ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mention of people who made it possible, whose
constant guidance and encouragement crowned our efforts with success. It is a pleasant
aspect that we have now the opportunity to express my gratitude for all of them.
It is with immense pleasure that we would like to express my indebted gratitude to
my Guide Dr. P. Chitralingappa, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of
CSE (AI&ML) and CSE (DATA SCIENCE), who has guided me a lot and encouraged
me in every step of the project work. We thank him for the stimulating guidance, constant
encouragement and constructive criticism which have made possible to bring out this
project work.
We express our deepfelt gratitude to Mrs. S. Sunitha, Assistant Professor,
Computer Science & Engineering and Mr. A. Kiran Kumar, Assistant Professor,
Computer Science & Engineering (AI & ML), project coordinator for her valuable
guidance and unstinting encouragement enabled us to accomplish our project successfully
in time
We are very much thankful to Dr. P. Chitralingappa, Associate Professor, Head
of the Department of CSE (AI&ML) and CSE (DATA SCIENCE), for his kind
support and for providing necessary facilities to carry out the work.
We wish to convey my special thanks to Dr. G. BalaKrishna, Principal of
Srinivasa Ramanujan Institute of Technology for giving the required information in
doing my project work. Not to forget, we thank all other faculty and non-teaching staff, and
my friends who had directly or indirectly helped and supported me in completing my
project in time.
We also express our sincere thanks to the Management for providing excellent
facilities. Finally, we wish to convey our gratitude to our family who fostered all the
requirements and facilities that we need.
Project Associates
214G1A3321
214G1A3335
214G1A3350
214G1A3352
 ABSTRACT

As the automotive industry rapidly advances towards electric vehicles (EVs), accurately
predicting battery states is crucial for optimizing performance, safety, and longevity. This
project presents a novel approach using Explainable Data-Driven Digital Twins to predict
battery states in electric vehicles. The methodology integrates various advanced machine
learning algorithms, including Deep Neural Networks (DNN), Long Short-Term Memory
(LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), Support Vector Regression (SVR),
Support Vector Machines (SVM), Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN), Radial Basis
Function networks (RBF), Random Forests (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting
(XGBoost).The primary objective of this study is to enhance the predictability of battery states
by leveraging these diverse algorithms to build a comprehensive digital twin model. The model
aims to provide accurate predictions of key battery parameters such as state of charge (SOC)
and state of health (SOH) under various operational conditions. By utilizing explainable AI
techniques, the project also focuses on interpreting and understanding the underlying factors
influencing battery performance.Our approach combines the strengths of different algorithms
to improve prediction accuracy and robustness. Preliminary results indicate that the integrated
model significantly outperforms traditional methods in terms of prediction accuracy and
reliability. This research contributes to the development of more intelligent and adaptive
battery management systems, which are essential for the future of electric mobility.

Keywords: Electric Vehicles, Battery State Prediction, Digital Twins, Machine Learning,
Deep Neural Networks, LSTM, CNN, Support Vector Regression, Random Forests, Extreme
Gradient Boosting.
 CONTENTS

List of Figures ix

List of Abbreviations x

Chapter 1: Introduction 1-2

1.1 Motivation 1
1.2 Problem Statement 1
1.3 Objective of the Project 1
1.4 Scope 2
1.5 Project Introduction 2

Chapter 2: Literature Survey 3-4

2.1 Related Work 3-4

Chapter 3: SYSTEM ANALYSIS 5-8

3.1 Existing System 5

3.2 Disadvantages 5
3.3 Proposed System 6
3.4 Advantages 7-8
Chapter 4: REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS 9-11
4.1 Function and non-functional requirements 9-10
4.2 Hardware Requirements 11
4.3 Software Requirements 11
4.4 Architecture 11
Chapter 5: METHODOLOGY 12-15
5.1 DNN 12
5.2 LSTM 12
5.3 CNN 13
5.4 SVR 13
5.5 FNN 13
5.6 RBF 14
5.7 RF 14
 5.8 XGBoost 15
Chapter 6: SYSTEM DESIGN 16-28
6.1 Introduction of Input design. 16-19
6.2 UML Diagram (class, use case, sequence, collaborative,
deployment, activity, ER diagram ,Component diagram) 20-25
6.3 Data Flow Diagram 26-28
Chapter 7: IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS. 29-34
7.1 Modules 29-30
7.2 Output Screen 31-34
Chapter 8: SYSTEM STUDY AND TESTING 35-40
8.1 Feasibility study 35-36
8.2 Types of test & Test Cases 37-40
Chapter 9: CONCLUSION 41

Chapter 10: FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 42-43

Chapter 11: REFERENCES 44-46

 List of Figures

Fig. No Description Page No

3.1 Project Flow 7
4.1 Architecture 11
6.1 Use Case Diagram 21
6.2 Class Diagram 21
6.3 Sequence Diagram 22
6.4 Collaboration Diagram 23
6.5 Deployment Diagram 23
6.6 Activity Diagram 24
6.7 Component Diagram 25
6.8 ER Diagram 26
6.9 Level-1 Diagram 27
6.10 Level-2 Diagram 28
7.1 Home Page 31
7.2 About Page 31
7.3 Registration Page 32
7.4 Login Page 32
7.5 View Data Page 33
7.6 Home Page 33
7.5 Prediction Page 34

IX
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CNN Convolutional Neural Networks

DNN Deep Neural Networks
FNN Feedforward Neural Networks
LIME Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations
LSTM Long Short-Term Memory
MAE Mean Absolute Error
RBF Radial Basis Function Networks
RF Random Forests
RMSE Root Mean Square Error
SHAP Shapley Additive explanations
SOC State of Charge
SOH State of Health
SVR Support Vector Regression
XAI Explainable Artificial Intelligence
XGBoost Extreme Gradient Boosting

