KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
NAMAKKAL - TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM, TRICHY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SEMESTER-V
COURSE MATERIAL
Subject Code & Name: 20ME504 & CAD/CAM

SYLLABUS
20ME504 CAD/CAM L T P C
3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
The Student should be made to:
 Gain knowledge about the basic fundamentals of CAD/CAM
 Understand the types of curves, surface and solid modeling
 Explore industrial applications of assembly modeling, data exchange standards andcommunication
standards
 Gain knowledge about the basic fundamentals of part programming
 Analysis the various techniques of machine cell in cellular manufacturing

UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Product cycle- Design process- sequential and concurrent engineering - Computer aided design – CAD
system architecture- Computer graphics – coordinate systems- 2D and 3D transformations -
homogeneous coordinates - Line drawing – Clipping - viewing transformation –– Brief introduction to
CAD and CAM – Manufacturing Planning, Manufacturing control- Introduction to CAD/CAM –
CAD/CAM concepts ––Types of production - Manufacturing models and Metrics – Mathematical models
of Production Performance.

UNIT II GEOMETRIC MODELING 9

Representation of curves - Hermite curve - Bezier curve - B-spline curves - rational curves - Techniques
for surface modeling – surface patch - Coons and bicubic patches - Bezier and B-spline surfaces. Solid
modeling techniques - CSG and B-rep.

UNIT III ASSEMBLY OF PARTS AND CAD STANDARDS 9

Assembly modeling – interferences of positions and orientation - Data exchange standards - IGES, STEP,
CALS - Communication standards.

UNIT IV FUNDAMENTAL OF CNC AND PART PROGRAMING 9

Introduction to NC systems and CNC - Machine axis and Co-ordinate system - CNCmachine tools -
Principle of operation CNC - Construction features including structure - Drives and CNC controllers - 2D
and 3D machining on CNC - Introduction of Part Programming, types - Detailed Manual part
programming on Lathe and Milling machines using G codes and M codes – Cutting cycles, loops,
subprogram and macros –Introduction of CAM package.
UNIT V CELLULAR MANUFACTURING AND FLEXIBLE
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS) 9
Group Technology(GT),Part Families – Parts Classification and coding – Simple Problems in Opitz Part
Coding system – Production flow Analysis – Cellular Manufacturing – Composite part concept – Types
of Flexibility - FMS – FMS Components – FMS Application and Benefits – FMS Planning and Control –
Quantitative analysis in FMS.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:
On successful completion of this course, the students will be able to,
 Explain the 2D and 3D transformations, clipping algorithm, Manufacturingmodels and Metrics
 Explain the fundamentals of parametric curves, surfaces and solids
 Summarize the different types of assembly modeling and standard systems usedin CAD
 Apply NC & CNC programming concepts to develop part programme for Latheand Milling
Machines
 Summarize the different types of techniques used in Cellular Manufacturing andFMS

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Ibrahim Zeid “Mastering CAD / CAM” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,2013.
2. Mikell.P.Groover “Automation, Production Systems and Computer IntegratedManufacturing”,
Pearson Education, 5th Edition, 2019.
REFERENCES :
1. Radhakrishnan P, Subramanyan S and Raju V., “CAD/CAM/CIM”, New AgeInternational Pvt.
Ltd, New Delhi, 4th Edition, 2016.
2. Chris McMahon and Jimmie Browne “CAD/CAM Principles", "Practice andManufacturing
management”, Pearson Education, 2nd Edition, 1999.
3. Donald D Hearn and Pauline Baker M and Warren Carithers, “ComputerGraphics with Open
GL”, Pearson Education, 4th Edition, 2011
4. Foley, Wan Dam, Feiner and Hughes, "Computer Graphics Principles andPractice", Pearson
Education, 2013.
 UNIT - I
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM
Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the technology concerned with the use of computer systems to
assist the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design. CAD process is the subset of the
design process. CAD process consists of three major sub-processes such as design engineering, computer
graphics and geometric modelling shown in Figure (a). Most products created now are designed and
drawn using a CAD system. This system enables the creation of quality products quickly and
economically.

CAD and CAM processes

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the technology concerned with the use of computer
systems to plan, manage and control manufacturing operations. CAM process is the subset of
manufacturing process. CAM process consists of three major sub-processes such as CAD, manufacturing
and networking shown in Figure (b). CAM uses the geometrical design data to control the automated
machineries. CAM systems are associated with Computer Numerical Control (CNC) or Direct Numerical
Control (DNC) systems. Integration of CAD and CAM leads to automation Computer-aided design and
manufacturing systems are commonly referred as CAD/CAM.

PRODUCT CYCLE
The cycle through which a product goes from development to retirement is called product life cycle or
simply, product cycle. The product cycle includes all activities starting from identification for product to
deliver the finished product to the customer. The product cycle starts with developing the product concept,
evolving the design, engineering the product, manufacturing the part, marketing and servicing.
Figure shows the life cycle of a typical product. The product undergoes the following two main
processes from inception to finished product.
(a) Design process and
(b) Manufacturing process.
(a) Design process:
The product cycle begins with the design process. Synthesis and analysis are the two important sub-
processes of the design process. The design process starts with the identification of need for the particular
product. It may be obtained from a patent, suggestion of customers, feedback of sales and service
department, and market research carried out by the marketing department or from R&D department itself.
The working principle, mechanisms implied, functionality and uniqueness of the product are determined
during synthesis process. The overall design in terms of sketches and drawings, shape, functional
specifications, ergonomics, aesthetics etc. are considered in detail and finalized at this stage.
 Product life cycle
The analysis of sub-process starts with the careful design of each assembly and each component of
the assembly. The design department creates these designs through atop down approach or a bottom up
approach. In top down approach, the entire assembly is first designed and individual designs are done
latter. In bottom up approach, the component design is first done and the product is realized by
assembling the components suitably. A detailed design analysis and optimization are also carried out at
this stage. It requires the design modeling and simulation. The final stage of the analysissub-process is the
design documentation in the form of detailed engineering drawings. This detailed design of the product is
given to the process planning department.
(b) Manufacturing process:
The manufacturing process begins with the process planning and ends with the real product. A
process plan is formulated which specifies the sequences of production operations to be carried out to
produce the new product. Sometimes, for the manufacturing of new product, new equipment and tools
may be required which will be ordered at this stage. In some cases, a special manufacturing method is
required such as jigs and fixtures or inspection gauges which may be planned. Based on the process plan,
a production schedule will be prepared and actual production of the product begins.This scheduling
provides a plan to the company that certain quantities of the product should be manufactured within the
specified time period. The production is followed by quality testing. The parts which pass the quality
check are assembled, packages, labeled and delivered to the customer. Marketing department will carry
out appropriate product launch activities as well as planning the sales and service network, advertising
and training of sales and service personnel. In actual practice, the product cycle activities form a closed-
loop cycle. The product goes through a series of continuous refinement and improvements, additions etc.
by obtaining the feedback from marketing and services leads.

DESIGN PROCESS
According to Pahl and Beitz, “Design is the human power to conceive, plan and realize products
that serve human beings in the accomplishment of any individualor collective purpose.” Design refers to
the process of originating and developing a planfor a product, structure, system or component. In recent
years, several attempts providea formal description of stages or elements of the design process. Because
of the range in design situation, there has been some variation in their descriptions but in general, it is
 agreed that the design progresses in a step by step manner from identification of need for the problem, a
search for solutions and development of chosen solution to manufacture, test and use. These descriptions
of design are often called models of the design process. The following models are considered namely
Shigley, Pahl and Beitr, Ohuga and Earle to illustrate them.
Shighely Model
In Shighely's model design process, there are 6z steps to be followed as shown in Figure.
Step1: Recognition of need:
Problems in the existing products (or) potential for new products in the market have to be
identified.
Step 2: Definition of problem:
The problem in the existing product or specification of the new product is specified as “Design
Brief” to the designers. It includes the specification of physical and functional characteristics, cost,
quality, performance requirements etc.

General design procedure defined by shigley

Step 3: Synthesis:
In this stage, the designer develops a number of designs to meet the requirement of design brief.
Step 4: Analysis and Optimization:
Each design from the synthesis stages is analysed and the optimum one is selected. Both synthesis
and analysis are highly iterative. A certain component or subsystem of the overall system conceived by
the designer in the synthesis stage is subjected to analysis. Based on the analysis, improvements
are made and redesigned. The process is repeated until the design is optimized within all constraints
imposed by designer.
Step 5: Evaluation:
In this stage, optimized design from the previous stage is checked for all specifications mentioned
in the "Design Brief”. Usually, a prototype of the product is developed and experimentally checked for its
performance, quality, reliability and other aspects of product. If any discrepancies/problems are faced, it
is recommend to redesignthe product which should be fed back to the designer at the synthesis stage.
Step 6: Presentation:
 After the product design passing through the evaluation stage, drawings, diagrams, material
specification, assembly lists, bill of materials etc. are prepared for the product manufacturing requirement
and given to the process planning department and production department.

Pahl and Beitz Model

Pahl and Beitz model of design process is described in Figure.

Design process according to Pahl and Beitz

(a) Classification of task:
This phase involves the collection of information about the design requirementsand the
constraints on the design as well as describing them as design specification.
(b) Conceptual design:
This phase involves the establishment of functions to be included in the design,and identification
and development of suitable solution.
(c) Embodiment design:
In this phase, the conceptual solution is developed in more detail problems areresolved and
weak aspects are eliminated.
(d) Detail design:
In this phase, dimensions, tolerance, materials and form of each individualcomponents of the design
are specified in detail which will be useful for manufacturing.

Ohsuga Model
 The Ohsuga model of design process is shown in Figure. According to
Ohsuga design, it is an iterative process.

Design process according to Ohsuga model

Ohsuga describes the design as a series of stages progressing from requirements through the
conceptual design and preliminary design to a detail design. However, the various stages of design
process are generalized into a common form in which models are developed through a process of analysis
and evaluation leading to modification and refinement of model. At the beginning stage of design, a
tentative solution is proposed by the designer. This tentative solution is evaluated from a number of
viewpoints to establish the fitness of proposed design in relation to given requirements. If the proposalis
unsuitable, then it is modified. This process is repeated at a point where it can be developed in more depth
and the preliminary design stage starts. In this stage, the design is refined evaluated and modified at
greater level of details. It is followed by the detailed design which will be more useful for manufacturing.
Earle Model
The steps in the design process prepared by Earle are shown in Figure.
Problem identification:
The problem identification can be one of the following two general types
(i) Identification of design need
(ii) Identification of design criteria

Steps of design process by Earle

Identification of design need is the beginning point of the design process. It may be defect or
discrepancy in the existing product or need for a new product.
Identification of design criteria is the part of problem identification where the design conducts an
in-depth investigation of specifications which must be met by a new design. Types of problem
identification are shown in Figure.
The problem identification needs to gather data of several types such as survey. historical records,
personal observations, experimental data, physical measurements, etc. The following steps should be
used in problem identification.

Type of problem identification

(a) Problem statement:
The problem statement is written to begin the thinking process. The statementshould be
complete and comprehensive but it should be concise.
(b) Problem requirements:
The positive requirements are listed which must be achieved through a properdesign.
(c) Problem limitations:
Negative factors are listed that confine the problem to be specified as limitations.
(d) Sketches:
Sketches of physical characteristics of the problem are made. Notes and dimensionsare added that
would make these sketches more understandable.
(e) Gather data:
The gathered data should be graphed for easy interpretation.

