Structure of the Atom Class 9 CBSE Notes - Chapter 4

Atoms
Atoms are the building blocks of matter. It is the smallest unit of matter that is composed of three sub-atomic particles:
the proton, the neutron and the electron.
Atomic Structure - Discovery of Subatomic Particles
The atomic structure refers to the structure of an atom comprising a nucleus (centre) in which the protons
(positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are present. The negatively charged particles called electrons revolve
around the centre of the nucleus.
The history of atomic structure and quantum mechanics dates back to the times of Democritus, the person who first
proposed that matter is composed of atoms. The study of the structure of an atom gives a great insight into the entire
class of chemical reactions, bonds and their physical properties. The first scientific theory of atomic structure was
proposed by John Dalton in the 1800s.
What Is Atomic Structure?
The atomic structure of an element refers to the constitution of its nucleus and the arrangement of the electrons around
it. Primarily, the atomic structure of matter is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons.
The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom, which is surrounded by the electrons belonging to the
atom. The atomic number of an element describes the total number of protons in its nucleus.

Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons. However, atoms may gain or lose electrons in order to
increase their stability, and the resulting charged entity is called an ion.
Atoms of different elements have different atomic structures because they contain different numbers of protons and
electrons. This is the reason for the unique characteristics of different elements.

Atomic Models
In the 18th and 19th centuries, many scientists attempted to explain the structure of the atom with the help of atomic
models. Each of these models had its own merits and demerits and was pivotal to the development of the modern
atomic model. The most notable contributions to the field were by the scientists such as John Dalton, J.J. Thomson,
Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr. Their ideas on the structure of the atom are discussed in this subsection.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The English chemist John Dalton suggested that all matter is made up of atoms, which were indivisible and
indestructible. He also stated that all the atoms of an element were exactly the same, but the atoms of different
elements differ in size and mass.
Chemical reactions, according to Dalton‟s atomic theory, involve a rearrangement of atoms to form products.
According to the postulates proposed by Dalton, the atomic structure comprises atoms, the smallest particle
responsible for the chemical reactions to occur.
The following are the postulates of his theory:
 Every matter is made up of atoms.
 Atoms are indivisible.
 Specific elements have only one type of atom in them.
 Each atom has its own constant mass that varies from element to element.
 Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction.
 Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another.
Dalton‟s atomic theory successfully explained the Laws of chemical reactions, namely, the Law of conservation of
mass, the Law of constant properties, the Law of multiple proportions and the Law of reciprocal proportions.
Demerits of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 The theory was unable to explain the existence of isotopes.
 Nothing about the structure of the atom was appropriately explained.
  Later, scientists discovered particles inside the atom that proved the atoms are divisible.
The discovery of particles inside atoms led to a better understanding of chemical species; these particles inside the
atoms are called subatomic particles. The discovery of various subatomic particles is as follows:

Thomson Atomic Model

The English chemist Sir Joseph John Thomson put forth his model describing the atomic structure in the early 1900s.
He was later awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of “electrons”. His work is based on an experiment called the
cathode ray experiment. The construction of working of the experiment is as follows:
What is Cathode Ray Tube?
A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube in which an electron beam, deflected by applied electric or magnetic
fields, produces a trace on a fluorescent screen.
The function of the cathode ray tube is to convert an electrical signal into a visual display. Cathode rays or streams of
electron particles are quite easy to produce, electrons orbit every atom and move from atom to atom as an electric
current.
In a cathode ray tube, electrons are accelerated from one end of the tube to the other using an electric field. When the
electrons hit the far end of the tube they give up all the energy they carry due to their speed and this is changed to
other forms such as heat. A small amount of energy is transformed into X-rays.

