Introduction to Scientific Knowledge

“IF WE KNEW WHAT WE WERE

DOING, IT WOULDN’T BE CALLED
Scientific Knowledge, Scientific
Methodology and
RESEARCH, WOULD IT?”
Sources of Scientific Knowledge
Albert Einstein?

By Ms. Tanya Sharma

Scientific Knowledge Scientific Knowledge

• Scientific knowledge is a systematic and organized understanding of the natural world gained • Scientific knowledge is often cumulative, building upon the work of previous generations of
through empirical observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning. researchers.
• It is a dynamic and evolving body of information subject to continuous refinement and expansion • This collective and collaborative nature distinguishes the scientific enterprise, fostering a
as discoveries are made. community-driven effort to advance our comprehension of the natural world.
• Scientific knowledge is subject to peer review, a process in which experts critically evaluate
• The scientific method serves as the foundation for acquiring this knowledge, involving a scientific studies’ methods, results, and interpretations before they are accepted and published.
structured process of formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analysing data to draw
• This rigorous evaluation ensures the reliability and validity of the information within the
objective conclusions. scientific community.
• Scientific knowledge relies on evidence-based reasoning, where conclusions are drawn from • As technology advances, enabling more sophisticated measurements and analyses, scientific
observable and measurable phenomena rather than subjective beliefs or opinions. knowledge continues to deepen, uncovering new complexities and subtleties in the phenomena
• One key aspect of scientific knowledge is its universal applicability; scientific principles and studied.
laws apply consistently across different contexts and are not bound by cultural or geographical • In summary, scientific knowledge is a dynamic, evidence-based understanding of the natural
factors. world.
• This universality contributes to the global nature of scientific collaboration and the shared pursuit • It is shaped by systematic inquiry and characterized by its universality, cumulative nature, and
of understanding the intricacies of our world. commitment to empirical evidence and peer review.
 Definitions of Knowledge Sources of Knowledge
➢According to the most widely accepted definitions
• Many ways to gain knowledge
“knowledge is justified true belief”
• Some are better than others
➢It is a kind of belief is supported by the fact that both
knowledge and belief can have the same objects and that what • Reliability and accuracy ways of acquiring knowledge
is true of someone who believes something to be the case is • Science as a means of gaining knowledge
also true, among other things, of one who knows it. • Philosopher/Scholars as mean of knowledge
• For example, sun rises in the east is the knowledge or true • Spiritual leaders as a source of knowledge
belief that is supported by the fact which is arrived at through
daily observations for millions of years by people. • Islam as a Source of Knowledge

Definitions of Knowledge Sources of Scientific Knowledge

Plato has examined 3 definitions of knowledge which are:

➢Knowledge is perception or sensation • Empirical Evidence – Data from experiments and observations
➢Knowledge is true belief • Rationalism – Logical reasoning and deduction
➢Knowledge is true belief accompanied by a rational ground • Authority – Knowledge from experts and institutions
Plato finally called knowledge as ‘Justified truth’ • Intuition – Insights that lead to scientific hypotheses
Dewey denotes knowledge as ‘inference from truth’ • Testimony – Peer-reviewed journals and expert opinions
(A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning)
 How Scientific Knowledge Differs from Other Limitations and Uncertainties of
Forms Scientific Knowledge

• Based on empirical evidence rather than beliefs

• Testable and falsifiable • Subject to revision with new evidence
• Uses rigorous methodologies • Dependent on technological and methodological advancements
• Open to continuous refinement and revision • Involves assumptions and statistical probabilities
• Predictive capabilities for practical applications • Can be influenced by funding, biases, and societal values

Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge

Definition of Research
• Empirical Nature – Based on observation and experimentation
• Systematic Inquiry – Follows a structured methodology • Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
• Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to
• Objectivity – Minimizes bias in research increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
• Predictive Power – Helps forecast future observations Research is knowledge acquisition gained
• Universality – Applicable across cultures and regions • through reasoning
• through intuition
• Cumulative Progress – Builds on previous research • but most importantly through the use of appropriate methods (The scientific method)
• Falsifiability – Open to testing and verification -Polgar, Thomas
• Peer Review – Ensures credibility • Research is an endeavor to discover answers to intellectual and practical
problems through the application of scientific method.
• Openness to Revision – Subject to modification with new evidence
• Communication – Shared through scientific publications
 Definition of Research Scientific research vs. Scientific knowledge
 Research is the process of asking questions and answering them in an Scientific research is a study that should be systematically
organized way through: planned before performing them.
 Survey
 Experiment Scientific knowledge means knowledge obtained and tested
through use of the scientific method.
 It involves:
Scientific knowledge may also include the observation and
 Examination of limits of knowledge classification of facts with the goal of establishing verifiable
 Assessing what is known up to that point knowledge derived through induction and hypothesis.
 Defining unanswered questions Scientific knowledge is what we learn from the scientific process,
which involves experimenting and collecting data. Scientific
 Devising ways of answering them in an organized and meaningful way research is the collecting of data to investigate and explain a
 It will be within the capability of every thinking person phenomenon