Steps followed in problem identification

(ii) PRELIMINARY IDEAS:
Preliminary ideas are the generation of as many ideas as possible for the efficient solution. These
ideas should be sufficiently broad to allow for unique solutions which could revolutionize present
methods. All ideas should be recorded in writtenform with sketches. A systematic approach should be
used to gather preliminary ideas for the design problem. The following sequence of steps is suggested.
(a) Conduct brain storming session:
Brainstorm is a conference technique by which a group attempts to find asolution for a specific
problem by addition all ideas spontaneously contributed by its members.
(b) Prepare sketches and notes:
Sketching is most important medium for developing preliminary ideas.
Computer graphics can be used for modifying and developing a number of ideas.
(c) Research existing designs:
Preliminary ideas can be obtained through research of similar products, designs from technical
magazines, manufacturer's brochures, patents and consultants.
(d) Conduct survey:
Survey methods are used to gather opinions and reactions to a preliminary design or complete
design. It could be accomplished by interviews, questionnaire etc.
(iii) DESIGN REFINEMENT:
Several of better preliminary ideas are selected for further refinement to determine their true
merits. Rough sketches are converted to scale drawings which will permit space analysis, critical
measurements etc. A descriptive geometry can be applied for this purpose. Computer graphics is a
powerful tool that can be used to refine the preliminary idea.
(iv) ANALYSIS:
A product must be analyzed to determine its acceptance by the market before it is released for
production. It involves the evaluation of best designs to determine the comparative merits of each with
respect to cost, strength, function and market-appeal. The general areas of analysis are as follows.
(a) Functional analysis
(b) Human engineering
(c) Market and product analysis
(d) Specification analysis
(e) Strength analysis
(f) Economic analysis
(g) Model analysis.
The physical specifications of a product must be analyzed to finalize the design. E.g., size, ranges
and shipping specifications. The design must be analyzed for strength to support dead loads, shock loads,
fatigue loads etc. The cost analysis must be performed to determine the item's production cost and margin
of profit which can be realized from it. Engineering graphics and modeling of descriptive geometry are
valuable tools for analysis.
(v) DECISION:
At this stage, a single design is accepted as solution to the design problem. By comparing the cost
of manufacturing, weights, operational characteristics and other datafinal decision will be arrived at the
end.
(vi) IMPLEMENTATION:
It is the presentation of the final design concept in workable form as working drawings and
specifications that can be used for the actual production of product.

SEQUENTIAL ENGINEERING
Three major phases of conventional manufacturing process are design, process planning and
manufacturing. All these phases are sequentially carried out. In design phase of the conventional
manufacturing process, the product is designed on the basis ofspecifications/requirements and methods of
manufacturing are decided. In the process planning phase, manufacturing instructions are given on the
basis of method of manufacturing and decoded in the design phase. These instructions are interpreted and
production works are carried out in the manufacturing phase.

Sequential engineering approach

All these phases and supporting activities such as quality, testing activities and marketing
activities are carried out one after the other. In Figure 1.9, in each phase / activities, there is no interaction
between them. Therefore, if any changes to be introduced by the downstream department based on the
customer's feedback, the process has to backtrack and it often involves the additional expenditure as well
as inevitable delay in realizing the product because each department completes their work and passes over
the documents to the next department. So, there is no interaction which means a communication barrier
existing between each department. The other name for sequential approach is “over wall” or “across the
wall” approach. If a serious mistake inthe product is detected during the final stage, the revision process
has to start from design which may result the materials wastage and loss of time. Therefore, the reduced
product life cycles appear a sequential engineering approach which may not be suitable in the present
global scenario.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sequential Engineering
Advantages of sequential product development:
(1) It is very simple and well-defined method and also it allows everyone to remain on the same page.
(2) It is an enforced-discipline approach.
Disadvantages of sequential product development:
(1) As the decisions are taken by individuals, product modifications/changes will beslow.
(2) Since each activity is sequentially carried out, this approach requires longer leadtime.
(3) Because of above reasons, the product quality will be low.
(4) If any modifications to be made on the product by downstream departments, it has to be fed back
and it often involves the additional expenditure and also it results unnecessary delay in the product
cycle.

CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
In the conventional manufacturing method, both design and manufacturing are separated. Because
of this, quality may be lost and design modifications cannot be possible at the last stage of production.
 Global competition pressurizes the firms to produce products with high performance, reliable and low
cost with less lead time.
To achieve this, in the product planning stage itself, a cooperation work between design and
manufacturing and other specialists has to be made. It is known as “Concurrent Engineering” or
“Simultaneous Engineering” or “Parallel Engineering”. It is a methodology of restructuring the product
development activity in a manufacturing organization using a cross functional team approach. During a
concurrent engineering production cycle, several teams work on different parts of the design at the same
time. This technique is adopted to improve the efficiency of product design and to reduce the product
development cycle time. Organisations involve wherever it is possible convert the sequential workflow
into concurrent For example, a planning activity is made as concurrent shown in Figure 1.10.
Since activities start in parallel, the lead-time will reduce. Unlike sequential engineering in
concurrent engineering, the design decisions are taken by a multidisciplinary team. A typical team
consists of experts from (1) material, (2) manufacturing process, (3) assembly, (4) maintenance, (5)
marketing, (6) service personnel, (7) R & D, (8) end users and (9) specialists in the product related field
for example: Noise and vibration specialists. Now, the work of the designer is to evaluate his esign ideas
with this team repeatedly in the conceptualization of product stage itself. This team follows the product
from inception to complete production and beyond them. After getting the approval from this team, the
design of product can be used for further processing. Therefore, an intensive teamwork between product
development, production planning and manufacturing teams is essential for effective implementation of
concurrent engineering in an organisation.

Concurrent workflow in the planning stage

Characteristics of Concurrent Engineering

1. Product responsibilities lie on the team of multi-disciplinary group.
2. Integration of design, process planning and production will be achieved
3. Product lead time will be less because cross-functional activities aresimultaneously.
4. Most of the modification charges are carried out in the planning stage itself.
5. Frequent review of design and development process.
6. Rapid prototyping.
7. More attention will be given to satisfy the customer needs and to include newertechnologies in
the product development.
Advantages of Concurrent Engineering
1. As the design decisions are taken by a team of multidisciplinary experts,changes and
modifications on the product design will be faster.
 2. It has shorter lead time because all activities are related to product design andthe development
is simultaneously carried out.
3. It ensures better quality.
Features for the Success of Concurrent Engineering
Concurrent engineering can be successfully implemented when the whole organization is involved
in it. Everyone accepts that the problems exist and try to solve them together. The features of concurrent
engineering are as follows.
1. In sequential engineering, designers were involved in the design of product. In concurrent
engineering, designer's duty is getting changed. They are helping to design the product and getting
the approval of the design from a product team.
2. In sequential engineering, everyone is trying to implement the designer idea. But in concurrent
engineering, everyone in the team is involved in the product designand development activities.
3. Concurrent engineering eliminates the conflicts between departments (such as design, process plan
and production and inspection departments).
4. In concurrent engineering, all activities are simultaneously started to decrease the lead time.
5. Concurrent engineering yields high performance, high quality and reliable products with less lead
time.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

Groover and Zimmers defined “Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the technology concerned with
the use of computer systems to assist the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design.”
CAD may also be defined as the use of information technology (IT) in the design process.
Roles of CAD in Design
The role of the CAD is aiding the designer by providing the following ways.
 It is accurately generated and easily modifiable graphical representation of the product. The user
can nearly view the actual product on screen, make any modifications to it and present his/her
ideas on screen without any prototype, especially during the early stages of the design process.
 It performs the complex design analysis in short time. By implementing Finite Elements Analysis
(FEA) methods, the user can perform as follows.
 Static, dynamic and natural frequency analysis
 Heat transfer analysis
 Plastic analysis
 Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing
 Fluid flow analysis Motion analysis
 Tolerance analysis and
 Design optimization
 It records and recalls information with consistency and speed. In particular, the use of Product
Data Management (PDM) systems can store the whole design and processing history of a certain
product for future reuse and upgrade.
CAD Process
The conventional design process has been accomplished on drawing boards withthe design being
documented in the form of a detailed engineering drawing. This process is iterative in nature and it is
time-consuming. The computer can be beneficiallyused in the design process.
 The various design related tasks which are performed by a modern computeraided design
system can be grouped into four functional areas.
1. Geometric modeling
2. Engineering analysis
3. Design review and evaluation
4. Automated drafting.
These four areas correspond to the final four phases of Shigley's general designprocess
illustrated in Figure.
1. Geometric modeling:
The geometric modeling is concerned with the computer compatible mathematical description of
geometry of an object. The mathematical description should be such that
a) the image of the object can be displayed and manipulated in the computerterminal.
b) the modification on the geometry of the object can be easily done.
c) it can be stored in the computer memory and
d) it can also be retrieved back on the computer screen for review, analysis oralteration.
In geometric modeling, three types of commands will be used. They are as follows.
1. Commands used to generate basic geometric entities such as points, lines, circlesetc.
2. Commands used to do manipulation work such as scaling, translation, rotationetc.
3. Commands used for Boolean operation to form the image of the object in thecomputer screen.
The geometric modeling is classified into the following three types.
1. Wire-frame modeling
2. Surface modelling
3. Solid modeling
Description of each modeling in detail is discussed in later chapters.

CAD process
2. Engineering analysis:
The computer can be used to aid the analysis work such as stress-strain analysis, heat transfer
analysis, etc. The analysis can be done either by using a specific program generated for it or by using
general purpose software which are commercially available in the market.
The geometric models generated can be used for the analysis by properly interfacing the modeling
software with the analysis software.
Two types of important engineering analysis are as follows.
1. Analysis for mass properties.
2. Finite element analysis (FEA).
By using the mass properties analysis, properties of solid object can be determined such as surface
area, weight volume, centre of gravity and moment of inertia. Similarly, for plane surfaces perimeter,
area and moment of inertia can be determined. FEA is the most powerful feature of a CAD system. Here,
the object is divided into large number of finite elements. The entire object can be analysed for stress-
analysis, heat transfer analysis etc. For solving FEA problems, computers with larger memory and
computational capabilities are required,
The graphical output of FEA is displayed in the computer terminal for better understanding of
results through visualization. Designer can modify/redesign the model and the analysis can be easily done
by using FEA software.
3. Design review and evaluation:
The accuracy of the design can be checked and rectified if it is required in the computer screen
itself. Layering features available in software are very useful for the design review purpose. For example,
by layering procedure, the finish product can be placed over the casting image of the same product, it is
easy to visualize that the allowance given in the casting are enough or not. Similarly, using the layer
procedure, every stage of production can be checked.
Another review features available in the modeling software are “interference checking”. The
dimensions of the mating parts can be checked. In some cases, two components may occupy the same
position in the assembly. These types of errors can be eliminated before involving in manufacturing
activities. Some of the modeling software is provided with kinematic analysis feature. It can be used for
the evaluation purpose. Suppose a new mechanism is to be designed, the same mechanism can be
simulated in the computer. By animation, the working of the mechanism can be checked. It will relieve
the designer's work from tedious conventional method of mechanism checking. Another advantage of
animating the complete assembly of product is that whether any component fouls the other components in
its working.
Many commercial software are available. One of which ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of
Mechanical Systems) is one of the best software for kinematic analysis.
4. Automated drafting:
Automated drafting is the process of creating hard copies of design drawing. The important
features of a drafting software are automated dimensioning, scaling of the drawing and capable of
generating sectional views, enlargement of minute part details and ability to generate different views of
the object such as orthographic, oblique, isometric and perspective views. Thus, CAD systems can
increase productivity ondrafting.
Applications of CAD
CAD systems have been applied to many industrial sectors. Some of the applications are described
below.
 The mechanical engineering sector is the largest user of CAD systems. Applications are usually
coupled with manufacturing and forming a CAD/CAM system. The applications cover all types of
manufacturing operations such as milling, turning, wire cut EDM, punching, etc. The user can
test the part
 program on a screen prior to the transfer to the machine tool and accomplish collision detection,
undercuts, etc. Most of the systems have a post processor integrated to communicate with the
machine tools.
 The civil engineering and architecture sector is the second largest application areas of CAD
systems. Applications range from a simple building design to large scale projects, interior design,
static and dynamic analysis, etc. Theseapplications are beyond the scope of this report.
 The electrical and electronics engineering is the third largest application. The computer
performs all design activities such as electric motor, PCB design, IC designs, etc.
 The apparel industry is also a large user. Systems for clothing are ratherexpensive because they
are using specialized equipment such as large plotters, cutters for patterns and automatic machines
for cutting the fabric. Their application ranges from fashion design to manufacturing. The largest
usage of the systems is for pattern design and lay planning where most of the savings are achieved.
Advantages of CAD
 Easy editing: Drawing editing and modifications can be easily and quickly done.
 Copies of the same drawing can be duplicated without sacrificing image quality.
 High quality: Created drawings are more neat, precise and sharp.
 Drawings can be plotted quickly in different scales and colours.
 Information about length, area, perimeter, volume, mass etc. are calculatedeasily.
 Compact storage: Drawings can be stored in CDs, DVDs or hard disks.
 Three-dimensional drawings can be seen from any viewpoint for bettervisualization.
 Commonly used components and symbols can be pre-stored in graphic library.

CAD SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

The basic architecture of CAD system is shown in Figure. It is an early model which was used for
the basic geometry construction and modelling purposes. In these early years, it was a common practice
to wait in line to use a dedicated CAD terminal which was used to be installed in a cold, dark climate-
controlled room.