Cathode Ray Tube

The cathode ray tube (CRT), invented in 1897 by the German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun, is an evacuated glass
envelope containing an electron gun a source of electrons and a fluorescent light, usually with internal or external
means to accelerate and redirect the electrons. Light is produced when electrons hit a fluorescent tube.
The electron beam is deflected and modulated in a manner that allows an image to appear on the projector. The picture
may reflect electrical wave forms (oscilloscope), photographs (television, computer monitor), echoes of radar-detected
aircraft, and so on. The single electron beam can be processed to show movable images in natural colours.
J. J. Thomson Experiment – The Discovery of Electron
The Cathode ray experiment was a result of English physicists named J. J. Thomson experimenting with cathode ray
tubes. During his experiment he discovered electrons and it is one of the most important discoveries in the history of
physics. He was even awarded a Nobel Prize in physics for this discovery and his work on the conduction of
electricity in gases.
However, talking about the experiment, J. J. Thomson took a tube made of glass containing two pieces of metal as an
electrode. The air inside the chamber was subjected to high voltage and electricity flowing through the air from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode.

Cathode Ray Tube

J. J. Thomson designed a glass tube that was partly evacuated, i.e. all the air had been drained out of the building. He
then applied a high electric voltage at either end of the tube between two electrodes. He observed a particle stream
(ray) coming out of the negatively charged electrode (cathode) to the positively charged electrode (anode). This ray is
called a cathode ray and is called a cathode ray tube for the entire construction.
The experiment Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) conducted by J. J. Thomson, is one of the most well-known physical
experiments that led to electron discovery. In addition, the experiment could describe characteristic properties, in
essence, its affinity to positive charge, and its charge to mass ratio. This paper describes how J is simulated. J.
Thomson experimented with Cathode Ray Tube.
The major contribution of this work is the new approach to modelling this experiment, using the equations of physical
laws to describe the electrons‟ motion with a great deal of accuracy and precision. The user can manipulate and record
the movement of the electrons by assigning various values to the experimental parameters.

Apparatus Setup

A Diagram of JJ.Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment showing Electron Beam – A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a
large, sealed glass tube.
The apparatus of the experiment incorporated a tube made of glass containing two pieces of metals at the opposite
ends which acted as an electrode. The two metal pieces were connected with an external voltage. The pressure of the
gas inside the tube was lowered by evacuating the air.

Procedure of the Experiment

1. Apparatus is set up by providing a high voltage source and evacuating the air to maintain the low pressure
inside the tube.
2. High voltage is passed to the two metal pieces to ionize the air and make it a conductor of electricity.
3. The electricity starts flowing as the circuit was complete.
4. To identify the constituents of the ray produced by applying a high voltage to the tube, the dipole was set up
as an add-on in the experiment.
5. The positive pole and negative pole were kept on either side of the discharge ray.
6. When the dipoles were applied, the ray was repelled by the negative pole and it was deflected towards the
positive pole.
7. This was further confirmed by placing the phosphorescent substance at the end of the discharge ray. It glows
when hit by a discharge ray. By carefully observing the places where fluorescence was observed, it was noted
that the deflections were on the positive side. So the constituents of the discharge tube were negatively
charged.
Conclusion
After completing the experiment J.J. Thomson concluded that rays were and are basically negatively charged particles
present or moving around in a set of a positive charge. This theory further helped physicists in understanding the
structure of an atom. And the significant observation that he made was that the characteristics of cathode rays or
electrons did not depend on the material of electrodes or the nature of the gas present in the cathode ray tube. All in
all, from all this we learn that the electrons are in fact the basic constituent of all the atoms.
Most of the mass of the atom and all of its positive charge are contained in a small nucleus, called a nucleus. The
particle which is positively charged is called a proton. The greater part of an atom‟s volume is empty space.
The number of electrons that are dispersed outside the nucleus is the same as the number of positively charged protons
in the nucleus. This explains the electrical neutrality of an atom as a whole.

