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Chapter 10
File I/O

◼ Multiple Choice
1) An ___________ allows data to flow into your program.
(a) input stream
(b) output stream
(c) file name
(d) all of the above
Answer: A

2) An ____________ allows data to flow from your program.

(a) input stream
(b) output stream
(c) file name
(d) all of the above
Answer: B

3) Files whose contents must be handled as sequences of binary digits are called:
(a) text files
(b) ASCII files
(c) binary files
(d) output files
Answer: C

4) The output stream connected to the computer screen is:

(a) System.exit
(b) System.quit
(c) System.in
(d) System.out
Answer: D

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.

1
2 Walter Savitch • Absolute Java 5/e Chapter 10 Test Bank

5) In Java, when you open a text file you should account for a possible:
(a) FileNotFoundException
(b) FileFullException
(c) FileNotReadyException
(d) all of the above
Answer: A

6) There are two common classes used for reading from a text file. They are:
(a) PrintWriter and BufferedReader
(b) FileInputStream and Scanner
(c) BufferedReader and Scanner
(d) None of the above
Answer: C

7) The scanner class has a series of methods that checks to see if there is any more well-formed input
of the appropriate type. These methods are called __________ methods:
(a) nextToken
(b) hasNext
(c) getNext
(d) testNext
Answer: B

8) All of the following are methods of the Scanner class except:

(a) nextFloat()
(b) next()
(c) useDelimiter()
(d) readLine()
Answer: D

9) The method _________ reads a single character from an input stream.

(a) readLine()
(b) skip()
(c) read()
(d) close()
Answer: C

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 Chapter 10 File I/O 3

10) When the method readLine() tries to read beyond the end of a file, it returns the value of:
(a) 1
(b) -1
(c) null
(d) none of the above
Answer: C

11) A __________ path name gives the path to a file, starting with the directory that the program is in.
(a) relative
(b) descendant
(c) full
(d) complete
Answer: A

12) The stream that is automatically available to your Java code is:
(a) System.out
(b) System.in
(c) System.err
(d) all of the above
Answer: D

13) All of the following are methods of the File class except:
(a) exists()
(b) delete()
(c) getDirectory()
(d) getName()
Answer: C

14) The class ObjectOutputStream contains all of the following methods except:
(a) writeInt()
(b) writeChar()
(c) writeDouble()
(d) println()
Answer: D

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
4 Walter Savitch • Absolute Java 5/e Chapter 10 Test Bank

15) The method __________ from the File class forces a physical write to the file of any data that is
buffered.
(a) close()
(b) flush()
(c) writeUTF()
(d) writeObject()
Answer: B

16) The class ObjectInputStream contains all of the following methods except:
(a) readLine()
(b) readChar()
(c) readObject()
(d) readInt()
Answer: A

17) The read() method of the class RandomAccessFile returns the type:
(a) byte
(b) int
(c) char
(d) double
Answer: B

◼ True/False
1) A stream is an object that allows for the flow of data between your program and some I/O device or
some file.
Answer: True

2) Every input file and every output file used by your program has only one name which is the same
name used by the operating system.
Answer: False

3) The FileNotFoundException is a descendant of the class IOException.

Answer: True

4) When your program is finished writing to a file, it should close the stream connected to that file.
Answer: True

5) Only the classes provided for file output contain a method named close.
Answer: False

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 Chapter 10 File I/O 5

6) The methods of the scanner class do not behave the same when reading from a text file as they do
when used to read from the keyboard.
Answer: False

7) Using BufferedReader to read integers from a file requires the String input to be parsed to an integer
type.
Answer: True

8) A full path name gives a complete path name, starting from the directory the program is in.
Answer: False

9) The File class contains methods that allow you to check various properties of a file.
Answer: True

10) Binary files store data in the same format that is used by any common text editor.
Answer: False

11) Binary files can be handled more efficiently than text files.
Answer: True

12) The preferred stream classes for processing binary files are ObjectInputStream and
ObjectOutputStream.
Answer: True

◼ Short Answer/Essay
1) Explain the differences between a text file, an ASCII file and a binary file.
Answer: Text files are files that appear to contain sequences of characters when viewed in a text
editor or read by a program. Text files are sometimes also called ASCII files because they contain
data encoded using a scheme known as ASCII coding. Files whose contents must be handled as
sequences of binary digits are called binary files.

2) Write a Java statement to create and open an output stream to a file named autos.txt.
Answer: PrintWriter outputStream = new PrintWriter(new FileOutputStream("autos.txt"));

3) Explain what happens when an output file is opened in Java.

Answer: In Java, when an output stream is connected to a file, the program always starts with an
empty file. If the file you are trying to connect to exists, the contents of the file are deleted before
the output stream writes new data to the file. If the file you are trying to connect to does not exist,
then a new empty file is created.

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
6 Walter Savitch • Absolute Java 5/e Chapter 10 Test Bank

4) Write a Java method that returns a String representing a file name entered by the user. Use the
BufferedReader class to obtain input.
Answer:

public static String getFileName() throws IOException

BufferedReader stdin = new BufferedReader(new

InputStreamReader(System.in));

System.out.print("Enter the name of the file to open: ");

String fileName = stdin.readLine();

return fileName.trim();

5) Use the output stream to the file autos.txt created above in number 2 to write the line “Mercedes” to
the file.
Answer: outputStream.println("Mercedes");

6) What happens when the method close is invoked on a stream?