Basic architecture of CAD system

The architecture of CAD system consists of four major components such as database, operating
system, input-output devises, and user interface. Database is composed of CAD component models,
drawings, drawing standards and library data. The working data of the CAD system comprises of
geometry of the drawings, associated data and manufacturing data. The database and working data
together are called data/human knowledge.
Another major segment of CAD architecture is the design engine which iscomposed of software
and hardware elements. Software is the computer program(s) running on the hardware. It includes the
basic operating system and application software. Today, most CAD workstations are Windows-based
PCs and some run-on hardware running with one of UNIX operating systems and a few with Linux. Some
others such as NXTM provide multiplatform support including Windows®, LINUX, UNIX, and Mac OSX.

Architecture of advanced CAD system

Application software is CAD modelling and analysis software such as AutoCAD, ANSYS,
SOLIDWORKS, CATIA, IDEAS, Pro-Engineer etc. Generally, no special hardware is required with the
exception of perhaps a high-end OpenGL®-based graphics card. However, machines with high speed
CPUs and large amount of RAM arerecommended for the complex product design. Input/Output elements
are the human machine interface components. The input is generally via a computer mouse and keyboard,
but it can also be via a pen and a digitizing graphics tablet. Manipulation of the view of a model on the
screen is also sometimes done with the use of a Space Mouse/Space Ball. Some systems also support
stereoscopic glasses for viewing 3D models.

COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Computer graphics is the technology which uses the display of the drawing or the geometric model
of the component in CAD. Computer graphics may be defined as the process of creation, storage and
manipulation of drawings and pictures with the aid of a computer. It is an extremely effective medium for
communication between users and computers.
There are two types of computer graphics.
1. Passive computer graphics
2. Interactive computer graphics.
In passive computer graphics, the user has no control over the images occurredin display device.
The graphic images can be watched.
In interactive computer graphics (ICG), the user may interact with the graphics and the program
generating them. The user can create, edit and modify the images according to his needs. The images
created by using a computer can be modified, enlarged, reduced in size, moved to another location on the
screen, rotated and transformed. The concept of interactive computer graphics is shown in Figure 1.14.

Concepts of IGC

The user can communicate the data with computer through a keyboard and computer can
communicate with user through CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) i.e., monitor of computer.
The following are the functions of the IGC.
(i) Modeling:
Modeling is the process of creating an object in the computer by using basic primitives such as
points, lines, arc, circle, edges, areas, surfaces and volumes.
(ii) Storage:
Storage means that the process of storing the created data i.e., model in thememory of the computer.
(iii) Manipulation:
Manipulation is used in the construction of model from basic primitives in combination with
Boolean algebra.
(iv) Viewing:
Viewing refers the looking of the model in various angles, zooming, orthographicisometric views.
Advantages of Computer Graphics
 The object drawings can be denoted by its geometric model in three dimensionsX, Y and Z
coordinates.
 Various views of the object such as orthographic, isometric, axonometric orperspective
projections can be easily created.
 Accurate drawings can be made.
 Sectional drawings can be easily created.
 Modification of geometric model of objects is easy,
 It is easy storage and retrieval of drawings.
 Coloured representation of geometric models is possible and also it can beviewed in any
 angle.
 No need to scale the drawings even though the size of the screen is limited.
 Drawings can be reused as per our convenience.
Applications of Computer Graphics
 Paint programs: It allows to create rough freehand drawings. The images are stored as bit maps
and it can easily be edited.
 Illustration/Design programs: It supports more advanced features than paint programs particularly
for drawing curved lines. The images are usually stored in vector-based formats.
Illustration/design programs are often called draw
 Presentation graphics software: Bar charts, pie charts, graphics and other types of images for slide
shows and reports are created. The charts are based on data imported from spread sheet
applications.
 Animation software: It enables to chain and sequence a series of images to simulate the movement.
Each image is like a frame in a movie.
 CAD software: It enables architects and engineers to draft designs.
 Desktop publishing: It provides a full set of word-processing features as well as fine control over
placement of text and graphics so that newsletters, advertisements, books and other types of
documents can be created.
 Education and training: Training with computer-generated models ofspecialized
systems such as the training of ship captains and aircraft pilots.
 Image processing: Image processing is to apply techniques to modify orinterpret existing
pictures. It is widely used in medical applications.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS

In general, there are two types of coordinate systems such as Cartesian coordinate system and polar
coordinate system. In Cartesian coordinate system, the axes are represented by linear distances x, y and z
whereas polar coordinate system uses angles such as ,  and .
In a 2-D coordinate system, X axis is generally pointed from left to right and Y axis is from bottom
to top. When the third coordinate Z is added, it refers to a 3-D coordinate system. In 3D coordinate
system, there is a choice as to whether Z-axis points into the screen or out of the screen.
Left and Right Handed Coordinate Systems
A 3D coordinate system might be drawn shown in Figure (a). The three axes are understood to be at
right angles (orthogonal) to each other. In Figure (a), x denotes the horizontal axis, y refers the vertical
axis and z axis is for the depth (coming out of the page). It is the usual right-handed coordinate system
seen in Computer Graphics.

Left and right handed coordinate systems

 The coordinate system shown in Figure is called right handed coordinate system, since if you place
your thumb, index finger and middle finger of the right hand at right angles to each other they look
similar to coordinate axes. The thumb represents the x axis, the index finger represents the y axis and the
middle finger represents the z axis. In Figure 1.15, if the analysis is done with the left hand, the z axis, is
reversed, measuring depth into the page. In this system, z axis is going into the page.
Multiple Coordinate Systems
In a typical graphics program, a number of different coordinate systems are dealt and a good part of
the work is the conversion of coordinates from one system to another system. The following are the
different coordinate systems used in general.
(i) World coordinate system:
It is also known as the "universe" or sometimes "model" of a coordinate system. This is the base
reference system for the overall model (generally in 3D) to which all other model coordinates relate.
(ii) Object coordinate system:
When each object is created in a modelling program, the modeller must pick some points to be the
origin of a particular object and the orientation of the object to a set of model axes. For example, when
modelling a desk, the modeller might choose a point in the center of the desk top for the origin or the
point in the center of the desk at floor level or the bottom of one of the legs of the desk. When this
object is moved to a point in the world coordinate system, it is really the origin of the object (in object
coordinate system) which is moved to the new world coordinates and all other points in the model are
moved by an equal amount. While the origin of the object model is usually somewhere on the model itself,
it does not have to be. For example, the origin of a doughnut or a tire might be in the vacant space in the
middle.
(iii) Hierarchical coordinate system:
Sometimes, objects in a scene are arranged in a hierarchy so that the "position" of one object in the
hierarchy is relative to its parent in the hierarchy scheme rather thanthe world coordinate system. For
example, a hand may be positioned relative to an arm and the arm may be relative to the torso. When the
arm moves, the hand will move with it and when the torso moves, all three objects will move together.
(iv) Viewpoint coordinate system:
It is also known as the "camera" of the coordinate system. This coordinate system is based on the
viewpoint of the observer and it changes as they change with their view. Moving an object "forward" in
this coordinate system moves it along the direction that the viewer happens to be looking at the time.
(v) Model window coordinate system:
It does not need to be confused with desktop windowing systems (MS Windows). This coordinate
system refers to the subset of the overall model that is to be displayed on the screen. Depending on the
viewing parameters selected, the model window may be rectilinear or a distorted viewing frustum of
some kind.
(vi) Screen coordinate system:
This 2D coordinate system refers to the physical coordinates of the pixels on thecomputer screen
based on the current screen resolution.
(vii) Viewport coordinate system:
This coordinate system refers to a subset of the screen space where the model window is to be
displayed. Typically, the viewport will occupy the entire screen window or even the entire screen but it is
also possible to set up multiple smaller viewports within a single screen window.
 TRANSFORMATIONS
The transformation actually converts the geometry from one coordinate system to the other
coordinate system. By means of transformation, the images can be enlarged in size or reduced, rotated or
moved on the screen. It plays a central role in modelconstruction and viewing the image.
Display Transformation in 2D or 2D Display Control Facilities
Various display control facilities in computer graphics are (i) vector generation,
(ii) windowing and viewing transformation (iii) clipping transformation (iv) reflectiontransformation (v)
zooming (vi) panning (vii) transmitting information on a network as
(viii) graphics libraries.
(i) Vector generation:
The aim of a vector display of a curve is to use sufficient display lines for the curve to appear
smooth. The number of lines needed is controlled by the displaytolerance which the maximum derivation
of the vector representation from the true curve shape shown in Figure. In practice, the lines are drawn
between points on thenormal curve shape and therefore, the permissible deviation is inside the curve.

Display tolerance
(ii) Windowing and viewing transformation:
Sometimes, it is necessary to view only a portion of the drawing in the full screen if the drawing is
very large and too crowded in the screen. Different parts of the drawing can thus be selected for viewing
by placing the windows. The window is an imaginary rectangular frame or boundary through which the
user looks onto the model: Portions inside the window can be enlarged, reduced or edited depending upon
the requirements. The viewpoint is the area on the screen in which the contents of the window are to be
displayed as an image, Figure shows a window and a view port. The process of mapping from the model
coordinate system to the screen coordinate system is known as viewing transformation. The viewing
transformation in which no rotation is applied is called windowing transformation.
The following expressions shows that the transformation of a point (xa, ya) in model coordinates to
(xb, yb) in screen coordinates.
The values of a, b, c and may be computed when the window and viewpoint are defined.
 Window and viewport
(ii) Clipping transformation:
Clipping is the process of determining the visible portion of a drawing lying within a window and
discarding the rest. In clipping, each graphic element of the display is examined whether it is completely
inside the window or completely outside the window or crosses a window boundary. Portions outside the
boundary are not drawn. If the element of a drawing crosses the boundary, the point of intersection is
determined and only portions which lie inside are drawn as shown in Figure 1.18. Manyalgorithms have
been developed for clipping various graphical elements. A famous algorithm is developed by Dan Cohen
and Ivan Sutherland which will be discussed later.

(iv) Reflection transformation:

Reflection

Reflection or mirror transformation is useful in constructing symmetric models. It allowed a copy of

the object to be displayed while the object is reflected about a line ora plane Figure shows typical
examples out of which Figure (a) is for reflectionabout X-axis while Figure (b) is for the reflection
 about Y-axis. The reflection shown in (C) about X and Y axes or about the origin.
(v) Zooming transformation:
Zooming transformation is useful for getting the magnified view or enlarged view of particular part
of the drawing. Zooming transformation is a combination of scaling, translation and clipping
transformation processes.
Zooming = Scaling + Translation + Clipping

Zooming
(vi) Panning transformation:
The panning transformation is used to move the screen across the work page, i.e. itis used to shift a
drawing across the screen as if it was a moving window.
(vii) Transmitting information on a network:
It is used to transfer the data from one device to another device. For this purpose,the data must be
encoded using a protocol. Protocol is a set of rules which control the exchange of data between the
communicating devices.
(viii) Graphics libraries:
These graphic libraries are used to avoid the unnecessary repeated programs whenprogramming the
operation is described above.
Display Transformation in 3D or 3D Display Control Facilities
The three-dimensional (3D) transformation process is generally more complex than 2D process.
The display devices are mostly in 2D, therefore, it makes 3D viewing process as a complex one. The
following are some of the visualization aid for the CAD system user to interpret static 2D projections of
3D objects.
(i) Perspective projection
(ii) Brightness modulation (iii)Hidden line
removal (iv)Hidden surface removal
(v) Shading (vi)Movement.
(i) Perspective projection:
Perspective projection is often used for the pictorial projection of large objects.It enhances the
realism of displayed image by providing the viewer with a sense of depth. A perspective projection is
used to represent an object which is too large. In the perspective projection, the projections converge to
the eye. Therefore, it may be generated by first transforming points to the eye co-ordinate system using a
parallel viewing transformation. Then, each point is projected onto the plane of the display screen by a
projector passing through the eye co-ordinate system origin. Projected points may then be connected with
lines to generate a vector display.
(ii) Brightness modulation:
 Generally, the parts of the picture near the observer are bright while those far away are dim.
During construction of drawing, the maximum and minimum z co- ordinates are noted. The z region is
then divided into n number of regions. There are n numbers of visible brightness levels available in the
display system. Then, the picture is displayed with the appropriate intensity of brightness along z-axis.
(iii) Hidden line removal:
Removing hidden line and surfaces greatly improve the visualization of objects displaying clear
and more realistic images. A typical example of an object before and ofremoval of hidden lines is shown
in Figure. As it is shown, the appearance of the object is greatly complicated by the visibility of hidden
details. Therefore, it is necessary to remain hidden details such as edges and surfaces. The edges and
surfaces which need to be removed depend on its view port, viewing direction and viewing window. One
of the most challenging problems considered in computer graphics is the determination of hidden edges
and surfaces.