X
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Motivation:
As the automotive industry shifts towards electric vehicles (EVs), the efficiency and
reliability of battery systems have become paramount. Batteries are the core component of
EVs, and their performance directly affects vehicle range, safety, and lifespan. Accurate
prediction of battery states, such as state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH), is
crucial for optimizing these parameters. However, traditional methods often fall short in
handling the complex, nonlinear behavior of batteries under varying operational conditions.
With the advent of advanced machine learning techniques, there is an opportunity to create
more precise and explainable models that not only predict battery states but also provide
insights into the factors affecting battery performance. This project is motivated by the need
to develop such models, contributing to more efficient and intelligent battery management
systems that will support the widespread adoption of EVs.
1.2 Problem Statement:
The growing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has placed significant demand on
the accurate prediction of battery states, including state of charge (SOC) and state of health
(SOH). Traditional methods for predicting these states often struggle with the complex,
dynamic nature of battery systems, leading to suboptimal performance in battery
management systems. Inaccurate predictions can result in reduced battery lifespan,
unexpected failures, and inefficient energy utilization, which in turn affects the overall
reliability and user acceptance of EVs. The problem is further compounded by the lack of
interpretability in many machine learning models, making it difficult to understand the
factors influencing battery states. This project aims to address these challenges by
developing a comprehensive digital twin model using explainable data-driven approaches
to accurately predict battery states and provide insights into the underlying factors affecting
battery performance.
1.3 Objective of the Project:
The primary objective of this project is to develop an explainable data-driven digital
twin model that accurately predicts key battery states, specifically state of charge (SOC)

Page 1 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

and state of health (SOH), in electric vehicles (EVs). The project aims to integrate a variety
of advanced machine learning algorithms, including Deep Neural Networks (DNN), Long
Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), Support
Vector Regression (SVR), and others, to build a robust and reliable prediction model. In
addition to achieving high prediction accuracy, the project also seeks to incorporate
explainable AI techniques to provide transparency and understanding of the model’s
predictions. By achieving these objectives, the project aims to enhance battery management
systems, ultimately contributing to the improved performance, safety, and longevity of
batteries in EVs.

1.4 Scope:

The scope of this project encompasses the development, implementation, and

validation of an explainable data-driven digital twin model for predicting battery states in
electric vehicles (EVs). The project will involve the integration of multiple machine
learning algorithms, including Deep Neural Networks (DNN), Long Short-Term Memory
(LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), and others, to create a
comprehensive and robust model. The model will focus on predicting crucial battery states,
such as state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH), under various operational
conditions. Additionally, the project will explore the use of explainable AI techniques to
interpret the model’s predictions, providing insights into the factors affecting battery
performance. The final outcome will be a validated digital twin model that can be applied
in real-world EV battery management systems, with the potential for further refinement and
adaptation to different battery technologies.
1.5.Project Introduction:
The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) has introduced new challenges in battery
management, where accurate prediction of battery states is essential for ensuring optimal
performance, safety, and longevity. This project introduces a novel approach by leveraging
the concept of digital twins, combined with explainable data-driven techniques, to predict
key battery states such as state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH). The digital twin
model will be constructed using a variety of advanced machine learning algorithms,
including Deep Neural Networks (DNN), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks,

Page 2 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), and others. By integrating these diverse

algorithms, the model aims to provide accurate and robust predictions while also offering
explainability through AI techniques. This project aims to enhance battery management
systems in EVs, contributing to the broader goal of improving the efficiency and reliability
of electric mobility.

Page 3 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

1. Zhang, X., Li, Y., & Chen, H. (2020). "Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) for
Battery State Prediction in Electric Vehicles." Journal of Energy Storage.

This paper discusses the integration of Explainable AI techniques into battery state
prediction models for electric vehicles. It explores various machine learning algorithms,
including support vector machines (SVM) and decision trees, and their application in
predicting state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH). The study highlights the
importance of transparency in AI models for better understanding and trust in battery
management systems. The authors provide a comprehensive review of existing methods
and propose an explainable AI framework that enhances prediction accuracy while offering
insights into the factors influencing battery states.

2. Wang, Z., & Liu, J. (2019). "Machine Learning-Based Battery State Estimation: A
Survey of Methods and Applications." IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.

This survey paper provides an extensive review of machine learning techniques applied to
battery state estimation, with a focus on electric vehicles. The authors discuss the
advantages and limitations of various algorithms, such as deep neural networks (DNN),
long short-term memory (LSTM) networks, and support vector regression (SVR). The
paper also addresses the challenges in real-time battery monitoring and the need for models
that can adapt to different operational conditions. The study concludes that a combination
of machine learning methods can significantly improve the accuracy and reliability of
battery state predictions.

3. Li, W., & Zhao, Y. (2021). "Data-Driven Digital Twins for Predicting Battery
Degradation in Electric Vehicles." Applied Energy.

This paper presents a data-driven approach to developing digital twins for predicting battery
degradation in electric vehicles. The authors utilize a combination of machine learning

Page 4 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

models, including random forests (RF) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), to
forecast the state of health (SOH) and remaining useful life (RUL) of batteries. The study
emphasizes the role of digital twins in providing real-time insights into battery performance
and the importance of model interpretability in making informed decisions for battery
management. The proposed method is validated through extensive experiments,
demonstrating its effectiveness in predicting battery states under varying conditions.

4. Smith, A., & Jones, R. (2022). "A Comprehensive Review of Battery Management
Systems Using Artificial Intelligence Techniques." Energy Reports.

This comprehensive review covers the latest advancements in battery management systems
(BMS) that leverage artificial intelligence techniques. The paper discusses the application
of convolutional neural networks (CNN), feedforward neural networks (FNN), and radial
basis function networks (RBF) in predicting key battery parameters such as SOC and SOH.
The authors highlight the potential of AI-driven BMS in enhancing the efficiency, safety,
and longevity of batteries in electric vehicles. The review also addresses the challenges
associated with data collection, model training, and real-time implementation in
commercial applications.

5. Kumar, R., & Gupta, S. (2021). "Explainable Machine Learning for Predicting
Battery Life in Electric Vehicles." Journal of Power Sources.

This study focuses on the application of explainable machine learning techniques for
predicting battery life in electric vehicles. The authors employ a range of algorithms,
including support vector machines (SVM) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), to
develop models that predict battery degradation. The paper emphasizes the importance of
model explainability in understanding the factors that contribute to battery wear and tear.
The authors also propose a hybrid approach that combines the strengths of different
algorithms to improve prediction accuracy and provide actionable insights for battery
management.