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) and
their theoretical treatment through-
• proper observation,

• experimentation and

• interpretation.
Scientific Methodology

• Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic interrelation of

facts by experimentation, observation, and logical arguments from
accepted postulates (Hypothesis) and a combination of these three
in varying proportions.
 Basic Postulates In Scientific Method
What is Scientific/research process
• It relies on empirical (Experimental) evidence.
• It utilizes relevant concepts.
• The research/ scientific method is the process of objectively establishing
• It is committed to only objective considerations. facts through testing and experimentation.
• It presupposes ethical neutrality. • The basic process involves making an observation, forming a hypothesis,
making a prediction, conducting an experiment and finally analyzing the
• It results into probabilistic predictions. results.
• The principals of the scientific method can be applied in many areas,
• The methodology is made known. including scientific research, business and technology.
• Aims at formulating scientific theories.

Step 1: A question is raised

Steps of a good research process
• A question occurs to or is posed to the researcher for which that
➢Raising a Question. researcher has no answer.
➢Suggest Hypothesis. 1.Example: How does the right to be forgotten impact freedom of speech
➢Literature Review. under Indian law?

➢Literature Evaluation.
• The question needs to be converted to an appropriate problem
➢Acquire Data. statement like that documented in a research proposal.
➢Data Analysis. 1.Example: What if the implementation of the right to be forgotten under
➢Data Interpretation. Indian law creates a conflict with the fundamental right to freedom of
speech and expression?
➢Hypothesis Support.
• Question needs to be Clear, Focused, Complex, Argumentable
 Step 2 : Suggest hypothesis Step 2 : Suggest hypothesis
➢A hypothesis is an educated guess that seeks to answer a question that can be systematically
tested. Your hypothesis should also include predictions that you can measure through
• The researcher generates intermediate hypotheses to describe a experimentation and research.
solution to the problem.
• This is at best a temporary solution since there is as yet no evidence to Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
support either the acceptance or rejection of these hypothesis. ➢A research hypothesis has to be simple yet clear to look justifiable enough.
➢It has to be testable- your research would be rendered pointless if too far-fetched into reality or
• Hypothesis: Judicial bias in sentencing has been observed in high- limited by technology.
profile criminal cases; therefore, judicial bias may also affect ➢It has to be precise about the results- what you are trying to do and achieve through it should
sentencing outcomes in lower courts in India. come out in your hypothesis.
➢A research hypothesis should be self-explanatory, leaving no doubt in the reader's mind.
➢If you are developing a relational hypothesis, you need to include the variables and establish an
appropriate relationship among them.
➢A hypothesis must keep and reflect the scope for further investigations and experiments

Step 3 Literature review Step 4 Literature Evaluation

• The available literature is reviewed to determine if there is already a solution to the
problem. • It’s possible that the literature review has yielded a solution to the
• Existing solutions do not always explain new observations. proposed problem.
• The existing solution might require some revision or even be discarded. • On the other hand, if the literature review turns up nothing, then
• Judgments: Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India (2017) laid the
foundation for privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21.
additional research activities are justified.
• Statutes: Information Technology Act, 2000, and the Digital Personal Data Protection
Act, 2023.
• Scholarly Discussions: Comparative analysis of privacy laws in India and the EU’s
GDPR, focusing on consent and data protection mechanisms.
 Step 5 Acquire Data Step 6 data analysis
• The researcher now begins to gather data relating to the research ❖ The data that were gathered in the previous step are analyzed as
problem. a first step in ascertaining their meaning.
• The means of data acquisition will often change based on the type
of the research problem.

Step 7 data interpretation

Observations
• The researcher interprets the newly analyzed data and suggests a
• Scientific observation is the central element of scientific method or process. conclusion.
• The core skill of scientist is to make observation.
➢This can be difficult.
• Observation consists of receiving knowledge of the outside world through our senses, or recording
information using scientific tools and instruments. Any data recorded during an experiment can be ➢Keep in mind that data analysis that suggests a correlation between two
called an observation. variables can’t automatically be interpreted as suggesting causality between
those variables.
• A quantitative observation is an objective method of data analysis that measures research variables
using numerical and statistical parameters. This method of observation views research variables in
terms of quantity hence; it is usually associated with values that can be counted such as age, weight,
volume, and scale.
• A quantitative observation is also referred to as standardized observation because it measures
research variables using definite parameters and results in definite research outcomes. It is usually
carried out with a large data sample size because the larger the research sample; the more accurate
the research findings would be.
 Step 8 hypothesis support
• The data will either support the hypotheses or they won’t.
➢This may lead the researcher to cycle back to an earlier step in
the process and begin again with a new hypothesis.
➢This is one of the self-correcting mechanisms associated
with the scientific method. Types of scientific research