Answer: When the close method is invoked, the system releases any resources used to connect the
stream to the file and does any other housekeeping that is needed.

7) Create try and catch block that opens a file named statistics.txt for output. Writes the integers 24,
55, and 76 to the file, and then closes the file.
Answer:

PrintWriter outputStream = null;

try

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 Chapter 10 File I/O 7

outputStream = new PrintWriter(new

FileOutputStream("statistics.txt"));

outputStream.println(24);

outputStream.println(55);

outputStream.println(76);

outputStream.close();

catch(FileNotFoundException e)

System.out.println("Error opening the file autos.txt");

System.exit(0);

8) Write a Java statement that creates an output stream to append data to a file named autos.txt.
Answer: PrintWriter outputStream = new PrintWriter(new FileOutputStream("autos.txt", true));

9) Write a Java statement to create an input stream to a file named autos.txt. Use the BufferedReader
class.
Answer: BufferedReader inputStream = new BufferedReader(new FileReader("autos.txt"));

10) Write a complete Java program using a BufferedReader object that opens a file named autos.txt and
displays each line to the screen.
Answer:

import java.io.BufferedReader;

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
8 Walter Savitch • Absolute Java 5/e Chapter 10 Test Bank

import java.io.FileReader;

import java.io.FileNotFoundException;

import java.io.IOException;

public class TextDemo

public static void main(String args[])

BufferedReader inputStream = null;

try

inputStream = new BufferedReader(new FileReader("autos.txt"));

String line = inputStream.readLine();

while(line != null)

System.out.println(line);

line = inputStream.readLine();

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 Chapter 10 File I/O 9

inputStream.close();

catch(FileNotFoundException e)

System.out.println("Error opening files.");

catch(IOException e)

System.out.println("Error reading from file.");

11) Write a Java statement that creates an output stream to a binary file named statistics.dat.
Answer:

ObjectOutputStream outputStream =

new ObjectOutputStream(new FileOutputStream("statistics.dat"));

12) Use the output stream created in number 11 above to write the String BBC to the file named
statistics.dat.
Answer: outputStream.writeUTF("BBC");

13) Write a Java statement to create an input stream to the binary file statistics.dat.
Answer:

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
10 Walter Savitch • Absolute Java 5/e Chapter 10 Test Bank

ObjectInputStream inputStream =

new ObjectInputStream(new FileInputStream("statistics.dat"));

14) Write a complete Java program that opens a binary file containing integers and displays the contents
to the screen.
Answer:

import java.io.ObjectInputStream;

import java.io.FileInputStream;

import java.io.EOFException;

import java.io.IOException;

import java.io.FileNotFoundException;

public class BinaryInputDemo

public static void main(String args[])

try

ObjectInputStream inputStream =

new ObjectInputStream(new

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 Chapter 10 File I/O 11

FileInputStream("statistics.dat"));

int stat = 0;

try

while(true)

stat = inputStream.readInt();

System.out.println(stat);

catch(EOFException e)

System.out.println("End of file encountered");

inputStream.close();

catch(FileNotFoundException e)

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
12 Walter Savitch • Absolute Java 5/e Chapter 10 Test Bank

System.out.println("Unable to locate file");

catch(IOException e)

System.out.println("Unable to read file");

15) Write a Java statement that creates a stream that provides read/write access to the file named
autos.txt.
Answer: RandomAccessFile ioStream = new RandomAccessFile("autos.txt", "rw");

16) Write a Java statement to create an input stream to a file named “statistics.dat”.
Answer: Scanner inputStream = new Scanner(new FileReader("statistics.dat"));

17) Write a complete Java program using a Scanner object that opens a file named autos.txt and displays
each line to the screen.
Answer:

import java.util.*;

import java.io.FileReader;

import java.io.FileNotFoundException;

public class TextDemo

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
 Chapter 10 File I/O 13

public static void main(String args[])

Scanner inputStream = null;

try

inputStream = new Scanner(new FileReader("autos.txt"));

String line = inputStream.nextLine();

while(line != null)

System.out.println(line);

line = inputStream.nextLine();

inputStream.close();

catch(FileNotFoundException e)

System.out.println("Error opening files.");

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
14 Walter Savitch • Absolute Java 5/e Chapter 10 Test Bank

©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
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A shearer who could not practise his business without badly cutting the
sheep would soon be discharged as incompetent. The poor animals have
to put up with a few scratches and cuts, but it is seldom that one is
severely injured. The amount of wool and mutton sent out from these
sheep ranches is almost incredible. An especially fine quality of wool is
produced on the great ranches of Patagonia, one of which is larger than
the state of Rhode Island.