Uses of Cathode Ray Tube

1. Used as a most popular television (TV) display.
2. X-rays are produced when fast-moving cathode rays are stopped suddenly.
3. The screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope, and the monitor of a computer, are coated with fluorescent
substances. When the cathode rays fall off the screen pictures are visible on the screen.
Electrons
 Electrons are the negatively charged sub-atomic particles of an atom.
 The mass of an electron is considered to be negligible, and its charge is -1.
–
 The symbol for an electron is e
 Electrons are extremely small.
 They are found outside the nucleus.
Thomson model Introduction
Thomson atomic model was proposed by William Thomson in the year 1900. This model explained the description
of an inner structure of the atom theoretically. It was strongly supported by Sir Joseph Thomson, who had discovered
the electron earlier.
During cathode ray tube experiment, a negatively charged particle was discovered by J.J. Thomson. This experiment
took place in the year 1897. Cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube. The negative particle was called an electron.
Thomson assumed that an electron is two thousand times lighter than a proton and believed that an atom is made up of
thousands of electrons. In this atomic structure model, he considered atoms surrounded by a cloud having positive as
well as negative charges. The demonstration of the ionization of air by X-ray was also done by him together with
Rutherford. They were the first to demonstrate it. Thomson‟s model of an atom is similar to a plum pudding.
Postulates of Thomson’s atomic model
Postulate 1: An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it
Postulate 2: An atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges are equal in
magnitude
Thomson atomic model is compared to watermelon. Where he considered:
 Watermelon seeds as negatively charged particles
 The red part of the watermelon as positively charged
Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
 It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of atom failed to explain how a positive charge
holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom. Therefore, This theory also failed to account for the
position of the nucleus in an atom
 Thomson‟s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils
 No experimental evidence in its support
Although Thomson‟s model was not an accurate model to account for the atomic structure, it proved to be the base for
the development of other atomic models. Find the atomic structure pdf here. The study of the atom and its structure
has paved the way for numerous inventions that have played a significant role in the development of humankind.
What is Radioactivity?
Due to nuclear instability, an atom‟s nucleus exhibits the phenomenon of Radioactivity. Energy is lost due to radiation
that is emitted out of the unstable nucleus of an atom. Two forces, namely the force of repulsion that is electrostatic
and the powerful forces of attraction of the nucleus, keep the nucleus together. These two forces are considered
extremely strong in the natural environment. The chance of encountering instability increases as the size of the
nucleus increases because the mass of the nucleus becomes a lot when concentrated. That‟s the reason why atoms of
Plutonium, Uranium are extremely unstable and undergo the phenomenon of radioactivity.
Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity by accident. A Uranium compound was placed in a drawer containing
photographic plates, wrapped in a black paper. When the plates were examined later, it was found that they were
exposed! This exposure gave rise to the concept of Radioactive decay. Radioactivity can be seen in such forms
 Gamma Decay (Photons having high energy are emitted)
 Beta Decay (Emission consists of Electrons)
 Alpha Decay (Emission consists of Helium nucleus)
Radioactive Radiations
Following are the three radioactive radiations that are obtained from α, β, and γ rays:

Laws of Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is the result of the decay of the nucleus.
 The nucleus‟s decay rate is independent of temperature and pressure.
 Radioactivity is dependent on the law of conservation of charge.
 The physical and chemical properties of the daughter nucleus are different from the mother nucleus.
 The emission of energy from radioactivity is always accompanied by alpha, beta, and gamma particles.
 The rate of decay of radioactive substances is dependent on the number of atoms that are present at the time.

Units of Radioactivity
Curie and Rutherford are the units of radioactivity.
1C = 3.7 × 104 Rd is the relationship between Curie and Rutherford.
Alpha Decay
Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay where the unstable atomic nuclei emit a helium nucleus (alpha particle) and
in the process transforms into another more stable element. The particle ejected out, the alpha particle, consists of
four nucleons, and they are two neutrons and two protons. Alpha radiation reduces the ratio of protons to neutrons in
the parent nucleus, bringing it to a more stable configuration. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium
atom. The first observations and investigation into alpha decay were made by Ernest Rutherford, who used alpha
particles in his gold foil scattering experiment. As the alpha particle; made of two protons and neutron; exits the
nucleus, the atomic number of the radioactive sample changes. The element left behind after alpha decay is two
atomic numbers lesser and four mass numbers lower. For example, Uranium 238 92 decays to form Thorium23490.