Hidden line removal

The hidden line elimination can be stated as, “For a given three-dimensional scene, a given viewing
point and a given direction eliminate from an appropriate two dimensional projection of the edges and
faces which the observer cannot see".
(iv) Hidden surface removal:
It is also called visible surface determination. It is more generally an image space process. In this
process, an image of object is generated at a particular resolution by manipulating pixels on a raster
display and exploding the ability of raster devices to display shaded areas. A wide variety of algorithms
exists. They include z-buffer algorithm, Watkin's algorithm, Warnock’s algorithm and Painter's algorithm.
Shading:
This technique is used to display the images in a natural way. It is based on the recognition of
distance and shape as a function of illumination. The surface of the solid model is divided into patches. In
regions of large curvature, the patches are reduced in size. Then each patch is tested for the visibility and
required degree of shading. The hidden lines must be removed before shading.
(v) Movement:
It leads to a better recognition of displayed objects. When an object rotated or translated,
ambiguities that arise due to the superposition of points are eliminated and clear picture are revealed.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D) TRANSFORMATION

During modelling of an object, it becomes necessary to transform the geometry many times. The
transformation actually converts the geometry from one coordinate system to other coordinate system.
The main types of 2D transformation which areoften come across are as follows.
 Translation
 Scaling
  Reflection
 Rotation
 Shearing.
Translation
It is one of the most important and easily understood transformations in CAD. Translation is the
movement of an object from one position to another position. It is accomplished by adding the distance
through which the drawing is to be moved to the coordinates of each corner point. Figure 1.22 shows a
square object. Let us now consider a point on the object, represented by P which is translated along x
and y axes by added Tx, and Ty, to a new position P'

Figure 1.22 Square before and after

translation

Scaling
Scaling is the transformation applied to change the scale of an entity. It is done by increasing the
distance between points of the drawing. It means that it can be done by multiplying the coordinates of the
drawing by an enlargement or reduction factor called scaling factor. The size of the entity altered by the
application of scaling factor is shown in Figure

Geometry before and after scaling

Example

Triangle before and after scaling

Rotation
Rotation is another important geometric transformation in CAD. Here, the drawing is rotated
about a fixed point. The final position and orientation of geometry is decided by the angle of rotation (0)
and the base point about which the rotation is to be done. Figure shows a rotation transformation of an
object about origin O. To develop the transformation matrix, consider a point P as the object in XY plane,
being rotated in anticlockwise direction to the new position P' by an angle 0. The new positionP' is given
by

Geometry before and after Rotational transformation

Shearing
A shearing transformation produces the distortion of an object or an entireimage. There are two
types of shear in mentioned below.
a) X-Shear
 b) Y-Shear

X-shear transformation Y-shear transformation

CONCATENATION OR COMBINED TRANSFORMATION

Many times, it becomes necessary to combine the aforementioned transformations in order to
achieve the required results. In such cases, the combined transformation matrix can be obtained by
multiplying the respective transformation matrices. The sequence of transformations can be combined
into a single transformationusing the concatenation process. For example, a line AB shown in Figure is
to be rotated through 45º in clockwise direction about point A. This process can be achieved by the
following three processes:
(i) Inverse translation of AB to A1B1
(ii) A is then rotated through an angle of 45° to A2B2
The line A2B2 is then translated to A3B3 The respective

Concatenation process

HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATION
All previous cases, except translation, it can be represented as a row vector X, Y and a 2x2 matrix.
For uniform representation of all transformations, it can be represented as a product of a 1x3 row vector
and an appropriate 3x3 matrix. The conversion of a 2D coordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3D vector can be
achieved by representing point a [X Y 1). After multiplying this vector by a 3x3 matrix another
homogeneous row vector is obtained (X, Y, 1]. This three dimensional representation of a two
dimensional plane is called homogeneous representation and the transformation using the homogeneous
representation is called homogeneous transformation. The matrix representation of four basic
transformations is given below.
Problem: 1
Write 3×3 homogeneous coordinate transformation matrix for each of thefollowing translations:
i) Shift the image to the right 2 units
ii) Shift the image up 3 units
iii) Move the image down 1 unit and right 1.5 unit
iv) Move the image up 1.5 units and left 3.5 unit.
Solution:
The following assumptions are made
i) Shifting or moving right is taken as positive
ii) Shifting or moving left is taken as negative
iii) Shifting or moving down is taken as positive
iv) Shifting or moving down is taken as negativeThe
homogeneous translation matrix is given by
1 0 0
=[ 0 1 0]
1
Case(i) : Shift the image to the right 2 units.
=2 =0
So, the translation matrix becomes
1 0 0
= [0 1 0]
2 0 1
Case(ii) : Shift the image up 3 units.
=0 =3
So, the translation matrix becomes
1 0 0
= [0 1 0]
0 3 1
 Case(iii) : Move the images down 1 unit and right 1.5 unit
�� = 1.5 ��� �� = −1
So, the translation matrix becomes
1 0 0
=[ 0 1 0]
1.5 −1 1
Case(iv) : Move the images up 1.5 units and left 3.5 unit
�� = −3.5 ��� �� = 1.5
So, the translation matrix becomes
1 0 0
=[ 0 1 0]
−3.5 1.5 1
Problem: 2
An equally inclined square on both planes (HP and VP) has coordinates with A(5,2), B (3,5) and C (7,5).
Obtain the fourth coordinates and translate the square by 2 units in x direction and 3.5 units in y direction.

Square before translation

The square is drawn by finding the fourth point as shown in figure. So, the fourth point of a
square is point D which is located at 5 units in x direction and 8 unitsin y direction.
Point, D =(5,8)
From given coordinate, the coordinate matrix can be written asA=[5 2] B= [3 5]
C= [7 5] D= [5 8] and
transformation matrix,

T= [2 3.5]
The coordinate after translation for point A,A′= A+T =[5 2]+[2
3.5] = [7 5.5]
coordinate, A′= (7 ,5.5)
Similarly, the coordinate after translation for point B,B′= B+T = [3
5]+[2 3.5] = [5 8.5]
coordinate, B′= (5, 8.5)
The coordinate after translation for point C,C′ = C+T =[ 7
5]+[2 3.5] =[9 8.5]
 coordinate, C′= (9, 8.5)
The coordinate after translation for point D, D′ =D+T = [5
8]+[2 3.5]= [7 11.5]
coordinate, D′= (7, 11.5)

Square after translation

The translated square is drawn by plotting coordinates as shown in figure.
LINE DRAWING
Straight line forms the basis for the display of all types of shapes in computergraphics. The
following are the requirements for drawing lines.
(a) Lines should appear straight
(b) Lines should terminate accurately
(c) Lines should have constant density / brightness
(d) Line density should be independent of length and angle
(e) Line should be drawn rapidly
Suppose, a straight line is to be drawn from point P1, (x1, yı) to point P2 (x2, y2). For drawing
continuous line, the computer must be able to pick up a number of other pixels that should be illuminated
in addition to two end pixels. The process of turning on the pixels for a line segment is called vector
generation. There are several schemes for selecting the pixels between the end pixels if the end points of
the line segment are known.
Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Algorithm
A popular method uses an algorithm known as “Digital Differential Analyzer” (DDA). The DDA
generates lines from their differential equations. In DDA, the equation of a line is expressed as a pair of
parametric equations. For a line segment joining two points P1 and P2, a parametric representation is
given by
P(u)= P1 + (P2 - P1)u 0≤ t ≤ 1
Since P(u) is a position vector, each of the components of P(u) has a parametric representation x(u)
and y(u) between P, and P2. Therefore,
x(u) = x1 + (x2 – x1) u
y(u) = y1 + (y2 – y1) u
 where the parameter u varies from 0 to 1. If u is incremented by, say 0.2, then the DDA will
generate 4 points in between the two ends of the line. A pixel, however, can have only integer co-
ordinates. Therefore, hardware is usually provided which converts each fractional coordinate into the
nearest integer. Thus, 9.7 is rounded up to 10 and 9.2 is rounded down to 9. Once the address of all the
pixels is determined, they are stored in a frame buffer. The display driver reads the array of addresses and
it illuminates the corresponding pixels. In order to look a line continuous manner, it is necessary to
increment the parameter u according to the resolution of the display device. If too large increment is
selected, the line may appear to be discontinuous.

(a) Parametric representing of a straight lineAdvantages of DDA

Algorithm:
1. It is the simplest algorithm and it does not need special skills forimplementation.
2. It is a faster method to calculate pixel positions than the direct use of straight line equation
which is given by y = mx+C. It eliminates the multiplication of necessary increments applied in x
or y directions to find the pixel positions alongthe line path.
Disadvantages of DDA Algorithm:
1. Floating point arithmetic in DDA algorithm is still time-consuming.
2. The algorithm is orientation dependent. Therefore, the end point accuracy is poor.
Bresenham's Line Algorithm
Bresenham's method is an improvement over DDA algorithm as it completely eliminates the
floating point arithmetic except for initial computations. All other computations are fully integer
arithmetic and therefore, it is more efficient for raster conversion. The disadvantages of DDA line
drawing algorithm are eliminated by a Bresenham's line algorithm.
The basic principle of Bresenham's line algorithm is to select the optimum raster locations to
represent a straight line. To achieve optimum raster scan, the algorithm always increments cither x or y
by one unit depending on the slope of line. The increment in the other variable is determined by
examining the distance between actual line location and nearest pixel. This distance is called decision
variable or error.
 Parametric representing of a straight line
As shown in Figure the line does not pass through all raster points (pixels).It passes through raster
point (0, 0) and subsequently crosses three pixels. The intercept of line with the line x = 1 is closer to the
line y = 0, i.e. pixel (1,0) than to the line y = 1,
i.e. pixel (1, 1). Therefore, in this case, the raster point at (1, 0) better represents the path of the line than that
at (1, 1). The intercept of the line with the line x = 2 is closer to the line y = 1, i.e. pixel (2, 1) than to the line
y = 0, i.e. pixel (2, 0). Therefore, the raster point at (2, 1) better represents the path of the line shown in the
Figure 1.74. In mathematical terms, a decision variable or error is defined as
Let us consider e=db - da. If e > 0, it means that db> da, i.e., the pixel above the line is closer to
the true line. Similarly, if e < 0, it means that db< da, i.e., the pixel below the line is closer to the true line.
Thus, by only checking the sign of error term, it is possible to determine the better pixel to represent the
line path.
Then according to value of e the following actions are taken as mentioned
below.
when e ≥ 0, error is initialized with e new = e + 2 Δy - 2 Δx. It is continued till
error is negative. In each iteration, x and y are incremented by 1.
When e < 0, error is initialized with e new = e + 2 Δy. In this case, only x is incremented by 1.