A HERD OF HALF-WILD HORSES

Horses are also raised in great numbers in Argentina. One who sees
the fine draught horses in Buenos Aires need not be told that Argentine
horses are of good breed and quality. The average Argentinian thinks
that he knows more about a horse than anything else. Pedigreed
stallions have been imported by the hundreds, and the very best blood
has been brought in. One will find as good horses in Argentina as
anywhere. They are generally well taken care of, too, for lean and
skinny horses are very rare. During the Boer-English war fortunes were
made out of horses, for the British government bought thousands of
head and paid fancy prices. They were beaten, too, in many a bargain
by the shrewd estancieros. Pig breeding has not been developed much
as yet, although considerable stride has been made in some sections,
but the export of pork does not amount to any considerable sum. Great
hopes are, however, entertained by the Argentinians for this industry
also.
All agriculture is on a gigantic scale. The rapid development has been
a surprise to even the most hopeful estanciero. Railways have, in many
instances, been almost unable to cope with some of the crops, and
trains have been run night and day to carry the grain to the exporting
centres. The wheat accumulates at the shipping points until vast stacks
are piled up at the various stations in the wheat lands. One company’s
cars cannot run over another company’s tracks, and this further adds to
the congestion. The wheat is carried to the stations on huge carts with
wheels eight feet high and drawn by from ten to a dozen oxen. A load of
several tons may be balanced between these two lofty wheels. As the
carts move forward they are accompanied by an awful screeching noise
which is ear-splitting. The carter does not care to use grease, as he says
that the noise encourages the oxen. The cry goes up each year for more
labourers to care for the crops, and the need still exists. Because of the
lack of elevators and granaries the grain must be quickly gathered and
threshed. Women and girls, men and boys all work from early morning
until late at night for the few harvest weeks. The grains are generally
more profitable than stock, and in some districts have crowded the latter
out. Corn is one of the most profitable crops at the present time.
 “THE HARVESTING MACHINES ARE USUALLY PROPELLED FROM THE REAR”

During the harvest time the Camp is a busy place. Clouds of dust all
over the horizon denote activity in the grain fields. Managers and
overseers are kept busy riding from one group to another. Thousands of
Italians come over for the harvests and then return to their native land.
The harvesting machines are usually propelled from the rear, either by
steam power or animals. Attached to the side of the “strippers,” which
simply cut off the heads of the grain, is a large harvest cart into which
the grain drops. Four roads will be cut from a central point at right
angles to each other, which run to the outer edge of the wheat field. In
the central point the oblong stacks are formed. By this system the fields
of golden grain rapidly disappear before the onslaughts of the cutting
machines.
Thirty years ago Argentina was a wheat-importing nation. Some of the
knowing ones said wheat could not be successfully grown on the
pampas. Since then the grain-producing area has been increased each
year and the beginning of the end is not yet in sight. At first it was
thought that only the land between the Paraná and Uruguay Rivers was
available, but now it has spread south into Patagonia and west to the
Andes. The available wheat land has been estimated at more than
200,000,000 acres, of which only a small per cent. is at present under
cultivation. This wheat land is mostly a rich black loam, from a few
inches to three feet or more deep, surmounting a subsoil of clay.
There are few rivers or lakes on the Camp and there is little surface
water. The old-fashioned wells sunk very deep in the ground, in which
the buckets are raised by horse power, are still quite common. Windmills
of American make add a picturesqueness to the landscape. Ponds are
banked up into which the water is pumped, and from them the troughs
are filled. These wells seldom go dry even in the severe drouths in that
land.
The midday siesta is almost universal in the Camp, for the sun beats
down unmercifully hot for a few hours. The languor of these hours is all-
pervading. Stock huddle together and put their heads in the shadow of
the bodies of the others. The mosquito is very much at home on the
Camp and sometimes makes the nights unappreciated.