Page 5 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER-3

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
3.1 Existing System

Current systems for battery state prediction in electric vehicles typically rely on
conventional models and empirical data. These approaches often use simple linear
regression or rule-based algorithms to estimate key battery parameters such as state of
charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH). While these methods provide basic functionality,
they tend to be limited in accuracy and adaptability due to their reliance on static or overly
simplified assumptions. Additionally, many existing systems lack interpretability, making
it challenging for users to understand the underlying factors influencing battery
performance. This lack of transparency can hinder trust and the ability to diagnose
performance issues. Furthermore, traditional models often fail to account for the complex,
non-linear relationships between battery parameters and operational conditions. As a result,
there is a growing need for more advanced, data-driven approaches that can offer both high
accuracy and explainability to better support battery management in modern electric
vehicles.

3.2 Disadvantages

1.Limited Accuracy: Traditional models, often based on linear regression or rule-based

approaches, may not capture the complex, non-linear dynamics of battery behavior. This
can lead to less accurate predictions of key parameters such as state of charge (SOC) and
state of health (SOH).

2.Lack of Adaptability: Existing systems may struggle to adapt to varying operational

conditions and evolving battery technologies. They often rely on static assumptions and do
not incorporate real-time data or dynamic changes in battery performance.

Page 6 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

3.Low Interpretability: Many traditional models lack transparency, making it difficult for
users to understand how predictions are made. This can hinder the ability to diagnose issues
or make informed decisions based on the model's outputs.

4.Simplistic Assumptions: Existing systems may rely on oversimplified assumptions

about battery behavior, which can overlook critical factors influencing performance and
lead to suboptimal management strategies.

5.Limited Data Integration: Current models may not effectively integrate diverse sources
of data, such as environmental conditions and battery usage patterns. This can limit their
ability to provide comprehensive and accurate predictions across different scenarios.

3.3 Proposed System

The proposed system aims to enhance battery state prediction in electric vehicles through
the development of Explainable Data-Driven Digital Twins. This system leverages a suite
of advanced machine learning algorithms, including Deep Neural Networks (DNN), Long
Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), Support
Vector Regression (SVR), Support Vector Machines (SVM), Feedforward Neural
Networks (FNN), Radial Basis Function networks (RBF), Random Forests (RF), and
Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost). By integrating these diverse algorithms, the system
is designed to deliver highly accurate and reliable predictions of critical battery parameters
such as state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH). Additionally, the system
incorporates explainability features, providing transparency into the factors influencing
battery performance and enhancing user trust. This approach not only improves prediction
accuracy but also addresses the limitations of existing systems by offering adaptability,
comprehensive data integration, and detailed insights into battery behavior.

Page 7 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

PROJECT FLOW

Fig 3.1 Project Flow

3.4 Advantages

Enhanced Accuracy: By employing a diverse set of advanced machine learning

algorithms, the proposed system achieves higher accuracy in predicting battery parameters
like state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH).

Adaptability: The system adapts to varying operational conditions and evolving battery
technologies, improving its ability to provide accurate predictions across different
scenarios.

Improved Interpretability: Explainable Data-Driven Digital Twins offer greater

transparency, allowing users to understand the factors influencing battery performance and
enhancing trust in the predictions.

Comprehensive Data Integration: The system integrates multiple data sources, including
environmental conditions and usage patterns, to provide a more holistic view of battery
behavior.

Page 8 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Dynamic Modeling: The use of advanced algorithms allows for dynamic modeling of
battery performance, capturing complex, non-linear relationships that traditional models
may miss.

Page 9 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER-4

REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Functional Requirements

4.1.1.Data Collection and Preprocessing:

• Gather historical and real-time data on battery performance, including SOC, SOH,
temperature, current, voltage, and other relevant parameters.
• Implement data preprocessing steps such as data cleaning, normalization, and
feature extraction to prepare the data for model training.

4.1.2. Model Development:

• Develop multiple machine learning models, including Deep Neural Networks

(DNN), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNN), Support Vector Regression (SVR), Support Vector Machines
(SVM), Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN), Radial Basis Function networks
(RBF), Random Forests (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost).
• Train each model using the processed data and optimize hyperparameters to
improve prediction accuracy.
• Implement a method to combine the strengths of these models into a single,
integrated digital twin model.

4.1.3. Prediction and Monitoring:

• Predict key battery states such as SOC and SOH under various operational
conditions using the integrated model.
• Monitor the predictions in real-time and provide continuous updates as new data
becomes available.

Page 10 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

4.1.4. Explainability and Interpretability:

• Implement explainable AI techniques to interpret the predictions and provide

insights into the factors influencing battery performance.
• Develop tools or visualizations to help users understand the predictions and the
decision-making process of the model.

4.1.5. Performance Evaluation:

• Compare the prediction accuracy and reliability of the integrated digital twin model
against traditional methods.
• Conduct performance tests under different scenarios and operational conditions to
ensure robustness.

4.2.Non-functional requirements
4.2.1. Scalability: The system should be able to handle large volumes of data and scale
efficiently as more vehicles and data points are added.
4.2.2.Reliability: The prediction model should consistently provide accurate and reliable
predictions across different conditions.
4.2.3. Maintainability: The system should be easy to maintain, with clear documentation
and modular design to allow updates and improvements.
4.2.4.Performance: The model should deliver real-time predictions with minimal latency
to be effective in live applications.
4.2.5 .Security: Ensure that the data used in the model is securely stored and processed,
especially given the sensitivity of automotive data.