CLIPPING
Clipping is the process of determining the visible portion of a drawing lying within a window and
discarding the rest. In clipping process, each graphic element of the display is examined whether it is
completely inside the window or completely outside the window or crosses a window boundary. Portions
outside the boundary are not drawn. If the element of a drawing crosses the boundary, the point of
intersection is determined and only portions which lie inside are drawn.
In addition to extraction of part of the drawing for viewing, clipping is used in the following
applications.
(i) Identifying visible surfaces in three-dimensional views
(ii) Displaying multi-window environment (iii)Antialiasing line segments
or object boundaries (iv)Creating objects using solid-modeling procedures,
and
(v) Drawing and painting operations.
The region against which an object is to be clipped is called clip window or clipping window.
Depending on the application, the clip window can be a general polygon or it can even have curved
boundaries. But, it is usually a rectangular shape window shown in Fig.
Many algorithms have been developed for clipping various graphical elements. The clipping
algorithm determines which points, lines or proportions of lines lie within the clipping window. These
points, lines or portions of lines are already retained for display. All others are discarded shown in Figure.
 Before Clipping

After Clipping
Point Clipping
Assuming that the clip window is a rectangle in standard position, the points are said to be interior to
the clipping window if where the edges of the clip window (xw min, xw max, yw min, yw max) can be
either the world coordinate window boundaries or viewport boundaries. If any one of these four
inequalities is not satisfied, the point will be clipped. The equal sign indicates that the points on the
window boundary are included within the window.
Line Clipping
In order to carry out the clipping operation, it is essential to know whether the lines are completely
inside the clipping window or completely outside the window or partially inside the window. Figure
illustrates possible relationships between line positions with the clipping window. The lines are
considered as completely inside the clipping window and hence, it is visible if both end points of the lines
are inside to the window. For example, the line P1P2 is completely inside the clipping window. Similarly,
lines P3P4 and P9P10 are completely outside the clipping window and hence, it is invisible. When a line,
such as P3P6 is crossing the clipping window boundary, it is essential to calculate the intersection point of
the line (P6') with the clipping boundary tofind which part of the line is inside the clipping window.
The line which crosses more than one clipping boundaries such as line P7 P8 requires the
calculation of multiple intersection points to decide the visible portion of them. Figure 1.47(b) shows the
resultant display after clipping. To minimize the intersection calculations and increase the efficiency of
the clipping algorithm, at the beginning, it is completely visible and invisible lines are identified and then
the intersection points are calculated for remaining lines.
For a line segment with endpoints (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) and one or both endpoints outside the
clipping rectangle, the parametric representation is given by tout
x = x1 + u (x2 – x1) and y = y1 + u (y2 – y1)
where 0≤ u ≤ 1
This representation could be used to determine values of parameter u for intersections with the
clipping boundary coordinates. If the value of u for an intersectionwith the clipping boundaries is outside
the range 0 to 1, then the line is not inside the clipping window. If the value of u is within the range from
0 to 1, then the line is inside the clipping window. This method can be applied to each clipping boundary
edge to determine the position of lines. Line segments that are parallel to window edges can be handled as
special cases.
A number of efficient clipping algorithms have been developed in the past. A famous algorithm is
developed by Dan Cohen and Ivan Sutherland which will bediscussed here.
Cohen-Sutherland clipping algorithm
 It is one of the oldest and most popular line-clipping algorithms. The Cohen- Sutherland line-
clipping algorithm quickly detects and dispenses with two common and simple cases. In this method, all
lines are classified to see if they are in, out or partially inside the clipping window by doing an edge test.
For example, if both endpoints of a line lie inside the window, the entire line lies inside the window. It is
simply accepted and needs no clipping. The endpoints of the line in a picture are assigned a four-digit
binary code called a region code. This code identifies the location of the point relative tothe boundaries of
the clipping window. The code is given as TBRL.

TBRL code for nine regions

The code is identified as follows.
If the point is above top of the window T= 1, otherwise T = 0
If the point is above the bottom of the window B = 1, otherwise B = 0If the point is
above the right of the window R= 1, otherwise R = 0
If the point is above the left of the window L = 1, otherwise L = 0where, T= Top,
B=Bottom, R=Right and L = Left.
For example, consider the object shown in Figure within the window. The full 4-digit codes of the
line end points with reference to the window are shown in Figure.
After assigned 4-digit region codes for all line endpoints, the system first examines whether the
line is fully inside or outside of the window by the following conditions.
 The line is inside the window if both end points are equal to “0000”.
 The line is outside the window if both the end points are not equal to “0000” anda 1 in the same
bit position for both ends.
 For those lines which are partly inside the window, they are split at the window edge and discard
the line segment outside the window.
 There may be a possibility when the line may be crossing two regions as shown a line P7P8 in
Figure. In this case, the intersection point is found and the line segment outside the window is
discarded.
Polygon Clipping
A polygon is the collection of lines. Therefore, the line clipping algorithm canbe used directly
for polygon clipping.
 Figure shows an ambiguity of the above described algorithm. The clipping of two different
geometries produces same results. This ambiguity can be removed by using polygon-clipping algorithm
developed by Sutherland and Hodgeman.
A polygon can be clipped by processing its boundary as a whole against each window edge. It is
accomplished by processing all polygon vertices against each clip rectangle boundary one after the other.
Beginning with the initial set of polygon vertices, the polygon is initially clipped against the left
rectangle boundary to produce a new sequence of vertices. The new set of vertices could then be
successively passed to aright boundary clipper, a bottom boundary clipper and a top boundary clipper as
shown in Figure 1.49. At each step, a new set of output vertices is generated and it is passed to the next
window boundary clipper.
Sutherland - Hodgeman polygon clipping algorithm:
There are four possible cases when processing vertices in the sequence around the perimeter of a
polygon as follows.
If the first vertex of the edge is outside the window boundary and the second vertex of the edge is
inside shown in Figure 1.50(a), then both the intersection point of the polygon edge with the window
boundary and the second vertex are added to the output vertex list.
If both input vertices of the edge are inside the window boundary shown in Figure 1.50 (b), then
only the second vertex is added to the output vertex list..

Polygon clipping
If the first vertex of the edge is inside the window boundary and the second vertex of the edge is
outside shown in Figure , then only the edge intersection with the window boundary is added to the output
vertex list.
If both input vertices are outside the window boundary shown in Figure (d),nothing is added to the
output list.
In case (a), V1 is outside the boundary and V2 is inside the boundary shown in Figure (a). So, V'1
and V2 are saved because the lines on the boundary and inside the boundary are saved as per the
algorithm rule.
Similarly, both V1 and V2 are inside the boundary shown in Figure (b). So, both are saved in case
(b).
In case (c), V1 is inside the boundary and V2 is outside the boundary shown inFigure . So, V’1 and
V1 are saved.
In case (d), both V1 and V2 are outside the boundary shown in Figure (d).
So, nothing is saved

Processing of edges of the polygon against the left window boundary

Once all vertices have been processed for one clip window boundary, the output list of vertices is
clipped against the next window boundary. The main advantage of this algorithm is that it can be used for
a clipping window that needs not be a rectangle. Another advantage is that it can be easily extended to 3D.

VIEWING TRANSFORMATION
Displaying an image of a picture involves in mapping the coordinates of the picture into the
appropriate coordinates on the device where the image is to be displayed. It is done through the use of
coordinate transformations known as viewing transformation. In general, the mapping of a part of a
world-coordinate scene to device coordinates is referred as viewing transformation. To perform a viewing
transformation,window and viewport are deal. A world-coordinate area selected for the display is calleda
window. An area on a display device to which a window is mapped is called a viewport. The window
defines what is to be viewed and the viewport defines where it is to be displayed. Figure 1.52 illustrates
the mapping of a picture section which falls within a rectangular window onto a designated rectangular
viewport.

Viewing transformation using standard rectangles for window andviewport

a) Word coordinate system (WCS):
WCS describes the picture to be displayed with coordinates.
(b) Physical device coordinate system (PDCS):
PDCS corresponds to a device where the image of particular is to be displayed.
(c) Normalized device coordinate system (NDCS):
NDCS is one of the coordinate systems in which display area of virtual display device is to unit
(1x1) square whose lower left corner is at origin of the coordinate system.
The viewing transformation is performed by the following transformations,
1. Normalized Transformation (N) which maps Word Coordinate System (WCS) to Normalized
Device Coordinate System (NDCS).
2. Workstation transformation (W) which maps Normalized Device Coordinate System (NDCS) to
Physical Device Coordinate System (PDCS).

NORMALIZED TRANSFORMATION
The different display devices may have different screen sizes which are measured number of
pixels. The resolution of a screen increases when the number of pixel in screen is increased. The same
size picture is displayed large in size in low resolution screen and small in size in high resolution screen.
Our program should be device independent to avoid this difficulty. Therefore, the picture coordinates are
defined in some other units than pixels.
An interpreter is used to convert these coordinates to appropriate pixel values for the particular
display devices. The device independent units are called normalizeddevice coordinates.
In these units, the screen measures 1 unit wide and 1 unit length shown in Figure. The lower left
corner of the screen is the origin (0,0) and the upper right corner point is (1,1) at 1 unit wide and 1
unit length.

Picture definition in normalized device coordinates

The interpreter uses a simple linear formula to convert the normalised devicecoordinates to
actual device coordinates.
x = xnXWy = ynYH
where
x is the actual device x coordinate
y is the actual device y coordinate
xn is the normalised x coordinate
yn is the normalised y coordinate
Xw is the width of actual screen in pixels, and
Yw is the height of actual screen in pixels.
The transformation which maps the world coordinate to normalised device
coordinate is called normalization transformation. It involves the scaling of x and y.Therefore, it is also
called scaling transformation.
WORKSTATION TRANSFORMATION
The transformation which maps the normalized device coordinates to physicaldevice
coordinates is called workstation transformation.
Therefore, the viewing transformation is the combination of normalizedtransformation and
workstation transformations and it given by
V=W.N
Viewing transformation can be carried out in several steps as indicated in Figure. First, the picture is
constructed in world coordinates using the output primitives. Next, the window defined in world
coordinates is first transformed into the normalized device coordinates. The normalized window is
then transformed into the viewport coordinate. The window to viewport coordinate transformation is
known as workstation transformation. The simple steps for performing the transformation are given
below.
1. The picture together with its window is translated until the lower left corner of the window is at
the origin
2. Picture and window are scaled until the window has the dimensions of the viewport.
3. The viewport is translated to its correct position on the screen. Therefore, the
workstation transformation is given as
V=T.S.T-1
The transformation matrices for individual transformation are given below.

Viewing transformation process

 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) may be defined as an effective use of computers and
computer technology in the planning management, and control of the manufacturing function.
CAM involves the use of computers to assist in all the phases of manufacturing a product,
including process and production planning, machining, scheduling, management, and quality control.
Applications of CAM
The applications of CAM can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Manufacturing planning, and
2. Manufacturing control.

MANUFACTURING PLANNING APPLICATIONS OF CAM

The manufacturing planning applications of CAM are those in which computers are used
indirectly to support the production function but there is no direct connection between the computer and
the process.
The computer is used off-line to provide information for the effective planning and management
of production activities.
The important manufacturing planning applications of CAM include:
(i) Computer-aided process planning (CAPP)
(ii) Computer-assisted NC part programming
(iii) Computerised machinability data systems
(iv) Development of work standards
(v) Cost estimating
(vi) Production and inventory planning
(vii) Computer-aided line balancing
The above manufacturing planning applications of CAM are briefly outlinedbelow, one by
one.
Computer-Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
Process planning is an act of preparing a detailed work instructions for the manufacture and
assembly of components into a finished production in discrete part manufacturing environments.
Process planning consists of:
(i) the selection of manufacturing processes and operations, production equipment, tooling and jigs
and fixtures.
(ii) the determination of manufacturing parameters; and
(iii)the specification of selection criteria for the quality assurance (QA) methods to ensure product
quality.
The output of a process planning process is route sheet. A route sheet lists the production operations
and associated machine tools for each component and subassembly of the production. Computer-aided
process planning (CAPP) is used in order to overcome the drawbacks of manual process planning.
The two basic approaches or types of CAPP system are:
 (i) Retrieval (or variant) CAPP system, and
(ii) Generative CAPP system.
Computer-Assisted NC Part Programming
Numerical control part program is the planned and documented procedure bywhich the sequence of
processing steps to be performed on the NC machine. The part program is denoted by a symbol (%)
which defines the sequence of the machining operations and collection of the data such as spindle speed,
feed rate, tool path, etc., required to produce the part.
Types of part programming:
1. Manual part programming, and
2. Computer-assisted part programming.
In manual part programming, the programmer writes the machining instructions of the part
diagram on a special form called part program manuscripts.
In computer-assisted part programming, computers are employed to assist in the part
programming process, especially for complex part geometries.