Occurrence of alpha decay

Alpha decay occurs only in the heaviest of the elements. The element‟s nucleus should be large or unstable enough to
undergo spontaneous fission-type changes. It is the most common form of decay in such elements. The alpha particles
emitted out of the nucleus usually have an energy level of around 5 MeV and have a speed of around 5% of light. It is
important to note that alpha particles possess a charge of +2 due to the absence of electrons. Due to this charge and
owing to its heavy mass, an alpha particle reacts with the surroundings vigorously to lose all of its energy almost
immediately. Their forward motion can be stopped by a few centimeters of air.
Owing to their heaviness and their charge, this kind of radioactive decay reacts most violently with the human body.
They have a high ionizing power due to which they can wreak havoc with a tissue. An overdose of alpha radiation
results in the formation of blisters and burns on the victim‟s bodies.

Uses of Radioactivity
Some radioactivity uses are provided in the points below.
 Americium-241 is an alpha emitter and is used for domestic smoke detectors in the United States.
 The alpha particles given out by the Americium sample ionize the air in the chamber of the smoke detector
leading to a small current in the chamber.
 When smoke enters the chamber, it causes a drop in current causing the alarm to go off. Although Alpha
particles have a very short range, they are devastating when in close contact.
 Alpha emitters, when swallowed, come in close contact with tissue and are deadly in such circumstances and
is therefore used in assassination attempts by radiation poisoning.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Radioactivity
Advantages of radioactivity are:
 Gamma rays are used to kill cancerous cells and hence used in radiotherapy.
 Cobalt-60 is used to destroy carcinogenic cells.
 Gamma rays are used in scanning the internal parts of the body.
 Gamma rays kill microbes present in food and prevent it from decay by increasing the shelf life.
 Age of the rocks can be studied using radioactive radiations by measuring the argon content present in the
rock.
Disadvantages of radioactivity are:
 High dosage of radioactive radiation on the body might lead to death.
 Radioactive isotopes are expensive.

Rutherford Atomic Theory

Rutherford, a student of J. J. Thomson, modified the atomic structure with the discovery of another subatomic
particle called “Nucleus”. His atomic model is based on the Alpha ray scattering experiment.
Alpha Ray Scattering Experiment
Construction:
 A very thin gold foil of 1000 atoms thick is taken.
 Alpha rays (doubly charged Helium He ) were made to bombard the gold foil.
2+

 Zn S screen is placed behind the gold foil.

Observations:
 Most of the rays just went through the gold foil, making scintillations (bright spots) in the ZnS screen.
 A few rays got reflected after hitting the gold foil.
 One in 1000 rays got reflected by an angle of 180° (retraced path) after hitting the gold foil.
Conclusions:
 Since most rays passed through, Rutherford concluded that most of the space inside the atom is empty.
 A few rays got reflected because of the repulsion of its positive with some other positive charge inside the
atom.
 1/1000th of the rays got strongly deflected because of a very strong positive charge in the centre of the atom.
He called this strong positive charge “nucleus”.
 He said most of the charge and mass of the atom resides in the nucleus.
Rutherford’s Structure of Atom
Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed his own atomic structure, which is as follows.
 The nucleus is at the centre of an atom, where most of the charge and mass is concentrated.
 The atomic structure is spherical.
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit, similar to the way planets orbit the sun.
Limitations of the Rutherford Atomic Model
 If electrons have to revolve around the nucleus, they will spend energy and that too against the strong force of
attraction from the nucleus, a lot of energy will be spent by the electrons, and eventually, they will lose all
their energy and will fall into the nucleus so the stability of atom is not explained.
 If electrons continuously revolve around the „nucleus, the type of spectrum expected is a continuous spectrum.
But in reality, what we see is a line spectrum.
Subatomic Particles
Protons
 Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. The charge of a proton is 1e, which corresponds to
approximately 1.602 × 10-19
 The mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10
-24

 Protons are over 1800 times heavier than electrons.

 The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is always equal to the atomic number of the element.
Neutrons
 The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton, i.e., 1.674×10
-24

 Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge.

 Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but vary in the number of neutrons present
in their respective nuclei.
Electrons
 The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10
-19

 The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10 .