4.3 Hardware Requirements:

Page 11 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Processor - I3/Intel Processor

Hard Disk - 160GB
Key Board - Standard Windows Keyboard
Mouse - Two or Three Button Mouse
Monitor - SVGA
RAM - 8GB
4.4 Software Requirements:

• Operating System : Windows 7/8/10

• Server side Script : HTML, CSS, Bootstrap & JS
• Programming Language : Python
• Libraries : Flask, Pandas, Mysql.connector, Os, Scikit-learn,
Numpy
• IDE/Workbench : PyCharm
• Technology : Python 3.6+
• Server Deployment : Xampp Server

4.5 Architecture:

Fig 4.1 Architecture

Page 12 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER -5

ALGORITHMS

5.1. Deep Neural Networks (DNN):

Deep Neural Networks (DNN) are layered architectures where each layer
transforms the input data into more abstract representations, enabling the model to learn
complex patterns. In the context of predicting battery states in electric vehicles, a DNN is
employed to capture intricate relationships between various features such as voltage,
temperature, and current. The DNN's multi-layer structure, consisting of input, hidden, and
output layers, allows it to model non-linear interactions among features. The network is
trained using backpropagation, which minimizes the difference between the predicted and
actual battery states. DNNs are particularly effective in this project for handling large-scale
datasets, capturing high-dimensional correlations, and improving the accuracy of state
predictions like state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH). However, DNNs can be
prone to overfitting, making explainability challenging, which is why they are combined
with other algorithms to enhance robustness and interpretability.

5.2. Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Networks:

Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks are a type of recurrent neural network
(RNN) designed to capture temporal dependencies in sequential data. In this project,
LSTMs are utilized to model the time-series nature of battery data, such as charging and
discharging cycles. The LSTM architecture includes memory cells that retain information
over long periods, which is crucial for understanding how past battery states influence
future states. By incorporating forget gates and input-output mechanisms, LSTMs can
selectively remember or discard information, making them ideal for capturing complex
temporal patterns in battery behavior. LSTMs help predict SOC and SOH by learning from
historical data trends, allowing the digital twin model to anticipate future battery
performance under varying conditions. Their ability to model sequential data with long-
term dependencies enhances the accuracy and reliability of the predictions.

Page 13 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

5.3. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN):

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) are typically used for image processing but have
been adapted in this project to extract spatial patterns from sensor data representing battery states.
In the context of EV batteries, CNNs are applied to time-series data formatted as matrices, where
the convolutional layers scan through the data to detect local patterns, such as voltage spikes or
temperature variations. These patterns are then aggregated through pooling layers, which reduce
the dimensionality while preserving essential features. By stacking multiple convolutional layers,
the CNN can learn hierarchical representations of battery data, enabling it to detect complex
interactions between different features. This capability is particularly useful for identifying
abnormal battery behavior and predicting states like SOC and SOH. CNNs contribute to the digital
twin model by providing high-level feature extraction that complements the temporal modeling
capabilities of LSTMs.

5.4. Support Vector Regression (SVR):

Support Vector Machines (SVM) are primarily used for classification tasks but can
also be adapted for regression. In this project, SVM is employed to classify battery states
under different operational conditions. The algorithm works by finding the optimal
hyperplane that separates different classes of data in a high-dimensional space. The SVM
maximizes the margin between classes, which enhances the model's robustness to noise and
outliers. In the context of battery state prediction, SVM is used to distinguish between
healthy and degraded battery states, contributing to the overall digital twin model by
providing clear decision boundaries. The kernel trick allows SVM to handle non-linear
relationships, making it suitable for complex battery data where linear separability is not
possible.

5.5. Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN):

Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN) are the simplest form of neural networks
where connections between the nodes do not form a cycle. In this project, FNNs are used
as a baseline model for predicting battery states. The network consists of an input layer,
one or more hidden layers, and an output layer. Each neuron in the hidden layers applies a
weighted sum followed by an activation function to the inputs, enabling the network to

Page 14 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

learn non-linear relationships between the features. The FNN is trained using
backpropagation to minimize the error between predicted and actual battery states.
Although FNNs are less complex compared to DNNs and LSTMs, they are still effective
in modeling simple patterns in the data. FNNs serve as a starting point for more advanced
models in the digital twin framework, offering a balance between simplicity and predictive
performance.

5.6. Radial Basis Function (RBF) Networks:

Radial Basis Function (RBF) networks are a type of artificial neural network that
uses radial basis functions as activation functions. In this project, RBF networks are
employed to capture localized patterns in the battery data. The network structure consists
of an input layer, a hidden layer where each neuron applies an RBF to the input, and an
output layer that provides the prediction. RBF networks are particularly effective in
scenarios where the relationship between inputs and outputs is non-linear and localized. By
adjusting the width of the radial basis functions, the network can focus on specific regions
of the input space, making it suitable for detecting anomalies or specific states in battery
behavior. RBF networks contribute to the digital twin by providing localized predictions
that can complement the global patterns captured by other algorithms.

5.7. Random Forests (RF):

Random Forests (RF) is an ensemble learning method that builds multiple decision
trees and merges them to get a more accurate and stable prediction. In this project, RF is
used to predict battery states by combining the outputs of several decision trees trained on
different subsets of the data. Each tree in the forest makes a prediction, and the final output
is determined by averaging the predictions (in the case of regression) or by majority voting
(in the case of classification). RF is particularly robust to overfitting due to its use of
bootstrapped datasets and random feature selection for each tree. This method enhances the
predictive accuracy and reliability of the digital twin by capturing a diverse set of patterns
in the battery data.

5.8. Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost):

Page 15 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) is a powerful and efficient implementation

of gradient boosting, which is used to optimize prediction performance by sequentially
building trees that correct the errors of previous ones. In this project, XGBoost is employed
to refine battery state predictions by minimizing prediction errors iteratively. XGBoost
applies regularization techniques to prevent overfitting and handles missing data
effectively, making it ideal for complex datasets. The algorithm's ability to model
interactions between features and capture non-linear patterns significantly improves the
accuracy of SOC and SOH predictions. XGBoost's efficiency and scalability make it a
crucial component of the digital twin model, providing fast and accurate predictions even
with large-scale data.

Page 16 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER 6

SYSTEM DESIGN

6.1 System Architecture

6.1.1. Data Collection and Preprocessing

Data Sources:

Battery Management System (BMS) logs

Vehicle telemetry data

Environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.)

Historical battery performance data

Data Preprocessing:

Data Cleaning: Handle missing values, outliers, and noise.

Normalization: Scale data to ensure consistency across different features.

Feature Engineering: Extract relevant features from raw data, such as voltage, current,
temperature, charge cycles, etc.

Data Splitting: Divide data into training, validation, and test sets.