Types of scientific research

RESEARCH PROBLEM
❑The research is broadly classified into two main classes:
What is a research problem?
➢1. Fundamental or basic research
❖ The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined. ➢2. Applied research.
❖ Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher ❑Both basic and applied researches are generally of two kinds:
experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and ➢1. Normal research
wants to obtain a solution for the same. ➢2. Revolutionary research.
❖A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a ❑In addition, both basic and applied researches can be classified into three
condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling types:
question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that
➢Quantitative
points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
➢Qualitative
investigation.
➢Even both (mixed research).
 Types of scientific research Types of scientific research
❑ Fundamental or basic research
❑ Fundamental or basic research
➢It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates
➢Study or investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on it.
pure science are termed as basic research.
➢It helps build new frontiers of knowledge.
➢It is also called theoretical research. ➢The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research.
➢Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for Main Characteristics
occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon. ➢Seeks generalization
➢It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate ➢Aims at basic processes
interest. ➢Attempts to explain why things happen
➢But it is original or basic in character. ➢Tries to get all the facts
➢Reports in technical language of the topic

Types of scientific research Types of scientific research

❑ Applied research ❑ Applied research

➢In an applied research one solves certain problems using well known and Main Characteristics
accepted theories and principles. ➢Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize
➢Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary ➢Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
research are essentially applied research.
➢Tries to say how things can be changed
➢Applied research is helpful for basic research.
➢Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
➢A research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also
➢Reports in common language
termed as applied research.
 Types of scientific research Types of scientific research
❑ Normal research
In any particular field, normal research is performed in accordance with a
set of rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is well ❑ Quantitative research
accepted by the scientists working in that field. ➢It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and
❑ Revolutionary research uses numbers.
In the context of science and technology, a revolution can be defined as a ➢It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
complete or marked change in rules, concepts and procedures called a ➢The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
paradigm. A revolutionary research will result in a paradigm shift that
provides a new or perhaps highly revised map of the knowledge as it is ➢It is conclusive.
currently understood. ➢It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.

Types of scientific research

Types of scientific research
OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH
❑ Qualitative research Exploratory research
➢It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
➢Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
➢Qualitative data cannot be graphed. ➢Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting
focus group interviews.
➢It is exploratory.
➢It investigates the why and how of decision making. ➢The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the
researcher’s need for better understanding, may test the feasibility of
❑ Mixed research a more extensive study, or determine the best methods to be used in
a subsequent study.
➢Mixed research that involves the mixing of quantitative and
qualitative methods or paradigm characteristics. ➢For these reasons, exploratory research is broad in focus and rarely
➢Nature of data is mixture of variables, words and images. provides definite answers to specific research issues.
➢The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and
key variables.
 Types of scientific research
Types of scientific research
Descriptive research ❑Longitudinal Research
The descriptive research is directed toward studying “what” and how ❖Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at
many off this “what”. Thus, it is directed toward answering questions multiple points in time.
such as, “What is this?”. ❖Longitudinal studies may take the form of:
➢Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g.
Explanatory research organizational absenteeism rates during the course of a year
➢Its primary goal is to understand or to explain relationships. ➢Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g.
➢It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or absenteeism rates for the sales department;
characteristics off individuals, groups, situations, or events. ➢Panel study- traces the same sample repeatedly over time, often
➢Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are many year, e.g. graduate career tracks over the period 1990 –
related to each other). 2000 for the same starting cohort.
➢Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.

Types of scientific research

❑Cross-sectional Research Types of scientific research
➢One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is ❑Action Research
gathered once, during a period of days, weeks or months. ➢Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the action
➢Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or descriptive in researcher and a client collaborate in the diagnosis of the problem and
purpose. in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis”.
➢Action study assumes social world to be constantly changing, both,
➢They are designed to look at how things are now, without any
researcher and research being one part of that change.
sense of whether there is a history or trend at work.
❑Policy-Oriented Research
➢While longitudinal studies will often be more time consuming and
expensive than cross-sectional studies, they are more likely to ➢Reports employing this type of research focus on the question ‘How
identify causal relationships between variables. can problem ‘X’ be solved or prevented?’
 Types of scientific research

❑Classification research
➢It aims at categorization of units in to groups
➢To demonstrate differences
➢To explain relationships
❑Comparative research
➢To identify similarities and differences between units at all levels THANK YOU
❑Causal research
➢It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship among variable
❑Theory-testing research
➢It aims at testing validity of a unit
❑Theory-building research
➢To establish and formulate the theory