Figure 1.55 Step in computer-assisted part programming

The job of the computer in computer-assisted part programming consists of thefollowing:
(i) Input translation:
The part programmer enters the program written in APT or other standardlanguage.
The input translation component converts the coded instructions (APT)contained in the program
into computer usable form, preparatory to further processing.
(ii) Arithmetic calculations:
The arithmetic calculations unit does all the calculations to generate the partsurface.
(iii) Cutter offset computation:
This unit offset the tool path from the desired part surface equal to the radius of the cutter.
(iv) Post processor:
The post processor is a separate computer program, written to prepare the punched tape for a
specific machine tool. The sequence of the steps in computer- assisted part programming and their
relationships to the part programmer and the machine tool are shown in Figure 1.55.
Computerized Machinability Data Systems
Computer programs have been written to recommend the appropriate cutting parameters such as
speed, feed and depth of cut to use for different materials. Also, several attempts have been made to
computerize the machining data. A computerized data system has the following advantages over a book
type data bank:
(i) It can store data from different sources.
(ii) It can use shop parameters instead of theoretical and general data.
(iii) It concentrates accumulated experience in an easily accessible form.
(iv) The data base can be kept up to date.
(v) Fast retrieval of selected data is possible.
(vi) Rapid optimization computations are possible.
(vii) Comparison of alternative cutting conditions is easy.
(viii) Calculation of standard machining and geometrical formulae is provided.
(ix) It displays recommendations in a concentrated form.
The machinability computerized systems allow for user specification of materialdate, machine
group speeds, feeds and operation factors.
Computerized Work Standards
There are several computer packages that can be employed to determine time standards for direct
labour jobs in the factory. They overcome tedious manual time study and motion study used to
perform the same task. Also these computerized systems provide manufacturing data base on operation
time standards, standard cost data, toolinginformation job instructions, and so on.
The computerized systems are based on the use of standard data of basic work elements stored in
computer either in a data file or in the form of a mathematical formula. To use the package, the time study
analyst first analyzes the job to be timed by dividing it into it, elements and specifying the attributes of
the job for each element. Thecomputer then retrieves from the file or calculates the element times, sums
the times,and applies the necessary allowances to determine the standard time for the total cycle.
The advantages of using a computerized system for generating time standards are:
(i) Reduction in time required to set the standard.
(ii) Greater accuracy and uniformity in the time standards.(iii)Ease of
maintaining the methods and standards file. (iv)Elimination of the biased
performance rating step.
(v) Settling the time standards before the job gets into production.
(vi)Improved manufacturing database for production planning, scheduling,forecasting
labour requirements, tool control, etc.
Cost Estimating
Cost estimating is the process of determining the probable cost of the product before the start of its
manufacture. With the use of computers, the several steps of the cost estimating procedure are
computerized.
Computerized cost estimating is a program that can estimate the cost of a new product, by
computerizing several of the key steps required to prepare the estimate(such as the application of la
ou and overhead rates to the sequence of planned operations).
Thus the total cost for a new product can be estimated by the computer programby summing up
the individual component costs from the engineering bill of materials.
 Production and Inventory Planning
Production planning is a pre-production activity. It is the pre-determination of manufacturing
requirements such as manpower, materials, machines, and manufacturingprocess.
Production planning is concerned with:
(i) deciding which products to make, how many of each, and when they should be completed;
(ii) scheduling the production and delivery of the parts and products; and
(iii)planning the manpower and equipment resources needed to accomplish theproduction plan.
Production planning activities include:
1. Aggregate production planning;
2. Master production schedule (MPS);
3. Material requirements planning (MRP);
4. Capacity planning; and
5. Inventory planning.
The computers are widely employed in all of the above production planning activities.
Computer-Aided Line Balancing
Line balancing problem is concerned with assigning the individual work elements to workstations
so that all workers have an equal amount of work. Computer- aided line balancing program helps to find
the best allocation of work elements among stations on an assembly line. Such computer-aided line
balancing program can be usedin situations where the line balancing problem is particularly complex and
difficult, owing to the number of workstations, and complicating factors.

MANUFACTURING CONTROL APPLICATION OF CAM

The manufacturing control application of CAM are concerned with developingcomputer system for
implementing the manufacturing control function.
Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and controlling the physicaloperations in the
factory.
The important manufacturing control applications of CAM include:
(i) Process monitoring and control
(ii) Quality control (iii)Shop floor
control(iv)Inventory control
(v) Just-in-time production systems
The above manufacturing control applications of CAM are briefly outlinedbelow, one by one.
Process Monitoring and Control
Computer process monitoring and control is the use of a stored program digital computer to
monitor and control an industrial process.
Computer process monitoring Vs. Computer process control:
(i) In computer process monitoring, the computer is used to only collect the data from the process;
whereas in computer process control, the computer regulates the process.
(ii) Figure 1.56 illustrates the difference between computer process monitoring and computer process
control.
It should be noted that the computer is not used to directly control the manufacturing process.
Control remains in the hands of humans who use the data to guide them in managing and operating the
process. But the data provided by monitoringwill result in improved supervision of the process.
(i) Computer process monitoring:
Computer process monitoring, also known as computer production monitoring, is a data
collection system in which the computer is connected directly to the workstation and associated
equipment for the purpose of observing the operation.
The components used to build the computer process monitoring system include sensors and
transducers, analog-to-digital converters (ADC), limit switches, multiplexes, photo detectors, pulse
generators, etc. These components are assembled to various configurations for process monitoring.

Computer process monitoring and control

Three important topics related to the technology and applications of automateddata collection
system for computer process monitoring are:
1. Data acquisition systems,
2. Data lagging systems, and
3. Multilevel scanning.
(ii) Computer process control:
Computer process control is a process of controlling the controllable input variables with the use
of computers so as to achieve the desired performance evaluationvariables.
The computer process control can be achieved by employing various control strategies. The
important process control strategies are:
1. Feedback control strategy,
2. Regulatory control strategy,
3. Feed forward control strategy
4. Preplanned control strategy,
5. Steady-state optimal control strategy, and
6. Adaptive control strategy.
Quality Control
Quality control includes a variety of approaches to maintain the highest possiblequality levels in
the manufactured product.
Some of the modern technologies in quality control are outlined below.
(a) Quality engineering,
(b) Quality function deployment,
(c) 100% automated inspection,
 (d) On-line inspection,
(e) Coordinate measurement machines for dimensional measurement, and
(f) Non-contact sensors such as machine vision for inspection.
(a) Quality engineering:
The term quality engineering encompasses a broad range of engineering and operational activities
whose objective is to ensure that a product's quality characteristicsare at their nominal or target values.
Two important methods in quality engineering are:
(i) Robust design, and
(ii) Taguchi's quality loss function.
(b) Quality function deployment:
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a system for translating consumer requirements into
appropriate requirements at every stage, from research through product design and development, to
manufacture, distribution, installation andmarketing, sales and service.
The QFD translates the voice of the customers into technical and functional requirements at every
stage of design and manufacture.
(c) 100% Automated inspection:
100% automated inspection is the automation of one or more of the steps involved in the 100%
inspection procedure. The 100% automated inspection is best achieved when it is integrated into the
manufacturing process.
(d) On-line inspection:
On-line inspection, also known as in-process inspection, is achieved by performing the inspection
procedure during the manufacturing operation. In this method, as the parts are being made, the inspection
procedure simultaneously measures or gauges their dimensions.
(e) Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM):
The coordinate measuring machines (CMM) are the most versatile equipment used for contact
inspection of parts. These machines are controlled by computers or numerical control systems. When a
component is to be inspected for its profile and other features, the program or coordinate data is
downloaded from a central computer. The systems are transmitting data from the measuring machine
back to the computer.
The main advantages of using CMM over manual inspection methods are:
(i) Increased productivity,
(ii) More flexibility, (iii)Reduced operator error,
and
(iv)Greater inherent accuracy and precision.
(f) Non-contact Inspection Methods (Machine Vision):
Non-contact inspection methods do not involve direct contact with the product. Instead, a sensor is
located at a certain distance from the object to measure or gauge the desired features. The potential
advantages offered by non-contact inspection include lower inspection times and avoidance of damage to
the part that might occur from contacting it.
The non-contacting inspection methods are:
1. Optimal methods
 (a) Machine vision
(b) Scanning laser beam devices
(c) Photogrametry
2. Non-optical methods
(a) Electrical field techniques
(b) Radiation techniques
(c) Ultrasonics
Machine vision can be defined as the acquisition of image data, followed by theprocessing and
interpretation of this data by computer for some useful applications.
The machine vision applications in manufacturing are inspection, partidentification, visual
guidance and control, and safety monitoring.
Shop Floor Control
A shop floor control (SFC) system is defined as a system for utilizing data from the shop floor as
well as data processing files to maintain and communicate status information on shop orders and work
centre.
Shop floor control (SFC) is concerned with:
(i) the release of production orders to the factory;
(ii) monitoring and controlling the progress of the orders through the various workcentres; and
(iii)acquiring information on the status of the orders.
Inventory Control
Inventory control is the scientific method of determining what to order, when to order and how
much to order and how much to stock so that costs associated with buying and storing are optimal without
interrupting production and sales.
The two types of inventory models are:
(i) Fixed-order quantity models (Q-models), and
(ii) Fixed-time period models (P-models).
Just-in-time Production Systems
Just-in-time (JIT) is a management philosophy that strives to eliminate sourcesof manufacturing
waste by producing the right part in the right place at the right time. JIT is also known as stockless
production.
The ideal JIT production system produces and delivers only the required items, at the required
time, and in the required quantities.
CAD/CAM
The integration of CAD functions with CAM applications gives as the acronym CAD/CAM.
CAD/CAM is concerned with engineering functions in both design and manufacturing. It denotes
an integration of design and manufacturing activities by means of computer systems.
Because of the benefits, computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing are often
combined into CAD/CAM systems. By interfacing CAD/CAM technology, it is possible to establish a
direct link between product design and manufacturing engineering.
 Elements of CAD/CAM interface
The user can interact with computer through a graphics terminal to accomplish all the design and
manufacturing activities, as shown in Figure.
The CAD/CAM combination allows the transfer of information from the design stage into the
stage of planning for the manufacture of a product, without the need to re-enter the data on part geometry
manually. The database developed during CAD is stored; then it is processed further, by CAM, into the
necessary data and instructions for operating and controlling production machinery, material-handling
equipment, and automated testing and inspection for product quality.

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Introduction
Production is the sequence of operations which transform the given materials into desired
products. This transformation from one form to another is carried out eitherby one or a combination of
different manufacturing processes.

Figure 1.58 Productive systems as transformation process

 A system is a logical arrangement of components (physical and conceptual) designed to achieve
particular objectives according to a plan.
A production system is the frame work within which the conversion of input into output occurs.
At the one end of the production system are the inputs and at the other end outputs. Inputs and outputs
are linked by certain operations or processes which impart value to the inputs and are called
transformation process.

Types of Production Systems

According to volume and standardisation of the production of the products, theproduction
systems are classified as:
1. Job shop production,
2. Batch production,
3. Mass production, and
4. Process or continuous production.
1. Job shop production:
Meaning: Job or unit production involves the manufacturing of a single complete unit as per the
customer's order. This is a 'special order' type of production. Each job or product is different from others
and no repetition is involved. The work is started only when the organisation has orders on hand.
According to the regularity of manufacture, there are three types of job production:
1. A small number of pieces produced once.
2. A small number of pieces produced intermittently when the need arises.
3. A small number of pieces produced periodically at known time intervals.
Characteristics:
(i) High variety and low volume.
(ii) General purpose machines and equipment to perform wider range ofoperations.
(iii) Flow of materials is not continuous i.e., it is intermittent.
(iv) Highly skilled operators and supervisors are required.
(v) Variable path material handling equipment are used.
Merits:
(i) It involves comparatively small investment in machinery and equipment.
(ii) It is flexible and can be adapted easily to changes in product design.
Demerits:
(i) Very large work-in-process inventory.
(ii) Difficult in planning, scheduling and coordinating the productions of numerouscomponents of
wide variety.
(iii) Highly skilled workforce is required.
(iv) Manufacturing cycle time is more.
Suitability:
Job shop production is applicable where custom-made products are to beproduced on a small
scale.
2. Batch Production:
Meaning: In this type, the products are made in small batches and in largevariety. Each
batch contains identical items but every batch is different from the others.
Three types of batch production are:
1. A batch produced only once.
2. A batch produced repeatedly at irregular intervals, when the need arises.
3. A batch produced periodically at known intervals, to satisfy continuous demand.
Characteristics:
(i) A large variety of products are manufactured in lots or batches.
(ii) Both general purpose machines (for producing parts) and special purposemachines (for
assembling the parts) are used.
(iii) Flow of material is intermittent.
(iv) Plant layout is process type.
(v) Flexible material handling system.
Merits:
(i) Short production runs.
(ii) Plant and machineries are flexible.
(iii) Medium variety and medium volume.
Demerits:
(i) Large work-in-process inventory.
(ii) More number of set-ups.
(iii) Workloads on various machines / sections are unbalanced.
(iv) Process and product planning is to be done for each batch.
Suitability:
Drugs, clothes, paints, parts manufactured on turret lathes, forging machines andsheet metal
presses are a few examples of batch production.
3. Mass Production:
Meaning: In this type of production, only one type of product or maximum 2 or
3 types are manufactured in large quantities. Standardisation of products, process,materials, machines and
uninterrupted flow of materials are the basic features of this system. Mass production system offers
economies of scale as the volume output islarge.
Characteristics:
(i) Low variety and high volume.
(ii) Flow of material is continuous.
(iii) Special purpose machines are used.
(iv) Mechanised material handling systems such as conveyors are used.
(v) Degree of mechanisation or automation is high.
(vi) The machine capacities are balanced.
Merits:
(i) It offers lowest cost of production.
 (ii) Shorter cycle time.
(iii) Work-in-process is comparatively low.
(iv) Easier production planning and control.
(v) Relatively lower skilled persons can manage work.
Demerits:
(i) Higher inventory of raw materials.
(ii) Less flexibility of equipment and machines.
Suitability:
Electronics, electricals, automobiles, bicycles and container industries are a fewexamples of mass
production industries.
4. Process Production:
Meaning: This type of production is used for manufacture of those items whose demand is
continuous and high. Here single raw material can be transformed into different kind of products at
different stages of the production processes. e.g., in processing of crude oil in refinery one gets kerosene,
gasolene, etc., at different stage of production.
The characteristics, merits and demerits of continuous production system are the same as that of
the mass production system.