6.1.2. Machine Learning Algorithms Integration

Model Selection:

Deep Neural Networks (DNN): For capturing complex non-linear relationships.

Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Networks: For sequence modeling and capturing
temporal dependencies in battery data.

Page 17 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN): For feature extraction from time-series data.

Support Vector Regression (SVR): For regression tasks with high-dimensional data.

Support Vector Machines (SVM): For classification and regression tasks.

Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN): For basic predictive modeling.

Radial Basis Function Networks (RBF): For function approximation.

Random Forests (RF): For ensemble learning and reducing overfitting.

Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost): For boosting performance and handling large
datasets.

Model Training and Evaluation:

Hyperparameter Tuning: Use techniques such as grid search or random search.

Cross-Validation: To ensure model generalizability and prevent overfitting.

Performance Metrics: Evaluate models using metrics like Mean Absolute Error (MAE),
Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), and R² score.

6.1.3. Explainable AI Techniques

Model Interpretability:

Feature Importance Analysis: Determine the impact of each feature on the prediction.

SHAP (Shapley Additive explanations) Values: To explain the contributions of

individual features to the model's predictions.

LIME (Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations): To explain predictions by

approximating the model locally.

Page 18 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Visualization:

Prediction Visualization: Display predicted SOC and SOH values versus actual values.

Feature Impact Visualization: Show how different features influence predictions using
heatmaps or bar charts.

6.1.4. Digital Twin Integration

Digital Twin Model:

Model Fusion: Combine predictions from various algorithms to create a unified battery
state prediction model.

Real-Time Updates: Integrate with real-time data streams for continuous monitoring and
updating of predictions.

User Interface:

Dashboard: Provide a user-friendly interface for monitoring battery states, viewing

predictions, and interpreting results.

Alerts and Notifications: Set up alerts for abnormal battery states or performance issues.

6.1.5. System Workflow

Data Ingestion:

Collect and preprocess data from various sources.

Model Training:

Train individual machine learning models using the preprocessed data.

Model Integration:

Page 19 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Combine predictions from multiple models to form the final digital twin model.

Explainability:

Apply explainable AI techniques to interpret model predictions and provide insights.

Deployment:

Deploy the model in a real-time environment for continuous battery state monitoring.

Monitoring and Maintenance:

Regularly update the model with new data and retrain as necessary to ensure accuracy and
reliability.

6.1.6 System Requirements

Hardware:

High-performance computing resources for model training (GPUs, CPUs).

Storage solutions for handling large volumes of data.

Software:
Machine learning frameworks (e.g., TensorFlow, PyTorch, Scikit-learn).
Data processing tools (e.g., Pandas, NumPy).
Explainable AI libraries (e.g., SHAP, LIME).
User interface tools (e.g., Dash, Plotly).
Security:
Implement data security measures to protect sensitive information.
Ensure secure communication channels for real-time data streaming.

Page 20 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Output Design:

6.2 UML Diagrams:

UML Diagrams:

UML stands for Unified Modelling Language. UML is a standardized general-

purpose modelling language in the field of object-oriented software engineering. The
standard is managed, and was created by, the Object Management Group.
The goal is for UML to become a common language for creating models of object-
oriented computer software. In its current form UML is comprised of two major
components: a Meta-model and a notation. In the future, some form of method or process
may also be added to; or associated with, UML.
The Unified Modelling Language is a standard language for specifying,
Visualization, Constructing and documenting the artefacts of software system, as well as
for business modelling and other non-software systems.
The UML represents a collection of best engineering practices that have proven
successful in the modelling of large and complex systems.
The UML is a very important part of developing objects-oriented software and the
software development process. The UML uses mostly graphical notations to express the
design of software projects.

6.2.1 Use Case Diagram:

 A use case diagram in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a type of

behavioral diagram defined by and created from a Use-case analysis.

 Its purpose is to present a graphical overview of the functionality provided by a

system in terms of actors, their goals (represented as use cases), and any
dependencies between those use cases.

 The main purpose of a use case diagram is to show what system functions are
performed for which actor. Roles of the actors in the system can be depicted.

Page 21 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Fig: 6.1 Use Case Diagram

6.2.2 Class Diagram:

In software engineering, a class diagram in the Unified Modelling Language (UML) is a

type of static structure diagram that describes the structure of a system by showing the
system's classes, their attributes, operations (or methods), and the relationships among the
classes. It explains which class contains information.

Fig: 6.2 Class Diagram

Page 22 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

6.2.3 Sequence Diagram:

 A sequence diagram in Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a kind of interaction

diagram that shows how processes operate with one another and in what order.

 It is a construct of a Message Sequence Chart. Sequence diagrams are sometimes

called event diagrams, event scenarios, and timing diagrams

Fig: 6.3 Sequence Diagram:

6.2.4 Collaboration Diagram:

In collaboration diagram the method call sequence is indicated by some numbering

technique as shown below. The number indicates how the methods are called one after
another. We have taken the same order management system to describe the collaboration
diagram. The method calls are similar to that of a sequence diagram. But the difference is
that the sequence diagram does not describe the object organization whereas the
collaboration diagram shows the object organization.

Page 23 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Fig 6.4 Collaboration Diagram

6.2.5 Deployment Diagram

Deployment diagram represents the deployment view of a system. It is related to the

component diagram. Because the components are deployed using the deployment
diagrams. A deployment diagram consists of nodes. Nodes are nothing but physical
hardware’s used to deploy the application.

Fig 6.5: Deployment Diagram

Page 24 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

6.2.6 Activity Diagram:

Activity diagrams are graphical representations of workflows of stepwise activities and

actions with support for choice, iteration and concurrency. In the Unified Modelling
Language, activity diagrams can be used to describe the business and operational step-by-
step workflows of components in a system. An activity diagram shows the overall flow of
control.

Fig: 6.6 Activity Diagram

Page 25 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

6.2.7 Component Diagram:

A component diagram, also known as a UML component diagram, describes the

organization and wiring of the physical components in a system. Component diagrams are
often drawn to help model implementation details and double-check that every aspect of
the system's required function is covered by planned development.

