risks and investing
on risk bearing equities and high growth equity shares.

(iv) The fund may declare dividend, but its principal objective is only capital
appreciation.

(v) This is best suited to salaried and business people who have high risk bearing
capacity and ability to defer liquidity. They can accumulate wealth for future
needs.

(C) Balanced Funds: This is otherwise called " income - cum - growth " fund/. It
is nothing but a combination of both income and growth funds. It aims at
distributing regular income as well as capital appreciation This is achieved by
balancing the investments between the high growth equity shares and also the fixed
income earning securities.

(D) Specialised Funds: These funds invest in a particular type of securities, these
funds may specialise in securities of companies dealing in a particular product,
firms in a particular industry or of certain income producing securities. Ant
investor wanting to invest in a particular security will prefer a fund dealing in such
securities.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
(E) Money - Market Mutual Funds (MMMFs): These funds are basically open
ended mutual Funds and as such they have all the features of the Open ended Fund.
But, they invest in highly liquid and safe securities like commercial paper, banker '
s acceptances, certificates of deposits, Treasury bills etc. These instruments are
called money market instruments. They take the place of shares, debentures and
bonds in a capital market. They pay money market rates of interest.

(F) Taxation Funds: A taxation fund is basically a growth oriented fund. But, it
offers tax rebates to the investors either in the domestic or foreign capital market. It
is suitable to salaried people who want to enjoy tax rebates particularly during the
month of February and March In India, at present the law relating to tax rebates is
covered under Sec. 88 of the Income Tax Act, 1961. An investor is entitled to get
20 % rebate in Income Tax for investments made under this fund subject to a
maximum investment of Rs. 10, 000/ - per annum.

OTHER CLASSIFICATION

(G) Leveraged Funds: These funds are also called borrowed funds since they are
used primarily to increase the size of the value of portfolio of a mutual fund. When
the value increases, the earning capacity of the fund also increases. The gains are
distributed to the unit holders, This is resorted to only when the gains from the
borrowed funds are more than the cost of borrowed funds.

(H) Dual Funds: This is a special kind of closed end fund. It provides a single
investment opportunity for two different types of investors. For this purpose, it
sells two types of investment stocks viz., income shares and capital shares. Those
investors who seek current investment income can purchase income shares. They
receive all the interest and dividends earned from the entire investment portfolio.
However, they are guaranteed a minimum annual dividend payment. The holders
of capital shares receive all the capital gains earned on those shares and they are
not entitled to receive any dividend of any type. In this respect, the dual fund is
different from a balanced fund.
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
(I) Index Funds: Index funds refer to those funds where the portfolios are
designed in such a way that they reflect the composition of some broad based
market index. This is done by holding securities in the same proportion as the
index itself. The value of these index linked funds will automatically go up
whenever the market index goes up and vice versa.

(J) Bond Funds: These funds have portfolios consisting mainly of fixed income
securities like bonds. The main thrust of these funds is mostly on income rather
than capital gains. They differ from income funds in the sense income funds offer
an average returns higher than that from bank deposits and also capital gains lesser
than in equity shares.

VENTURE

CAPITAL CONCEPT OF VENTURE CAPITAL

The term ' Venture Capital ' is understood in many ways. In a narrow sense, if
refers to investment in new and tried enterprises that that are lacking a stable
record of growth.

In a broader sense, venture capital refers to the commitment of capital as

shareholding, for the formulation and setting up of small firm specialising in new
ideas or new technologies. It is not merely an injection of funds into a new firm, it
is a simultaneous input of skill needed to set up the firm, design its marketing
strategy and organise and manage it. It is an association with successive stages of
firm ' s development with distinctive types of financing appropriate to each stage of
development.

Meaning of Venture Capital

Venture capital is long term risk capital to finance high technology projects which
involve risk but at the same time has strong potential for growth. Venture capitalist
pool their resources including managerial abilities to assist new entrepreneurs in
the Early years of the project. Once the project reaches the stage of profitability,
they sell their equity holdings at high premium.

Definition of a Venture Capital Company

 INDIAN FINANCIAL
A venture capital company is defined as " a financing institution which joins an
entrepreneur as a co - promoter in a project and shares the risks and rewards of the
enterprise. "

Features of Venture Capital

Some of the features of venture capital financing are as under:

1. Venture capital is usually in the form of an equity participation. It may also

take the form of convertible debt or long term loan.

2. Investment is made not only in high risk but also in high growth potential
projects.

3. Venture capital is available only for commercialisation of new ideas or new

technologies and not for enterprises which are engaged in trading, booking,
financial services, agency, liaison work or research and development.

4. Venture capitalist joins the entrepreneur as a co - promoter in projects and

share the risks and rewards of the enterprise.

5. There is continuous involvement in business after making an investment by the

investor.

6. Once the venture has reached the full potential the venture capitalist disinvests
his holdings either to the promoters or in the market. The basic objective of
investment is not profit but capital appreciation at the time of disinvestment.

SCOPE OF VENTURE CAPITAL/ STAGES/TYPES OF VENTURE

CAPITAL

Venture capital may take various forms at different stages of the project. There are
four successive stages of development of a project viz.

Development of a project idea, Implementation of the idea, commercial production

and marketing and finally large scale investment to exploit the economics of scale
and achieve stability. Financial institutions and banks usually start financing the
project only at the second and third stage but rarely
 INDIAN FINANCIAL
from the first stage. But venture capitalist provide finance even from the first stage
of idea formulation.

The various stages in the financing of Venture Capital are described below:

1. Development Of An Idea- Seed Finance

In the initial stage venture capitalist provide seed capital for translating an idea into
business proposition. At this stage investigation is made indepth which normally
takes a year or more.

2. Implementation Stage - Start up Finance:

When the firm is set up to manufacture a product or provide a service, start up

finance is provided by the venture capitalists. The first and second stage capital is
used for full scale manufacturing and further business growth.

3. Fledging Stage - Additional Finance:

In the third stage firm has made some headway and entered the stage of
manufacturing product but faces teething problems. It may not be able to generate
adequate funds and so additional round of financing is provided to develop the
marketing infrastructure.

4. Establishment Stage. Establishment Finance:

At this stage the firm is established in the market and expected to expand at a rapid
pace. It needs further financing for expansion and diversification so that is can reap
economics of scale and attain stability. At the end of the establishment stage, the
firm is listed on the stock exchange and at this point the venture capitalist
disinvests their shareholdings through available exist routes.