Types of production and layouts used for different levels of productionquantity and product
variety
Suitability:
The industries like paper, textiles, cement, chemicals, automobiles, etc., are afew examples of
continuous production industries.
Note: The job shop production and batch production are also known as intermittent production systems.
The mass production and process production are termed as continuous production system.
 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING METRICS
manufacturing metrics
Manufacturing metrics are used to quantitatively measure the performance of theproduction
facility or a manufacturing company.
Manufacturing metrics is a system of related measures that facilitates thequantification of some
particular characteristics of production.
Categories of manufacturing metrics:
The two basic categories of manufacturing metrics are:
1. Production performance measures, and
2. Manufacturing costs.
1. Production performance measures:
The production performance measures are metrics used to quantify the productionperformance.
The production performance measures commonly used are:
1. Cycle time
2. Production rate
3. Plant capacity
4. Utilization
5. Availability
6. Manufacturing lead time and
7. Work-in-process.
2. Manufacturing costs:
Manufacturing costs include labour and materials costs, the costs of producingits products, and
the cost of operating a given piece of equipment.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF PRODUCTIONPERFORMANCE

Cycle Time (Tc)
Definition:
The operation cycle time (Tc) is the total time from when the operation begins tothe point-of-time
at which the operation ends.
In other words, the cycle time describes how long it takes to complete a specificoperation from
start to finish.
Unit of cycle time is minutes/piece (min/pc).
In a typical production operation, the cycle time consists of:
(i) actual processing time,
(ii) work part handling time, and
(iii) tool handling time.
Formula:
Typical cycle time for a production operation is given byTc=To+Th+Tth
where
Tc = Cycle time (min/pc),
 To = Processing or assembly operation time (min/pc),
Th= Handling time (min/pc) (e.g., loading and unloading the production machine),
and
Tth = Tool handling time (min/pc) (e.g., time to change tools).

Production Rate (Rp)

Definition:
Production rate for an individual production operation is nothing but thenumber of work units
completed per hour.
The production rate is usually expressed as an hourly rate. Thus the unit ofproduction rate is
pc/hr.
Formulae to find production rate (Rp)
1. Production rate in job shop production:
In job shop production, the time to process one work piece is the sum of setuptime and cycle time.
The production time per work unit (Tp) is given byTp= Tsu + Tc
where
Тр=Production time per work unit (min/pc),
Tsu= Setup time (min/pc), and
Tc = Cycle time (min/pc)
The production rate (Rp) of the machine is the reciprocal of the production time.
⸫ Production rate, Rp =60/ Tpwhere
RP = Hourly production rate (pc/hr), and
Tp = Production time per work unit (min/pc).
2. Production rate in batch production:
In batch production, the batch processing time (Tb) for a batch size of Q workunits is given by
Tb = Tsu+ Q xTc
Where
Tb= Batch processing time (min),
Тsu= Setup time per batch (min/batch),
Q = Batch quantity (pc), and
Тc = Cycle time (min/pc).
Now the average production time per work unit (Tp) for the given machine isgiven by

p
T =

where Tp = Average production time per min (min/pc).The production

rate (Rp) of the machine is given by
60
Production rate, Rp =
3. Production rate in mass production:
For mass production, we can write
Setup time ≃ 0
and production rate =Cycle rate of the machine Therefore, the production
rate (Rp) in mass production is given by
Rp =Rc = 60

where
RP= Hourly production rate of the machine (pc/hr),
Rc= Hourly cycle rate of the machine (pc/hr), and
Tc = Operation cycle time (min/pc).
 Production Capacity
Definition:
Production capacity, also known as capacity or plant capacity, is defined as the maximum rate
of output that a production facility is able to produce under a givenset of assumed operating conditions.
The assumed operating conditions refer to the number of shifts per day (one, two, or three), number
of working days in a week or month, employment levels provisionsfor overtime and so on.
Now-a-days, the automated production facilities are employed to increase the plant capacity
Formulae for production capacity
1. Production capacity for production facility in which parts are made in one operation (no = 1):
PCw=n · Sw· Hsh: Rp
Where

facility,

PCw = Weekly production capacity of the facility (units/wk),

N =Number of work centres working in parallel producing in the
Sw = Number of shifts per period (shift/wk),
Hsh=Number of hours per shift (hr/shift),
Rp=Hourly of each production rate of each work centre(units/hr), and no = Number of distinct
operations/machines through which work units
are routed.
2. Plant capacity for production facility in which part requires multipleoperations (no> 1):
�. ��. ��ℎ. ��
=

Utilization
Definition:
Utilization of the production facility (U) is the ratio of the number of parts madeby the production
facility relative to its capacity.
Alternatively, the utilization of the production facility can also be defined as the proportion of
time that the facility is operating relative to the time available under the definition of capacity.
Formula:
The utilization of the facility is given byOutput
U = Output/ Capacity ×100 or
U = Q/PCW×100
where
 U=Utilization of the facility (percentage),
Q=Actual quantity produced by the facility during a given time period (pc/wk), andPCw = Production
capacity for the same time period (pc/wk).
The utilization provides a measure of how well production facilities are used,given that they
are available.
If the utilization is high, that means the facility is being operated to its fullcapacity.
Availability
Availability is a measure of reliability for equipment and is usually expressed asa percentage.
Availability provides a measure of how well the equipment in the plant areserviced and maintained.
Formula: The availability (A) is mathematically given by
A=MTBF-MTTR×100
MTBF
where
A=Availability of plant facility (percentage),
MTBF=Mean time between failures (hr), and
MTTR=Mean time to repair (hr).
 Manufacturing Lead Time (MLT)
The manufacturing lead time (MLT) is the total time required to process a given product (or work
unit) through the plant
The MLT includes both operation cycle time and the non-operation cycle time (which includes
handling time, time spent in temporary storage, inspection time, time last due to delays).
Significance:
(i) MLT determines the ability of the manufacturing facility to deliver the productto the customer
in the shortest possible time.
(ii) The manufacturing firm with lower MLT will have competitive edge, as it hasthe ability to
deliver the product quickly to their customers.
Formulae for MLT calculation
1. MLT for batch production:
The manufacturing lead time for batch production is given by
MLT= no( Tsu +QTc + Tno).............................................................................(1.1)
Where
MLT - Manufacturing lead time for a part or product (min), no=Number of distinct operations
through which work units are routed,Tsu=Setup time per batch (min/batch),
Q= Batch quantity (pc),
Tc= Cycle time per part (min/pc), and
Tno= Non-operation time associated with the machine (min).
1. MLT for job production:
The manufacturing lead time for job shop production is obtained by substitutingbatch size Q=1 in
equation (1.1) as
MLT= no (Tsu +Tc + Tno)
3. MLT for mass production:
The manufacturing lead time for the quantity type mass production (where no=1);Tsu =0 after initial
setup, and Tno ≃ 0 ), is equal to the operation cycle time for the machine after the setup has been
completed and production begins.
⸫ MLT =Tc
Work-In-Process (WIP)
Definition:
Work-in-process (WIP) is the quantity of parts or products currently located inthe factory that
are either being processed or are between processing operations.
WIP is inventory that is in the state of being transformed from raw material tofinished
production.
Formula: The work-in-process can be computed using the relation,
WIP = A× U × (PC) × (MLT)
Sw x Hsh
 UNIT-II
GEOMETRIC MODELING

REPRESENTATION OF CURVES
Mathematically, curve is a continuous map from one-dimensional space to n- dimensional space.
A curve is an infinitely large set of points. The points in a curve have a property and any point has two
neighbors except for a small number of points which have one neighbor (these are the endpoints). Some
curves have no endpoints either because they are infinite (similar to a line) or they are closed (loop around
and connect to themselves). The problem that we need to address is how to describe a curve or to give
"names" or representations to all curves so that we can represent them on a computer. Forsome curves, the
problem of naming them is easy since they have known shapes such as line segments, circles, elliptical
arcs, etc. A general curve which does not have a "named” shape is sometimes called a free-form curve
because a free-form curve can take on just about any shape and it is much harder to describe.
Mathematical Representation of Curves
A curve or a surface may be described or represented by a set of equations. Thereare three main
ways to describe curves mathematically.
(a) Explicit:
This representation provides a mapping from a free parameter to the set of pointson the curve. The
explicit form of a curve in two dimensions gives the value of one variable. It may be a dependent variable
in terms of the other or independent variable. Amathematical function y = f(x) can be plotted as a curve.
Such function is the explicit representation of the curve. The explicit representation is not general since it
cannot represent vertical lines and it is also a single-valued. For cach value of x, only a single value of y
is normally computed by the function.
(b) Implicit:
This representation defines the set of points on a curve by giving a procedure thatcan test to see if
a point is on the curve. Usually, an implicit curve in two dimension is defined by an implicit function of
the form f (x, y) = 0 so that the curve is a set of pointsfor which this equation is true. It is very important
that the implicit function is a scalar function (it returns a single real number). It can represent multi-valued
curves (more thanone y value for an x value). A common example is the circle whose implicit representation
is x2 + y2 = R2. In three dimensions, the implicit form is f(x, y, z)= 0
(c) Parametric curve:
It provides the procedures that can generate points on the curve which do not fallinto the first two
categories. The explicit and implicit curve representations can be used only when the function is known.
In practical applications, where complex curves such as the shape of a car or of a flight are needed the
function is normally unknown. It is thenecessary reason for the requirement of a parametric approach. The
defining equations ofthis type of curve are in terms of a simple and common independent variable known
as parametric variable. This free parameter (a single number) provides an index to points onthe curve. The
parametric form of a curve defines a function that assigns positions to values of the free parameter. A
two- dimensional parametric curve may be represented by
x= X(u); y= Y(u)
where x and y are co-ordinates of the points on the curve which are the functionsof a parameter u
and the parametric variable is constrained in the interval.
In three dimensions, the parametric curve may be represented as follows.x= X(u); y= Y(u);
 z=Z(u)
One of the advantages of the parametric form, is that it is the same in two and three dimensions. In
the former case, the equation for z is simply dropped.
The parametric function is a vector valued function which returns a vector (a point position). For
working in 2D, there will be 2 vectors but in 3D there would be 3 vectors. Some curves can be casily
represented in both explicit and implicit forms. For example, a circle with its center at the origin and
radius = 1 can be written in implicit form given by
f(x, y) = x2+ y2 = 0
or in parametric form given byx, y= f() = cos ө,
sin ө
where ө is the parametric variable.
Order of Continuity
In practice, a complete curve is often made up of segments. So, it is important tounderstand how
individual segments edit be connected. There are two types of curve continuities: geometric and
parametric.

Various order of continuity

The synthetic or free form curves are required to pass through given data points. Therefore,
polynomials are the typical form of these curves. To ensure a smooth transition from one section of
synthetic or free form curve to the next, various continuity conditionsare imposed at control points. The
order of continuity is very important when a complexcurve is modeled by joining several curve segments.
Zero order continuity (Cº) means simply that the curves meet. First order continuity (C¹) means that the
first parametric derivatives of the coordinate functions for two successive curve sections are equal at their
joining points. Second order continuity (C2) refers that both first and second parametric derivatives of two
curve sections are the same at the intersection. Therefore, first and second order continuities imply slope
and curvature continuous curves respectively. A first order continuity is the minimum acceptable curve
for engineering design.
Interpolation and Approximation Modeling
There are two possible approaches available for modeling of synthetic curves such as (i)
Interpolation and (ii) Approximation. When polynomial sections are fitted so that the curve passes
through each control point, then the resulting curve is said to interpolate the set of control points.
Therefore, the interpolation essentially tries to pass a curve on asurface called interpolent through all these
points shown in Figure 2.2 (a) On the other hand, when the polynomials are fitted to the general control-
point path without necessarily passing through any control points then the resulting curve is said to
approximate the set of control points. Therefore, an approximation tries to fit a smooth curve on the
surface which may be closer to three points but it may not actually pass through each of them shown in
Figure 2.2 (b).