Fig 6.7 Component Diagram

6.2.8 ER Diagram:

An Entity–relationship model (ER model) describes the structure of a database with the
help of a diagram, which is known as Entity Relationship Diagram (ER Diagram). An ER
model is a design or blueprint of a database that can later be implemented as a database.
The main components of E-R model are: entity set and relationship set.

An ER diagram shows the relationship among entity sets. An entity set is a group of similar
entities and these entities can have attributes. In terms of DBMS, an entity is a table or
attribute of a table in database, so by showing relationship among tables and their attributes,
ER diagram shows the complete logical structure of a database. Let’s have a look at a simple
ER diagram to understand this concept.

Page 26 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Fig 6.8 ER Diagram

6.3 DFD Diagram:

A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a traditional way to visualize the information flows within
a system. A neat and clear DFD can depict a good amount of the system requirements
graphically. It can be manual, automated, or a combination of both. It shows how
information enters and leaves the system, what changes the information and where
information is stored. The purpose of a DFD is to show the scope and boundaries of a
system as a whole. It may be used as a communications tool between a systems analyst and
any person who plays a part in the system that acts as the starting point for redesigning a
system.

Page 27 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Level 1 Diagram:

Fig 6.9 Level 1 Diagram

Page 28 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Level 2 Diagram:

Fig 6.10 Level 2 Diagram

Page 29 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER 7

IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS

7.1 MODULES:

MODULES:
Index Page:

The Index page serves as the entry point to the application, providing navigation to other
sections.

It typically includes brief project details, objectives, and a menu for easy access to other
pages.

Users can quickly navigate to registration, login, or home pages directly from here.

Designed for simplicity and user-friendly navigation, ensuring a smooth start for users.

Register Page:

The Register page facilitates user registration, essential for accessing personalized features.

Users can input necessary details such as username, email, and password to create an
account.

Includes validation checks to ensure data integrity and security.

Upon successful registration, users gain access to additional functionalities within the
application.

Login Page:

The Login page enables authenticated access to the application's secured areas.

Users enter their credentials (username and password) to authenticate and gain entry.

Utilizes encryption and secure protocols to protect user information during login.

Upon successful login, users are redirected to the home page or their personalized
dashboard.

Page 30 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Home Page:

The Home page serves as the main dashboard or landing area after login, providing an
overview of essential information.

It may display summarized project details, recent activities, or links to key functionalities.

Users can navigate to algorithm evaluation, prediction, or data visualization sections from
here.

Designed for user convenience, offering a central hub for accessing project resources and
functionalities.

Algorithm Page:

The Algorithm page is dedicated to evaluating and comparing the accuracy of different
machine learning algorithms used in the project.

Users can view detailed performance metrics such as accuracy or error rate.

Enables users to make informed decisions on selecting the best-performing algorithm for
specific tasks.

Prediction Page:

The Prediction page allows users to input data and obtain predictions using the machine
learning model.

Users can input relevant parameters or features related to crop to receive predictions.

Provides instantaneous feedback on predicted outcomes, facilitating quick decision-

making.

Designed for usability and efficiency in operational environments, ensuring immediate

access to predictive insights.

Page 31 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

7.2Output Screens:
HomePage: The HomePage serves as the landing page of your application. It provides an
overview of the project's features, objectives, and benefits. Users can navigate to other sections
of the application from this page.

Fig 7.1 Home Page

AboutPage: The AboutPage offers detailed information about the project, including its
purpose, goals, and the technology used. It provides background information on the
problem being addressed and the methods employed.

Fig 7.2 About Page

Page 32 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Registration Page: The Registration Page allows new users to create an account with the
application. It typically includes fields for entering personal information such as name, email,
password, and possibly other details like phone number or address. Users need to fill out this
form to gain access to the application's features.

Fig 7.3 Registration Page

Login Page : The Login Page enables users to access their existing accounts by entering
their credentials. It usually includes fields for entering a username/email and password.

Fig 7.4 Login Page

Page 33 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

View data page:In this page user can view the dataset data in the table format

Fig 7.5 View Data Page

Model:In this page user can select the particular algorithm so that the particular algorithm
produce the respective r2_score

Fig 7.6 Home Page

Page 34 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Prediction Page: : The Prediction Page allows users to input data and receive predictions based
on the trained machine learning models. This page typically includes a form or interface for
uploading or entering data (e.g., smartwatch sensor data).

Fig: 7.7 Prediction page

Page 35 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER 8

SYSTEM STUDY AND TESTING

1. System Overview

The study and testing phase of this project involves evaluating the performance and
effectiveness of the Explainable Data-Driven Digital Twin system designed for predicting
battery states in electric vehicles. The system integrates a range of advanced machine
learning algorithms to create a robust and adaptable digital twin model that can accurately
forecast key battery parameters, including state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH).

2. System Components

• Data Collection and Preprocessing: Gather data from various sources, such as
battery performance metrics, vehicle usage patterns, and environmental conditions.
This data is cleaned, normalized, and split into training and testing sets.
• Machine Learning Algorithms: Implement and train the following algorithms:
o Deep Neural Networks (DNN)
o Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks
o Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN)
o Support Vector Regression (SVR)
o Support Vector Machines (SVM)
o Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN)
o Radial Basis Function networks (RBF)
o Random Forests (RF)
o Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)
• Digital Twin Model: Integrate the trained models to form a comprehensive digital
twin that simulates battery behavior and predicts SOC and SOH under various
operational conditions.

Page 36 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

3. Testing Methodology

• Validation and Verification:

o Cross-Validation: Use k-fold cross-validation to assess the model's
performance and ensure that the results are not overfitted to the training data.
o Performance Metrics: Evaluate the model using metrics such as Mean
Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), and R-squared
to quantify prediction accuracy and reliability.
• Scenario Testing:
o Normal Operating Conditions: Test the model under typical usage
scenarios to validate its predictions in standard operating environments.
o Extreme Conditions: Assess model performance under extreme conditions,
such as high/low temperatures and rapid charge/discharge cycles, to ensure
robustness and accuracy in varied environments.
• Explainability Analysis:
o Feature Importance: Utilize explainable AI techniques to analyze which
features most significantly impact the battery state predictions.
o Model Interpretation: Use tools like SHAP (SHapley Additive
exPlanations) or LIME (Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations)
to interpret the predictions and understand the decision-making process of
the model.