A GAUCHO AND HIS WIFE ON AN OUTING

 One fearful disease is the anthrax, which is taken from cattle. The first
symptom is a red mark on the skin, which is irritating. If unattended to
this will develop into a blue boil surrounded by little blisters. After a
while the sensitiveness disappears and no pain is felt. The blue is more
pronounced and a full-fledged case of anthrax is developed. Something
must be done promptly. The common treatment, when no surgeon is
near, is to heat a wire red hot and burn out the infected spot clean from
the surrounding flesh. This is a decidedly painful operation when
performed without anæsthetics, and requires a remarkable degree of
stoicism. The affected spot is absolutely without feeling. If this or
another effective operation is not performed by the third day the chance
of recovery is very slight, it is said. The gauchos are the principal
sufferers.
Like his counterpart, the cowboy of the western plains, the gaucho is
a unique character, and his individuality is probably the result of his
environment and the life he has led. The freedom of the plains and lack
of refining society have made him a man with a rough exterior which,
however, oftentimes clothes a tender human heart. The gaucho of
Argentina is generally of mixed blood. The blood may have become
mixed centuries back, when the first Spaniards came to this country, but
it still shows in his swarthy features. For centuries these people have
lived an easy-going, care-free existence on the great plains of that
republic. If there is one thing the gaucho loves, it is his freedom, and it
is difficult to accustom him to the restraint that becomes necessary as
development and private ownership proceed. In the centuries past the
gauchos have always been engaged in the wars and revolutions which
were common. The side they fought on did not matter much, for it was
victory only that was sought. When there were no public disturbances to
furnish excitement, they got up feuds on their own account, and fought
each other. The Camp is full of tales of the gauchos and their deeds or
misdeeds, many of which savour of real knight-errantry. It is these tales
that has given the Argentinian plains an individuality. The old-time
lawless gaucho has generally disappeared in the march of civilization,
but the modified character remains and works for the ranch owner.
Many of them have intermarried with the Italian and Spanish colonists
who have migrated there. The railroad has perhaps been the greatest
enemy of the gaucho, just as it was of the cowboy on our own western
plains, because settlers have everywhere followed the iron horse.
The costume of the gaucho has not changed. It still consists of a
broad sombrero, a shirt and the bombachos—wide Turkish trousers that
range in colour from black to snow-white, and which fall to just above
the ankle, where they are enclosed in a pair of tight-fitting boots. The
poncho, a blanket which is placed over the shoulders in cool weather,
varies from the most sombre hues to the boldest colours—brown and
black to brilliant scarlet or purple. The effect of such a brilliantly-clothed
apparition coming upon you unawares in a remote district can better be
imagined than described. A great broad knife is almost invariably stuck
in the belt, many of them a foot in length and of fantastic pattern. It is
generally encased in a leathern, but sometimes in a metal, scabbard.
This knife is intended not only for defence, but it is his principal aid in
eating lunches out on the Camp. His favourite food is asado con cuero,
beef roasted over the fire without removing the hide, and he is an
expert in preparing this luxury. Dressed in all his finery, and mounted
upon a saddle inlaid and ornamented with silver as many are, with fancy
stirrups and huge clanking spurs, the South American gaucho is a sight
worthy to behold.
The gaucho is a born horseman. From earliest childhood he has been
accustomed to a horse’s back. Before his legs are long enough to reach
the stirrups of a saddle the gaucho rides bareback, and an occasional
tumble does not seem to be minded, for they are determined to ride.
Caution or fear concerning horses is not known among them—such
sentiments are altogether incomprehensible to their understanding. I
have seen contests between the gauchos and American cowboys in
Buenos Aires, and, although the latter are quicker in saddling and
mounting a pony, they cannot stick on a bucking broncho any better
than the former.
 GAUCHOS BRANDING CATTLE

The gaucho is a rather taciturn individual, and is not given to many

words. At the same time he is easily offended if any sense of superiority
is shown. He may not show resentment on the surface, but a volcano
may rage underneath a placid and immobile countenance. If there is, in
his opinion, sufficient provocation, he will probably bide his time for
revenge and await it patiently. It is not always done in the open, either,
since he does not want a chance for failure. If he likes his employer his
devotion is admirable, and he will serve with a commendable
faithfulness. When roused by liquor the gaucho is often very
troublesome, and then it is that he starts out to avenge real or fancied
slights, and he sometimes commits serious crimes. Money does not
appeal to the gaucho in a strong sense, and crimes as a rule are not
committed for that purpose, but they are to avenge slights or real
wrongs for which he thinks personal reprisal is the only adequate
remedy. To requite a wrong with him is a point of honour. The gauchos
are natural gamblers and, besides ordinary games of the Camp, there is
scarcely anything that is not made the subject of wagering, and the
average gaucho’s money soon disappears. It is doubtful whether
education will make the gaucho a more efficient ranch hand, though it
will make him a better and more intelligent citizen of a republic.
The work of the gaucho is generally confined to the care of stock, of
which such vast herds swarm the pampas in almost every direction. The
mustering of cattle in Argentina is called a “rodeo.” Viewed from a
distance, one will see a line strongly marked wind its way over the level
plain, with a dust cloud hanging over it, which is visible long before the
animals come in view. As the armies of red, white and dun animals
approach nearer one will see the picturesque gauchos riding here and
there like officers of an army bearing commands.
When the place of rendezvous has been reached the cattle are kept
tramping around a central point, as they are not near so likely to get
frightened or stampeded if kept on the move. When the inspection or
count is ended, the different herds are gradually separated by the
gauchos and driven back to the feeding grounds. If a count is intended
a line is formed through which the cattle are driven, and the cattle are
numbered as they pass through the line. This is sometimes a difficult
operation, and especially is it so if they aim to divide the herd into two
or more bodies. One animal is driven to the right, another to the left and
so on. This sometimes leads to a great deal of excitement and confusion
among the cattle, and stampedes are easy to happen under such
circumstances. Stockyards have been built on many ranches, where a
narrow passage is constructed through which only one animal is able to
pass at a time. This greatly simplifies the counting or dividing process.
Furthermore, there is less danger of the animals injuring each other in
their excitement. The gauchos are clever with the lasso, but cannot
equal the American cowboy with that rope. Altogether the gaucho is a
very useful and a very necessary man on the cattle estancias of
Argentina, and his services are generally appreciated.
 CHAPTER IV
THE RIVER OF SILVER