-31

 Due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons, they are ignored when calculating the mass of an atom.
Atomic Structure of Isotopes
Nucleons are the components of the nucleus of an atom. A nucleon can either be a proton or a neutron. Each element
has a unique number of protons in it, which is described by its unique atomic number. However, several atomic
structures of an element can exist, which differ in the total number of nucleons.
These variants of elements having a different nucleon number (also known as the mass number) are called isotopes of
the element. Therefore, the isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but differ in the number of
neutrons.
The atomic structure of an isotope is described with the help of the chemical symbol of the element, the atomic
number of the element and the mass number of the isotope. For example, there exist three known naturally occurring
isotopes of hydrogen, namely, protium, deuterium and tritium. The atomic structures of these hydrogen isotopes are
illustrated below.

The isotopes of an element vary in stability. The half-lives of isotopes also differ. However, they generally have
similar chemical behaviour owing to the fact that they hold the same electronic structures.
Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass number, are known as isobars.
For example, Calcium and Argon: both have the same mass number – 40
40 40
20Ca and 18Ar
Calculation of Mass Number for Isotopic Elements
When an element has an isotope, the mass number can be calculated by the different proportions it exists in.
For example, take 98% Carbon-12u and 2% Carbon-13u
For example, take 98% Carbon-12u and 2% Carbon-13u

This does not mean that any Carbon atoms exist with a mass number of 12.02u. If you take a certain amount of
Carbon, it will contain both isotopes of Carbon, and the average mass is 12.02 u.

Atomic Structures of Some Elements

The structure of an atom of an element can be simply represented via the total number of protons, electrons and
neutrons present in it. The atomic structures of a few elements are illustrated below.
Hydrogen
The most abundant isotope of hydrogen on the planet Earth is protium. The atomic number and the mass number of
this isotope are 1 and 1, respectively.
Structure of Hydrogen Atom: This implies that it contains one proton, one electron and no neutrons (Total number
of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number)
Carbon
Carbon has two stable isotopes – 12C and 13C. Of these isotopes, 12C has an abundance of 98.9%. It contains 6
protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons.
Structure of Carbon Atom: The electrons are distributed into two shells, and the outermost shell (valence shell) has
four electrons. The tetravalency of carbon enables it to form a variety of chemical bonds with various elements.
Oxygen
There exist three stable isotopes of oxygen – 18O, 17O and 16O. However, oxygen-16 is the most abundant isotope.
Structure of Oxygen Atom: Since the atomic number of this isotope is 8 and the mass number is 16, it consists of 8
protons and 8 neutrons. 6 out of the 8 electrons in an oxygen atom lie in the valence shell.

Bohr’s Atomic Theory

Properties of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons

Neils Bohr put forth his model of the atom in the year 1915. This is the most widely used atomic model to describe the
atomic structure of an element which is based on Planck‟s theory of quantization.
Postulates:
 The electrons inside atoms are placed in discrete orbits called “stationery orbits”.
 The energy levels of these shells can be represented via quantum numbers.
 Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy and move to lower energy levels by losing or
emitting their energy.
 As long as an electron stays in its own stationery, there will be no absorption or emission of energy.
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in these stationary orbits only.
 The energy of the stationary orbits is quantised.
Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Theory:
 Bohr‟s atomic structure works only for single electron species such as H, He+, Li2+, Be3+, ….
 When the emission spectrum of hydrogen was observed under a more accurate spectrometer, each line
spectrum was seen to be a combination of a number of smaller discrete lines.
 Both Stark and Zeeman‟s effects couldn‟t be explained using Bohr‟s theory.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: Heisenberg stated that no two conjugate physical quantities could be measured
simultaneously with 100% accuracy. There will always be some error or uncertainty in the measurement.
Drawback: Position and momentum are two such conjugate quantities that were measured accurately by Bohr
(theoretically).
Stark effect: Phenomenon of deflection of electrons in the presence of an electric field.
Zeeman effect: Phenomenon of deflection of electrons in the presence of a magnetic field.