4. Results and Discussion

• Accuracy and Performance: Compare the performance of the integrated digital

twin model against traditional methods to demonstrate improvements in prediction
accuracy and reliability.
• Robustness and Adaptability: Discuss the model’s ability to handle diverse
operational scenarios and its adaptability to different battery types and vehicle
conditions.
• Interpretability: Evaluate the effectiveness of the explainable AI techniques in
providing insights into the factors influencing battery performance.

Page 37 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

5. Conclusion and Future Work

• Summary of Findings: Summarize the key outcomes from the testing phase,
highlighting the improvements over existing methods.
• Recommendations: Provide recommendations for further refining the model and
potential enhancements in battery management systems.
• Future Directions: Suggest areas for future research, such as incorporating
additional data sources or exploring other machine learning techniques to further
enhance model performance.

8.2 SYSTEM TESTING

1. Objective of System Testing

• Validation: Confirm that the digital twin model accurately predicts battery
parameters, such as state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH), under various
conditions.
• Performance Evaluation: Assess the model’s predictive accuracy and reliability
compared to existing methods.
• Explainability: Verify that the model provides interpretable and understandable
results regarding battery performance.

2. Testing Methodology

• Unit Testing:
o Component Validation: Test individual components, such as data
preprocessing modules, each machine learning algorithm, and the
integration of these components into the digital twin model, to ensure they
function correctly in isolation.
• Integration Testing:

Page 38 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

o Component Interaction: Evaluate how well different algorithms and the

digital twin model work together. Ensure seamless data flow and integration
between the algorithms and the overall system.
• System Testing:
o End-to-End Testing: Perform comprehensive testing of the entire system
to ensure it meets the project objectives and performs as expected in real-
world scenarios.

3. Testing Procedures

• Data Validation:
o Data Quality Checks: Ensure that the data used for training and testing is
complete, accurate, and consistent.
o Preprocessing Verification: Confirm that data preprocessing techniques,
including normalization and handling of missing values, are correctly
applied.
• Algorithm Testing:
o Training and Validation: Train each machine learning algorithm (DNN,
LSTM, CNN, SVR, SVM, FNN, RBF, RF, XGBoost) using the dataset and
evaluate their performance using validation techniques such as k-fold cross-
validation.
o Performance Metrics: Measure the performance of each algorithm using
metrics such as Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Squared Error
(RMSE), and R-squared to assess prediction accuracy.
• Scenario Testing:
o Normal Conditions: Test the model under typical operating conditions to
validate its performance in standard scenarios.
o Extreme Conditions: Evaluate the model’s performance under extreme
conditions, such as high/low temperatures and rapid charge/discharge
cycles, to ensure robustness and accuracy in diverse environments.
o Long-Term Testing: Assess the model’s performance over extended
periods to ensure it maintains reliability and accuracy over time.

Page 39 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

• Explainability Testing:
o Feature Importance Analysis: Use techniques to analyze which features
most significantly impact the predictions, such as feature importance scores.
o Model Interpretation: Apply explainable AI tools like SHAP (SHapley
Additive exPlanations) or LIME (Local Interpretable Model-agnostic
Explanations) to interpret and validate the model’s predictions and the
factors influencing battery performance.

4. Results Analysis

• Accuracy and Reliability: Compare the model’s predictions with actual battery
performance data to evaluate accuracy. Analyze how the model performs against
traditional methods in terms of reliability.
• Robustness: Examine the model’s ability to handle different scenarios and
conditions. Identify any limitations or weaknesses that need addressing.
• Explainability: Evaluate how well the explainable AI techniques clarify the
model’s predictions and provide actionable insights into battery performance.

5. Documentation and Reporting

• Test Results: Document the outcomes of all tests, including performance metrics,
scenarios tested, and any issues encountered.
• Issues and Resolutions: Record any problems discovered during testing and the
solutions implemented to address them.
• Recommendations: Provide suggestions for model improvements based on test
results, including potential enhancements to improve prediction accuracy or system
reliability.

6. Future Work

• Enhancements: Recommend areas for future improvements, such as incorporating

additional data sources or refining machine learning algorithms.

Page 40 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

• Ongoing Monitoring: Propose strategies for continuous monitoring and

maintenance of the system to ensure sustained performance and accuracy.

Page 41 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

This research introduces a pioneering approach using Explainable Data-Driven Digital

Twins for predicting battery states in electric vehicles (EVs), leveraging a diverse array of
advanced machine learning algorithms. By integrating models such as Deep Neural
Networks (DNN), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNN), Support Vector Regression (SVR), Support Vector Machines (SVM),
Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN), Radial Basis Function networks (RBF), Random
Forests (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), we have developed a
comprehensive digital twin model that enhances the accuracy and reliability of battery state
predictions.The primary objectives of this study—improving the predictability of key
battery parameters like state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH)—have been
successfully met. The integration of these diverse algorithms allows the model to perform
well across a range of operational conditions, providing precise and reliable predictions.
The application of explainable AI techniques further enhances the model's value by offering
interpretable insights into the factors influencing battery performance, which are crucial for
understanding and optimizing battery management systems.Preliminary results indicate
that the digital twin model significantly outperforms traditional prediction methods,
demonstrating improved accuracy and robustness. This advancement not only contributes
to better battery management but also supports the development of more intelligent and
adaptive systems for electric mobility. By bridging the gap between complex machine
learning techniques and practical battery management, this research paves the way for more
efficient, safe, and long-lasting electric vehicle batteries.

Page 42 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER 10

FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

1. Incorporation of Additional Data Sources

Extended Data Collection: Integrate more diverse data sources such as real-time sensor
data, vehicle operating conditions, and environmental factors. This could improve the
model’s ability to handle various scenarios and provide more accurate predictions.

Data Fusion: Combine data from different sensors and sources to create a more holistic
view of battery performance, enhancing the model’s predictive power.

2. Advanced Machine Learning Techniques

Hybrid Models: Explore the use of hybrid models that combine the strengths of different
machine learning techniques, such as ensemble methods that integrate predictions from
multiple algorithms.