The Rio de la Plata, the “river of silver,” is one of the great river
systems of the world. That name is properly applied only to the month
of the system, which reaches just a little above the city of Buenos Aires,
a distance of a couple of hundred miles from the Atlantic. From there it
receives the name of the Paraná, which has its source in the wilds of
Brazil. Where it pours its waters into the ocean this wonderful river is
one hundred and eighty miles in width, and at Montevideo it has
narrowed down to sixty-five miles. Opposite Buenos Aires it is still
twenty-eight miles from shore to shore. The La Plata, as it is generally
called, discharges the water from a basin much larger than the
Mississippi, and the volume of water brought down by it is said to be
exceeded only by the Amazon. It drains the greater part of the fertile
pampas, reaches up into the coffee lands of Brazil, and carries down to
the Atlantic the melted snows of the loftiest peaks of the Andes. The
basin is in the shape of an immense horseshoe, and includes, besides
the two above counties, all of Paraguay and parts of Bolivia and
Uruguay.
The Uruguay River, which flows into the La Plata almost opposite
Buenos Aires, is one thousand miles long and is navigable for several
hundred miles, the Paraná for almost two thousand miles, and the
Paraguay, from its junction with the latter stream, floats boats of shallow
draft for fifteen hundred miles farther. Altogether these various streams
furnish thousands of miles of navigable waters on which regular
communication is furnished by large and commodious steamers. Nicolas
Mihanovitch is the undisputed king of this river traffic, and dozens of
vessels plying on these rivers bear the white letter M. with a black
background on the funnel. They furnish a nightly service between
Montevideo and Buenos Aires, and weekly or semi-weekly service up the
Paraná and Uruguay Rivers.
 Vessels drawing sixteen feet of water can proceed as far as Rosario,
but ocean-going steamers seldom ascend any farther, as the water
becomes shallower beyond that city. Boats of twelve feet draught can
proceed as far as Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, eight hundred miles
farther inland. The waters carry much mud, and the channel sometimes
changes its course by the formation of mud banks. Hundreds of islands
have formed, some of which probably started from a submerged tree,
about which the sediment was deposited. In truth the Paraná plays with
islands and sand banks as a lesser stream does with pebbles. A recent
scientific writer has given some interesting facts concerning its
eccentricities. Says he: “A schooner which sank nine years ago off La
Paz swiftly developed at its tail an island a mile long, now crowned by
willows. My photograph of the old port of Paraná town in 1902 shows an
island eight hundred and eighty yards long by four hundred and ninety
feet wide fronting it; in December, 1907, only one hundred and sixty feet
of the island remained. Thirty years ago a market gardener made a
shallow ditch cut-off opposite Ibicuy River (Lower Paraná), to take his
produce down the river. The Paraná elected to take his work in hand,
and now ocean steamers pass through this channel on their way down
from Rosario.”
In the rainy season the Paraná spreads out for dozens of miles over
the level land and forms an inland sea so wide that the banks are almost
invisible. This flood season lasts for three months in the year, generally
from March to June. At this season the Paraguay pours a mass of water
twenty miles wide and twenty feet deep into the Paraná. Added to this is
the water of the Alta Paraná, and the Lower Paraná then spreads itself
out over the low lands of the western bank.

“Shallow, disreputable, vast,

It sprawls across the western plains,”