Dual Nature of Matter

The electrons, which were treated to be particles, and the evidence of the photoelectric effect show they also have a
wave nature. This was proved by Thomas Young with the help of his double-slit experiment.
De-Broglie concluded that since nature is symmetrical, so should light or any other matter wave be.
Quantum Numbers
 Principal Quantum Number (n): It denotes the orbital number or shell number of an electron.
 Azimuthal Quantum Numbers (l): It denotes the orbital (sub-orbit) of the electron.
 Magnetic Quantum Number: It denotes the number of energy states in each orbit.
 Spin Quantum number(s): It denotes the direction of spin, S = -½ = Anticlockwise and ½ = Clockwise.
Electronic Configuration of an Atom
The electrons have to be filled in the s, p, d and f in accordance with the following rule.
1. Aufbau’s principle: The filling of electrons should take place in accordance with the ascending order of energy of
orbitals.
 Lower energy orbital should be filled first, and higher energy levels.
 The energy of orbital α(p + l) value it two orbitals have the same (n + l) value, E α n
 Ascending order of energy 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, . . .
2. Pauli’s exclusion principle: No two electrons can have all four quantum numbers to be the same, or if two
electrons have to be placed in an energy state, they should be placed with opposite spies.
3. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: In the case of filling degenerate (same energy) orbitals, all the degenerate
orbitals have to be singly filled first, and then, only pairing has to happen.
Define Valency
The combining capacity of an atom is known as its valency. The number of bonds that an atom can form as part of a
compound is expressed by the valency of the element.
We all know how electrons in an atom are arranged in shells/orbitals. Valence electrons are those electrons which are
present in the outermost orbit of the atom. From the Bohr-bury scheme, we can say that the outermost shell can
contain a maximum of 8 electrons. Only a little chemical activity is observed when the outermost shell is completely
filled. We can also say that it‟s combining capacity becomes zero.
For example, nitrogen forms a number of compounds with hydrogen such as NH3, N2H4, N3H in which nitrogen atoms
have valencies of 3, 2 and 1/3 respectively. Thus, this concept of valency as a mere number was not clear. Therefore,
later on valency was defined as the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom in a molecule.
Concept of Valency
Noble gases have a completely filled outermost shell and that‟s why they are least reactive. Other element‟s reactivity
depends upon their ability to attain the noble gas configuration. In this section, we shall learn more about the valency
of an atom.