Transfer Learning: Apply transfer learning to leverage pre-trained models and adapt them
to specific battery types or new operational environments, reducing the need for extensive
retraining.

3. Improved Explainability and Interpretability

Enhanced Explainable AI: Develop more sophisticated explainable AI techniques to

provide deeper insights into model predictions and the factors influencing battery
performance.

User-Friendly Visualization: Create advanced visualization tools that make the model’s
predictions and explanations more accessible and actionable for users and stakeholders.

4. Real-Time Predictive Capabilities

Online Learning: Implement online learning techniques to enable the model to update in
real-time as new data is collected, improving its responsiveness and accuracy.

Page 43 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

Edge Computing: Deploy models on edge devices to enable real-time battery state
predictions and diagnostics directly within the vehicle, reducing latency and improving
performance.

5. Integration with Advanced Battery Management Systems

Adaptive Control Systems: Integrate the digital twin model with adaptive battery
management systems to optimize battery usage and enhance vehicle performance
dynamically.

Predictive Maintenance: Use the model to predict potential battery failures or

maintenance needs, enabling proactive interventions and reducing the risk of unexpected
breakdowns.

6. Scalability and Customization

Model Scalability: Develop scalable solutions that can be easily adapted to different
battery types, vehicle models, and operational contexts.

Customization for Different Applications: Customize the model for specific

applications, such as different types of EVs (e.g., passenger cars, commercial vehicles) or
varying geographic conditions.

7. Enhanced Validation and Testing

Expanded Testing Scenarios: Conduct more extensive testing across a wider range of
operational conditions, including extreme environments and unusual usage patterns.

Long-Term Validation: Implement long-term validation studies to assess the model’s

performance and reliability over extended periods and usage cycles.

8. Collaboration and Benchmarking

Industry Collaboration: Collaborate with automotive manufacturers, battery producers,

and research institutions to align the model with industry standards and requirements.

Benchmarking: Regularly benchmark the model against emerging technologies and

industry best practices to ensure its competitiveness and relevance.

Page 44 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

CHAPTER 11
REFERENCES

1. Zhou, K., Yang, S., & Shen, C. (2016). "A review on the development and
application of digital twins in the automotive industry." IEEE Access, 4, 1848-1858.
doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2016.2566403.
2. Jia, L., & Zhang, Y. (2018). "A survey of machine learning for big data processing
in battery management systems." IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics,
14(4), 1635-1645. doi:10.1109/TII.2017.2785224.
3. Wang, X., & Zhang, J. (2020). "State-of-charge and state-of-health estimation for
lithium-ion batteries based on a hybrid machine learning model." Journal of Energy
Storage, 30, 101514. doi:10.1016/j.est.2020.101514.
4. Lee, J., & Kwon, Y. (2019). "Data-driven digital twins for smart manufacturing: A
review and future directions." IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 15(12),
6658-6668. doi:10.1109/TII.2019.2916845.
5. Liu, H., & Zhao, Y. (2021). "Explainable artificial intelligence for healthcare: A
review of recent advances." Journal of Healthcare Engineering, 2021, 8887364.
doi:10.1155/2021/8887364.
6. Wang, S., & Wang, Y. (2021). "Deep learning and its applications in battery
management systems." Energy Reports, 7, 117-126.
doi:10.1016/j.egyr.2021.02.005.
7. Yuan, Y., & Xu, J. (2020). "Long Short-Term Memory neural network based
battery state of charge estimation for electric vehicles." Energies, 13(2), 424.
doi:10.3390/en13020424.
8. Kumar, S., & Weng, X. (2020). "Radial Basis Function Neural Networks for
battery state prediction in electric vehicles." Energy Conversion and Management,
207, 112582. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112582.
9. Chen, J., & Zhou, X. (2022). "Explainable AI methods for battery health
management: A review." IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems,
23(7), 10485-10498. doi:10.1109/TITS.2022.3154382.

Page 45 of 46
 Prediction of SOC and SOH in Battery Management Systems

10. Sharma, S., & Singh, A. (2020). "Predictive modeling and machine learning
techniques for battery state estimation: A review." Energy, 191, 116614.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2019.116614.
11. Kang, J., & Gao, D. (2018). "Convolutional Neural Networks for battery state-of-
health estimation in electric vehicles." Applied Energy, 231, 1054-1064.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.086.
12. Huang, C., & Liu, L. (2021). "Support Vector Machines for state-of-charge
estimation in lithium-ion batteries." Journal of Power Sources, 494, 229743.
doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229743.
13. Yang, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2021). "Integration of machine learning techniques for
battery health prediction and management." Energy Reports, 7, 207-217.
doi:10.1016/j.egyr.2021.01.043.
14. Shao, S., & Zhang, Z. (2020). "Hybrid machine learning approach for state-of-
charge estimation of lithium-ion batteries." Energy Storage Materials, 26, 668-678.
doi:10.1016/j.ensm.2020.02.005.
15. Nguyen, T., & Kim, K. (2019). "Feedforward Neural Networks for battery health
diagnostics and prognosis." Journal of Electrical Engineering & Technology, 14(2),
723-731. doi:10.5370/JEET.2019.14.2.723.
16. Lin, C., & He, H. (2021). "Extreme Gradient Boosting for battery state of charge
and state of health prediction." IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 36(6),
6763-6773. doi:10.1109/TPEL.2021.3054382.
17. Chen, Y., & Zhang, W. (2020). "Digital twin and machine learning for predictive
maintenance of electric vehicle batteries." Computers & Industrial Engineering,
139, 106180. doi:10.1016/j.cie.2020.106180.
18. Gao, J., & Li, X. (2019). "State-of-charge estimation using hybrid deep learning
models." IEEE Access, 7, 145487-145496. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2940163.
19. Zhang, Y., & Zheng, M. (2021). "Convolutional Neural Networks and data
augmentation for battery state prediction." Journal of Energy Storage, 33, 102229.
doi:10.1016/j.est.2020.102229.
20. Song, H., & Yu, H. (2022). "Explainable AI in energy systems: State-of-the-art and
future directions." Energy Reports, 8, 297-312. doi:10.1016/j.egyr.2022.01.040.

Page 46 of 46