to use the words of Kipling. Because of the slight fall it takes three
weeks for the flood waters to flow from Asuncion, a thousand miles
upstream but only two hundred and three feet above sea level, to
Buenos Aires. It is estimated that this river brings down a cubic mile of
soil in twenty-two years. This soil is deposited on the western shore of
the La Plata, and, were it not for the work of man, would soon convert
Buenos Aires into a landlocked harbour. As it is, the dredging charges
entailed by this yearly increasing mass of deposit are very large.
In places the banks of the Paraná are lined with reeds and willows,
but farther up the trees become larger, and there is a forest growth. In
one place may be seen gigantic reeds twenty feet high, then a solitary
palm tree with a crest of fan-like leaves, and again a dense forest of
various growths may crown the bank. Gnarled trees with clusters of
beautiful crimson flowers occasionally add a contrast of colouring.
Masses of weeds and grass are continually floating by. One cannot help
but think of the voyage of Sebastian Cabot up this unexplored stream, in
1526. In a small vessel of only a few hundred tons he ploughed through
these waters, avoided destruction on the islands, and ascended to a
point above the site of Asuncion. He was months in accomplishing that
voyage, which is now made twice a week in five days. It is not a hard
trip, except that the scenery becomes rather monotonous. Otherwise the
accommodation is quite good, the fare is cheap, and, as a rule, the
cabins are comfortable and are kept very clean.
By steamer it is nearly three hundred miles from Buenos Aires to
Rosario, the second city in the republic, and takes just about a whole
day. The great delta of the Paraná, just above the metropolis, is very
interesting, for it is studded with numerous islands. There are several
ports on the left bank where large frigorificos, meat-freezing plants, are
located, where vessels may be seen at the docks at all times waiting for
their loads of beef and mutton. The largest of these is at Campaña, only
fifty-one miles from Buenos Aires, where the River Plate Meat Co. has its
freezing works. At Zarate is the freezing plant of the Las Palmas Produce
Co., and at San Nicolas is another large frigorifico. At last Rosario, which
used to be an unimportant place, is reached, but that designation would
not answer for the hustling city of to-day.
Soon after leaving Rosario the river passes through the rich wheat
belt, with the province of Entre Rios on one side of the bank and Santa
Fé on the other. For a distance the banks of the Paraná are quite high
on one side, but they gradually become lower. At length the town of
Paraná, a city of twenty-five thousand inhabitants, and the capital of the
province of Entre Rios, is reached. It is the distributing point for quite a
large section of country and a shipping port for the products as well.
 Opposite Paraná is the city of Santa Fé, capital of the province of the
same name, which is of about the same importance as its rival on the
other side of the river. The river leads up past La Paz and Esquma, at
which latter place the province of Corrientes is entered. The city of
Corrientes contains a population of about twenty thousand, and is a
distributing and shipping point for that province. It is not a pretty city at
all and has nothing to distinguish it. Here a change must be made to
boats of lighter draught, for there are rapids between this city and
Posadas that will not permit a draught of more than three feet in the dry
season. It is only about twenty miles to the junction of the Paraguay
River, and is two hundred and twenty-five miles from Corrientes to
Posadas, the capital of the territory of Misiones. It is the collecting depot
for the up-river trade above this point, and is a thriving little city of
about six thousand inhabitants.
The Paraná becomes grander and more picturesque the farther up
one ascends it. Its quiet picturesqueness grows upon the traveller. It is
hemmed in between the hills of Paraguay, on one side, and those of
Misiones on the other. Its width, hitherto anywhere from two to five
miles, suddenly shrinks to two-thirds of a mile, and its depth increases.
The well-wooded ranges of hills slope to a current running five knots an
hour. A graceful line of waving bamboo marks the mean height of the
river and is only broken by the many streams which come tumbling
down. You are travelling toward the equator, and the vegetation
changes. The trees become still larger, and the grass is more luxuriant.
Many varieties of palms make their appearance. A thousand miles from
Rosario is the junction with the Iguassú River, and a few miles from its
mouth are the famous falls of the same name. They are on the
boundary line between Brazil and Argentina, and only a few miles away
from the border of Paraguay. At some imaginary point on the broad
Paraná, in the midst of these vast solitudes, these three republics meet.
The Falls of the Iguassú, which here lie half concealed by the
crowding forests, are a worthy rival of Niagara. The scenery surrounding
is, in its lone loveliness, in harmony with the solemn grandeur of the
cataract. The roar of the waterfall is all the more impressive because of
the solitude that reigns in these primeval forests. These falls cover a
wide area, as they are nearly two miles in length. They are so great that
they must be viewed from several points before their full magnitude
dawns upon the traveller. They plunge out of the hidden recesses of the
forest in many places, for numerous islands have been formed which are
now densely wooded. Nature here seems to have revelled in perfect
abandon in producing this wonderful spectacle. It is like another Niagara
set out in the midst of a wilderness, where the hand of man has done
nothing to add to or detract from what nature has here prepared for the
delectation of mankind.
The falls may be divided into two sections, the Argentine and Brazilian
cascades. The Iguassú River is very wide just above the falls where it
takes a very sharp turn prior to making the first plunge. It makes a
series of three leaps, the last being a drop exceeding two hundred feet.
The unequal erosion of the rock has given the falls a horseshoe shape
very similar to Niagara. Below the falls the water passes through a
narrow gorge where the depth is so great that a hundred fathom line
has failed to sound it. The natives call it bottomless. In 1905, during an
unusually severe rainy season, the water rose so high here, because of
the narrowness of the gorge, that for five days it was backed up to the
total height of the lowest falls, two hundred and ten feet.
Ascending the Alta Paraná, another one hundred and twenty-five
miles, one reaches the smoking cataracts of La Guayra. So scored are
the river’s banks on either side by cascade and torrents that it might be
called “waterfall land.” The Falls of La Guayra are another series of
mighty cascades on the border between Paraguay and Brazil. Above the
falls is a great lake all of the waters of which must pass over these
precipices and through a narrow gorge. At one point it is only two
hundred feet from cliff to cliff. The current piles up in the centre with a
corkscrew motion which forms a maelstrom, with which the famous
Whirlpool Rapids are a quiet pool. The total plunge of these falls is three
hundred and ten feet. Above the La Guayra the Alta Paraná widens out
and the hills retreat. At a distance of four hundred miles, or a total
distance of one thousand six hundred and forty miles from Buenos Aires,
are the Uberaponga Falls, another frantic water power awaiting the
harnessing by man. One can follow this stream on up to its source in a
flat, swampy section, which is also the source of one of the principal
affluents of the Amazon. It drains a very large section of Brazil, for,
because of the range of mountains which follows the coast line in Brazil,
water falling within a few miles of the Atlantic turns its back on the blue