If the outermost shell has 8 electrons then the element is said to have a complete octet. By gaining, sharing and losing
the electrons the atoms complete their outermost orbital and make an octet.
The capacity of an atom is described by the total number of electrons lost, gained or shared to complete its octet and it
also determines the valency of the atom.
How to Find Valency of Elements?
As we know, the number of electrons in the outermost shell of hydrogen is 1, and in magnesium, it is 2. Therefore, the
valency of hydrogen is 1 as it can easily lose 1 electron and become stable. On the other hand, that of magnesium is 2
as it can lose 2 electrons easily and also attain stability.
Furthermore, it is not only determined when an atom loses an electron. For example, fluorine has 7 electrons in its
outermost orbital. It is hard to lose 7 electrons and so it completes its octet by gaining 1 electron. Since it gains 1
electron, its valency is 1. In the periodic table, the elements in the same group have the same valency.
For example, all the elements in group 8 have 8 electrons and completely filled orbitals, that is why the valency of all
the elements in this group is zero.
Difference between Valency and Oxidation Number
Valency is different from the oxidation number, and it has NO SIGN. Thus, the valency of nitrogen is 3, whereas it
can have oxidation numbers from -3 to +5. The oxidation number is the hypothetical charge of an atom in a molecule
or ion, and it is a measure of its apparent capacity to gain or lose electrons within that species.
Valency of First 30 Elements
Let us look at the valency of the first 30 elements of the periodic table.
Element Atomic Number Valency
Valency of Hydrogen 1 1
Valency of Helium 2 0
Valency of Lithium 3 1
Valency of Beryllium 4 2
Valency of Boron 5 3
Valency of Carbon 6 4
Valency of Nitrogen 7 3
Valency of Oxygen 8 2
Valency of Fluorine 9 1
Valency of Neon 10 0
Valency of Sodium (Na) 11 1
Valency of Magnesium (Mg) 12 2
Valency of Aluminium 13 3
Valency of Silicon 14 4
Valency of Phosphorus 15 3
Valency of Sulphur 16 2
Valency of Chlorine 17 1
Valency of Argon 18 0
Valency of Potassium (K) 19 1
Valency of Calcium 20 2
Valency of Scandium 21 3
Valency of Titanium 22 4
Valency of Vanadium 23 5,4
Valency of Chromium 24 2
Valency of Manganese 25 7, 4, 2
Valency of Iron (Fe) 26 2, 3
Valency of Nickel 27 3, 2
Valency of Cobalt 28 2
Valency of Copper (Cu) 29 2, 1
Valency of Zinc 30 2
What is Atomic Number?
 The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom gives us the atomic number of that atom.
 It is represented with the letter „Z.‟
 All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons, and hence the same atomic number.
  Atoms of different elements have different atomic numbers.
 For example, all carbon atoms have the atomic number of 6, whereas all atoms of Oxygen have 8 protons in
their nucleus.
What is Mass Number?
 The number of protons and neutrons combine to give us the mass number of an atom.
 It is represented using the letter „A.‟
 As both protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom, they are together called nucleons.
 For example, an atom of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Thus, its mass number is 12.
 While the number of protons remains the same in all atoms of an element, the number of neutrons can vary.
Thus, atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers, and these are called isotopes.
 The weight of an electron is almost negligible. Thus, the atomic mass of an atom is almost the same as its
mass number.
History of Atomic Number
We take the existence of atoms for granted – yet for centuries no one believed in them. Around 2500 years ago a
Greek philosopher called Leucippus and his pupil Demokritos put forward the idea that the universe is made up of tiny
indivisible particles, which they called atoms. Unfortunately the great Greek philosopher Aristotle did not agree with
them. As Aristotle views were accepted throughout Europe for almost 2000 years the idea of atoms was shelved for
centuries to come.
Atoms are the building blocks of matter. They combine in numerous patterns and form different substances. All atoms
except the common form of hydrogen contain protons, neutrons and electrons. The atomic number of an element is
equal to the number of protons in its nucleus. In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons
in shells which is the energy level around the nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but distinct neutron numbers, and hence distinct mass numbers. The
average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element in a defined environment on Earth determines the
element‟s standard atomic weight. A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture
of isotopes, and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element in a defined environment on Earth
determines the element‟s standard atomic weight.
Examples of Atomic Number
The atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom or the number of electrons
in an electrically neutral atom.
Atomic number = Number of protons
For example, in a sodium atom, there are 11 electrons and 11 protons. Thus the atomic number of Na atom = number
of electrons = number of protons = 11.
Atomic Number Orbital Energy Levels
When an electron is at a specific energy level, it is more likely to be found in certain portions of that level than others.
Orbitals are the name for these sections. Sublevels are made up of orbitals with the same energy. A maximum of two
electrons can be found in each orbital.
The most common way of showing the arrangement of electrons in an atom is to draw diagrams like those shown in
the diagram.

To write down the numbers of electrons in each energy level. The atomic number of an element tells us how many
electrons there are in the atoms. For example, the atomic number of carbon is 6 giving us six electrons as 2,4. So an
atom with the atomic number 12 has an electronic structure 2, 8, 2, with two electrons in the inner energy level, then
eight in the next energy level and two in the outer highest energy level. The simplest way to understand these
arrangements is to look at lots of examples of them.
Difference between Valency, A and Z:
When we want to find out the valency, we look at electrons only in the outermost shell of the atom. But when we want
to know the atomic number or the mass number, we look at the total number of protons and neutrons.
1. Notation of Atom
To write the notation of an atom, we need to know the symbol of the element, the atomic number and the mass
number. The mass number of the atom goes above the symbol and the atomic number is written as a subscript.
So, the notation of Carbon is:

2. Calculating Number of Neutrons:

If we know the number of protons and the mass number of an element, we can also calculate the number of neutrons
simply by subtracting its atomic number from its mass number.

Solved Example
Question:
An atom has an atomic number of 9 and a mass number of 19.
1. Determine the number of protons present
2. Determine the number of neutrons present
3. Determine the number of electrons present
Solution:
1. There are 9 protons because the atomic number is always equal to the number of protons present.
2. There are 10 neutrons because the number of neutrons is always obtained by subtracting the atomic number
from the mass number.
(protons + neutrons) – protons = neutrons
3. There are 9 electrons because the number of protons and the number of electrons are always the same in an
atom.