waters of the ocean and journeys from fifteen hundred to two thousand
miles before entering salt water by means of the La Plata.
The route up the Uruguay River is much more picturesque than that
up the Paraná. This majestic stream is about six miles wide at its
junction with the latter river. It is somewhat less obstructed by islands
here, so that both banks can usually be seen. And yet this great stream
has moods, as well as other rivers. The current in its main channel will
oftentimes change. It will encroach here and recede there, submerge an
island in one place and form a new one in another. After a long drouth
navigation must be conducted with caution, but the normal depth is
generally sufficient for all purposes. During times of flood all kinds of
strange small animals and vegetation are brought down by the Uruguay.
The water is decidedly clay coloured. On one side is the flat Argentine
plain, and on the other the undulating shores of Uruguay, for this river is
the international boundary line between these two republics. Small
topsail schooners may be seen coming down the river loaded with
timber or fruit, and bound either for Montevideo or Buenos Aires.
Farther up the stream contracts and one gets a more intimate
acquaintance with the country. The banks shrink back and reveal a
glimpse of flowering shrubs, willow trees, and an occasional palm. A
stretch of bright, sandy beach may occasionally unfold itself. It is
sometimes difficult to distinguish shore from island. Buoys mark the
channel, which is very much zigzag. The sunsets on these broad waters
and flat pampas are really wonderful. They paint the clouds in every
colour and shade of rosy pink and brilliant red, and the waters become
of a bluish hue. The cliffs on the Uruguay side are tinted in many
colours, while the Argentine bank is nothing but a straight, black line.
The boats stop on either side. One hundred and thirty miles from
Buenos Aires, and on the Uruguay side, is the town of Fray Bentos,
where the great Liebig’s Extract Factory is located. On the opposite side
and a little further up is Concepcion del Uruguay, which is an interesting
little town. The busiest and most important town of Argentina on the
Uruguay River is Concordia, two hundred and seventy miles from the
metropolis. It is a town of perhaps fifteen thousand inhabitants, and has
railway communication as well. Because of a falls and rapids at this
point the large river steamers cannot proceed beyond Concordia,
although light draught boats can ascend considerably farther.
 Between the Paraná and Uruguay Rivers lie the two goodly-sized
provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory of Misiones.
The two provinces are each about the size of Indiana, and are rich in
agricultural lands. Wheat was first successfully cultivated in Entre Rios,
and these provinces still produce large quantities of grain as well as
much stock. Each one has a population of about a third of a million and
it is increasing each year. A number of colonies have been established
there which have been quite successful. Corrientes contains several
swampy lakes which cover many hundreds of square miles. A part of the
year the greater part of these lakes is dry and then furnishes excellent
pasturage. Their worst feature is that they are the breeding places of
the tick and other pests to stock. A good system of drainage might make
these lands invaluable. It also possesses one large body of water, called
Lake Ibera.
Misiones is a little larger than Massachusetts, and has a population
not exceeding thirty-five thousand. Its lands are fertile, but the climate
is more tropical and it has not been developed so rapidly as the other
sections of the country. It is the only province in Argentina that shares
the tropical conditions of Southern Brazil. The name was derived from
its settlement by the Jesuits after they were expelled from Brazil. For a
time their colonies were very prosperous and thousands of Indians were
gathered together at Apostoles, Santa Ana and San Ignacio. The work
was all done by the Indians under the direction of the priests. The ruins
of San Ignacio, which was established in the sixteenth century, and
which can still be traced in the forest growth, show the solidity with
which the place was built. Many ruins of the houses can still be seen,
each one with a niche in which was placed the statue of a saint. New
settlements of Russians and Poles have recently been established in this
territory which give promise of success. There is much rich virgin land
awaiting development in forest-covered Misiones. Yerba maté, tobacco,
mandioca and sugar-cane grow in great abundance.
Proceeding up the Paraguay River from its junction with the Alta
Paraná it is about two hundred miles to Asuncion. The river twists
around over its wide bed in a very capricious manner, and in flood times
spreads over thousands of square miles of the llanos, or plains. One can
travel several hundred miles farther by small steamers up into the great
state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, which is twice as large as Texas, and
perhaps of equal fertility. The unoccupied grazing lands of that state will,
some day, support millions of cattle that will be demanded by earth’s
teeming millions.
Flowing into the Paraguay River from the west in Argentina are two
rivers, the Bermejo and Pilcomayo, the latter of which is the
international boundary line with Paraguay for a long distance. Each of
these rivers is more than five hundred miles in length. The Bermejo
River is entirely within Argentine territory. It is exceedingly tortuous and
its actual length is about three times as great as the real distance
between its source and its mouth. Small steamers can navigate it for at
least half of its length.
Between these two rivers and extending across the Paraguay River
into Paraguay lies what is known as the Gran Chaco. This is a broad
plain, alternating with forest, which includes thousands of square miles
of territory. It is the least known of Argentine territory, because of the
difficulties of travel, and also because of the fact that wild and savage
Indians who lead a nomadic existence are still to be found in certain
sections. It was a mysterious and strange country to the early explorers.
Into this wilderness the natives fled, and both fancy and imagination
peopled it with all manner of strange wild beasts. The territorial
boundaries were never definitely settled, until President Hayes, acting as
arbitrator, fixed the boundaries between Paraguay and Argentina. These
vast leagues are now divided into two territories, Formosa and Chaco.
The former is almost as large as Ohio and the latter equals Illinois. In
the two territories the reported population is about one person to each
five square miles. There are many curious phenomena in the Chaco. The
edges between plain and woodland are as clearly cut and as straight as
if a surveyor had done the work. In fact the line of demarkation is drawn
with remarkable exactitude. On one side will be a forest, and on the
other the smooth plain stretches out with not a tree upon it to break the
severity of the contrast. In other places there will be only palm trees,
with not a single specimen of another species for variety. It is a land of
strange watercourses. Broad streams that have ploughed all the way
from the Andes in the full light of day burrow beneath the ground in the
Chaco and continue their course underground. During heavy rainfalls it
is claimed that small fish descend from the clouds. Fish eight or ten
inches in length will be found in pools after showers, where there had
been no water, and the ground had been in a parched condition for
months. Do they lie imbedded in the earth like frogs? Are these fish
amphibious? These questions have not yet been answered. It is a fact
that there are many odd phases of nature in this little known section of
Argentina; the same character is found in a goodly part of Paraguay, and
it even extends up into Brazil.

A FOREST IN THE GRAN CHACO

The forest section of the Chaco is not a dense growth like the tropical
forests. The trees do not stand close together; and the spaces between
are not impenetrable, although some underbrush and tall grasses
impede the way. Yet a man on horseback can easily thread his way
through them. The only inhabitants are the Indians and half-breeds, the
latter of whom are only partially civilized. Their homes are mud huts of a
single room where the entire household, irrespective of age and sex,
lodge. The Chaco abounds in game of many kinds. Partridges, wood-
pigeons and snipe are very plentiful, and almost every species of water
fowl in addition. A species of wild turkey is also to be met with, which
affords most excellent sport as well as eating. The osprey, whose
plumes are so much in demand, is a native of this land. The tapir, ant-
eater, wild pig, jaguar and the lone wolf—a creature that has never been
known to live in captivity—are found here in their native wilds.
Poisonous snakes are very common, and huge pythons are occasionally
encountered in the swamps. It is the innumerable insects, however, that
make life almost unbearable for the white man, for he is subjected to
both diurnal and nocturnal torture by the hordes of these pests.
At the present time this section is chiefly exploited for the quebracho
wood. This is a very hard, fine-grained and tough wood. It was so
named from the words quiebra-hacha, the axe-breaker, and was well
named, for it does defy ordinary axes and saws. It is a tree found only
in the Chaco. There are two varieties, the colorado (red) and blanco
(white), of which the former is the most valuable. From this tree are
made railroad ties which will last for thirty years, and it is the richest in
tannin extract of any tree yet discovered.
The quebracho tree usually stands out by itself and is easily
discernible at a distance, both from the character of its bark and the
peculiar formation of its branches. Four or five trees to the acre is about
the average yield. The tree is tall, two or three feet in diameter, and is
crowned by a rather thin, oval mass of branches and leaves. The leaves
are oval, smooth and shiny, and it is only partially deciduous. It lives to
a great age, but also grows quite rapidly, so that it can be cultivated in
the future as necessity demands. Formerly this tree was sought only by
the railroads for their sleepers. About fifteen years ago it was found to
be full of tannin, and, as oak bark was becoming scarce, this demand
was rapidly developed and now forms the principal use for quebracho.
Not only the bark yields tannin, but the sap and wood as well. The bark
contains about eight per cent. of tannin, the sap three or four per cent.,
and the heart of the tree will yield as high as twenty-five per cent. of
this essence so necessary to the tanner. It is a difficult and expensive
product to market because of the remoteness of the forests and
scattered character of the trees. In many places narrow gauged
railroads and spurs have been run out through these trackless wastes in
order to bring the logs to the mills or rivers. Otherwise it would be slow
work, for during a large part of the year the roads are almost
impassable and oxen suffer much from the climate and insects. These
light railways have been found to be by far the most economical means
of getting the logs to market. One company owns four million acres of
the Chaco, and is prepared to cut logs into sleepers, make fence posts,
or prepare it into tannin extract, whichever offers the most profit. There
is a big and constantly increasing demand for all. The increase in
construction of the Argentine railways makes a demand for sleepers,
and failure of other sources of supply gives an ever widening market for
the tannin extract.
Some of the railways in the Chaco end at the rivers, where the logs
are loaded on boats and taken down to Rosario or Buenos Aires. Small
sawmills are now found way out in the Chaco far from civilization. Other
companies have their factories in the Chaco district, where the whole
work is done and the extract prepared for shipment. This substance is
known in the markets as “Quebracho Extract.” It is easily manufactured
where the proper machinery has been installed. The wood is passed
through a machine which cuts it into shavings and the smallest possible
chips. These are collected into immense kettles, where it is treated by
chemical processes until all the tannin has been removed. After this the
fluid is reduced by evaporation to a thick, jelly-like mass which is poured
into sacks, where it is finally dried into the substance sold in commerce.
Some of the companies engaged in this business have been capitalized
for very large sums, and considerable towns have grown up around their
establishments. Civilization and development have followed the
construction of the railroads here as everywhere.
 AN INDIAN WOMAN OF THE GRAN CHACO

In 1895 the first exportation of quebracho extract is recorded from the

River Plate. In that year it was four hundred tons only. By 1902 it had
reached nine thousand tons, and now the annual export exceeds thirty
thousand tons. Of this enormous export the United States takes fully
sixty-five per cent.
There are several thousand Indians who live in the Gran Chaco, and
they comprise a number of tribes, all of whom, however, have the same
general characteristics. These Indians are absolutely unlettered, and
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