Various order of continuity

HERMITE CURVE (OR) HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE

Splines draw their name from the traditional drafting tool called ‘French Curves’ (or) splines.
Cubic splines use cubic polynomial has four coefficients and thus requires four conditions to evaluate. A
cubic spline uses four data points. The Hermite cubic splineuses two data points at its ends and two tangent
vectors at these points.
The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by
3

�(�) = ∑ ����; 0 ≤ � ≤ 1 … … … . . (2.1)

=0

Where u is the parameter and ci are the polynomial (also called algebraic) coefficients. Inscaler form this
equation is written as
3 2
( ) = 3 + 2 + 1 +
( ) = 3
3
+ 2
2
+ 1 +
( ) = 3
3
+ 2
2
+ 1 +
In an expanded vector from, equation 2.1 can be written as
�(�) = �3�3 + �2�2 + �1� + �� … … … … (2.2)
In an expanded vector from, equation 2.4 can be written as
�′(�) = 3�3�2 + 2�2� + �1 . . … … … . (2.5)
In order to find the coefficients , consider the cubic spline segment with the twoend points and
shown in figure 2.3

Hermite cubic spline curve

Applying boundary conditions
��, �′ �� � = 0
and �1, �1′ �� � = 1 in equation 2.2 & 2.5Boundary Condition
(i)
�� = � � ………….2.6
�0′ = �1 .………….2.7
Boundary Condition (ii)
1 = 3 + 2 + 1 + 0 . . . . . . . . . . . .2.8
�′1 = 3�3 + 2�2 + �1 . . . . . . . . . . . .2.9
Solving these four equations simultaneously for the coefficients givesEqn 2.6 → �� =
��
Eqn 2.7 → �1 = �′�
Eqn 2.8 → �2 = �1 − �3 − �1 − �0
�2 = �1 − �3 − �0′ − �0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10
Eqn 2.9 → 2�2 = �1′ − 3�3 − �1
2�2 = �′ − 3�3 − �′ . . . … … . . . . .2.11
1 0

Solving equation 2.10 & 2.11 we get

��� 2.10 × 3  3�2 = 3�1 − 3�3 − 3�′0− 3�0
2�2 = �1′ − 3�3 − �0′
(-) (-) (+) (+)
�2 = 3�1 − 3�′ − 3�0 − �′ + �0′
0 1

�2 = 3�1 − 3�0 − 2�0′ − �′1

��� 2.8 → �3 = � 1 − �2 − �1 − �0
�3 = �1 − �2 − �′0 − �0 … … … … .2.12
��� 2.9 → 3�3 = �1′ − 2�2 − �1
3�3 = �1′ − 2�2 − �0′ … … … … .2.13
Solving eqn 2.12 & 2.13 we get
3�3 = �1′ − 2�2 − �0′
��� 2.12 × 2  2�3 = 2�1 − 2�2 − 2�0′ + 2�0
�3 = �1′ − �′ − 2�1 − 2�′ + 2�0
0 0
�3 = 2�0 + �′ − 2�1 + �′
0 1

Substituting coefficients values C0, C1, C2 & C3 in equation 2.2

�(�) = (2�0 + �′ − 2�1 + �1′)�3 + (3�1 − 3�0 − 2�′ − �′ )�2 + �′ � + �0
0 1
�(�) = 2�0� + � � − 2�1� + �1′� + 3�1� − 3�0� − 2�′ �2 − �′ �2
3 ′ 3 3 3 2 2
0 0 1
+ �0′ � + �0
�(�) = (2�3 − 3�2 + 1)�0 + (−2�3 + 3�2)�1 + (�3 − 2�2 + �)�′0
+ (�3 − �2) �′1 … … … … … 2.14
�0, �1, � ��� � are called geometric coefficients
′ ′
0 1

substituting coefficients values 0, 1, 2 & 3 in target vector equation 2.5

�′(�) = 3(2�0 + �′ − 2�1 + �′ )�2 + 2 (3�1 − 3�0 − 2�′ − �′ )� + �′
0 1 0 1 0
′(�)
� = (6�0 + 3�′ − 6�1 + 3�′ )�2 + (6�1 − 6�0 − 4�′ − 2�′ )� + �′
0 1 0 1 0
�′(�) = 6�0�2 + 3�′ �2 − 6�1�2 + 3�′ �2 + 6�1� − 6�0� − 4�′ � − 2�′ � + �′
0 1 0 1 0

�′(�) = (6�2 − 6�)�0 + (−6�2 + 6�)�1 + (3�2 − 4� + 1)�′0

+ (3�2 − 2�)�1′ … … … … .2.15
The functions of u in equ 2.14 & 2.15 are called blending functions. The first twofunctions blend
P0 and P1 and, the second two blend �′ and �1′
Equation 2.14 can be written in a matrix form as
�(�) = �� [��]�, 0 ≤ � ≤ 1 … … … . .2.16
Where =[ 3 2
1]
[MH] is the hermite matrix and V is the geometry matrix. Both are given by
2 −2 1 0
−3 3 −2 −1
[ ]= [ ] … … … . .2.17
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
� = [ � 0� 1 � ′ � ′ ] � … … … . .2.18
0 1

Comparing equation 2.3 and 2.16 shows that

= [ ]
=[ ]
 � = [��]−1 �
Where
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1]
[��]−1 = [
0 0 1 0
3 2 1 0
Similarly equation 2.15 can be written as
�′(�) = ��[��]��
Where [MH]u is given by
0 0 0 0
6 −6 3 3
[ ] =[ ]
−6 6 −4 −2
0 0 1 0
Equation (2.14) describes the Hermite cubic spline curve in terms of its two end points and their
tangent vectors. The equation shows that the curve passes through the end points (u = 0 and u=1). It also
shows that the curve's shape can be controlled by changing its end points or its tangent vectors. If the two
end points Po and P₁ are fixed inspace, the designer can control the shape of the spline by changing either
the magnitudesor the directions of the tangent vectors P0l and P l
1

Control of hermite cubic spline curve

The use of cubic splines in design applications is not very popular due to the need for tangent
vectors or slopes to define the curve. Also, the control of the curve is not veryobvious from the input data
due to its global control characteristics. For example, changing the position of a data point or an end slope
changes the entire shape of the spline,
which does not provide the intuitive feel required for design. Figure 2.4 shows the controlaspects of Hermite
cubic spline sides with curve

BEZIER CURVE
In the previous section, cubic splines which are based on interpolation techniques have been
described. Curves developed by this technique pass through the number of given data points. As already
stated in the previous section, there is another alternative for creating the free-form curves which utilizes
the approximation technique. Curves resulting from approximation techniques do not pass through given
data points. Instead, these points are used to control the shape of resulting curves.
In most of the cases, approximation techniques are preferred over interpolation technique in curve
design due to added flexibility, ease of deployment and additional spontaneous feed provided by this
technique. Bezier and B-spline curves are created on the basis of approximation techniques. Bezier curve
was developed by Pierre Bezier at French car company “Renault Automobile Company”. He used these
curves to design automobile bodies. Bezier curve have a number of properties which make them highly
useful and convenient for curve and surface design. A Bezier curve provides the reasonable design
flexibility and avoids large number of calculation. They are also easy to implement. For these reasons,
Bezier curves are widely available in various CAD systems. Most graphics software includes a pen tool for
drawing paths with Bezier curves.
Mathematical Formulation of Bezier curves
Bezier uses a control polygon for curves in place of points and tangent vectors as in the case of
cubic splines. The Bezier curve is defined in terms of locations with n+1 points which are called control
points. These control points form vertices of a control polygon which uniquely defines the curves shape.
Bezier curve section can be fitted to any number of control points. The number of control points to be
approximated and theirrelative position determine the degree of the Bezier polynomial.
Figure 2.5 shows a Bezier curve which has four control points (P1, P2, P3 and P4).Dashed lines
connect the control point positions which forms the characteristics polygon.Only, first and last control
points or vertices of the characteristics polygon actually lie onthe curve. The other two vertices define the
order derivates and shape of the curve. The curve is always tangent to first and last polygon segments.
Examples of two-dimensionalBezier curves generated from three, four, and five control points are shown
in Figure
 Cubic Bezier curve

Figure 2.6 Two dimensional Bezier curves

Mathematically, a parametric Bezier curve for n+1 control points is defined by
P(u) = ∑�= �iBi,n (u), 0≤u≤1
0
where P(u) is any point on the curve and Pi is a control point which describes the path of an
approximating Bezier polynomial function between P0 and Pn. Bi,n (u) are the Bezier blending functions,
called Bernstein polynomials. Thus, Bezier curves have a Bernstein basis.
This Bernstein basis or blending function is given by
Bi,n (u) = nCiui(1-u)n-i
Where nCi is the binomial coefficients which is given by
!
=
�! (� − �)!
 Characteristics of the Bezier Curves
1. A Bezier curve is defined on n + 1 points P0…., Pn and is represented as aparametric
polynomial curve of degree n.
2. Bezier curve always passes through the first and last control points i.e. it passesthrough Bo and
Bn, if we substitute u= 0 and 1
3. Bezier curve is tangent to the first and last segments of the characteristic polygon.
4. The curve generally follows the shape of the characteristic polygon.
5. The degree of the polynomial defining the curve segment is one less that the number defines the
polygon points. Therefore, for 4 control points, the degree of the polynomial is three, i.e. cubic
polynomial.
6. Bezier curves exhibit a symmetry property. The curve is symmetric with respect to u and (1-u).
Therefore, the sequence of control points defining the curve can be reversed without change of the
curve shape.
7. Each control point is weighted by its blending function for each u value.
8. The curve shape can be modified either by changing one or more vertices of its polygon or
keeping the polygon fixed and specifying multiple coincident points at vertex.
9. A closed Bezier curve can simply be generated by closing its characteristic polygon or choosing
B0 and Bn to be coincident.
10. The curve lies entirely within the convex hull formed by four control points.
11. The curve is invariant under an affine transformation but they are not invariant under projective
transformations.
12. The curve exhibits the variation diminishing property. It means that the curve does not oscillate
about any straight line more often which defines the polygon.
Difference between Cubic Spline and Bezier curves
The major differences between cubic spline and Bezier curves are as follows.
Sl No. Bezier Curve Cubic Spline Curve
The shape of Bezier curve is
First order derivatives are used in the
1 controlled by its defining points
curve development.
only.
The curve does not pass through
the given data points. Instead, These curves pass through the given
2 these data points are used to points exactly.
control the shape of the resulting
curves.
Bezier curve permits higher-
order continuity as the degree or The order or the degree of cubic spline is
order of Bezier curve is variable fixed one. It is always cubic for a spline
3 and it is depending on the number segment.
of defining data points. For
example, n + 1 points define nth
degree curve.
 The shape of the Bezier curve is
smoother than the cubic spline It is not much smoother as Bezier curve
4
curve because of its higher-order
continuity.
The flexibility of Bezier curve is The flexibility is less.
5
more.

B-SPLINE CURVE
The Bezier curve developed on the basis of Bernstein basis has the following limitations.
1. The number of specified polygon vertices fixes the order of the resulting polynomial which
defines the curve. The only way to reduce the degree of the curve is to reduce the number of
vertices and vice versa.
2. Bezier curve is considered as a single curve controlled by all control points. Because of this, with
an increase in the number of control points, the order of the polynomial representing the curve
increases. It increases the complexity of the curve and its calculation.
3. A change in one vertex is felt throughout the entire curve because of the global nature of the
Bernstein basis. It means that the value of blending function is non-zero for all parametric values
over the entire curve.
B-Spline curves provide another effective method of generating curves defined bypolygons. In fact,
B-spline curves are the most widely used class of approximating splines. Moreover, it is a proper and
powerful generation of Bezier curves. B-spline contains the Bernstein basis as a special case. B-spline
basis is generally non global. Thenon global behaviour of B-spline curves is due to the fact that each vertex
B; is associatedwith a unique basis function. The B-spline exhibits local control over the order of the basis
function. Therefore, whenever a single vertex is moved, only those vertices aroundwill be affected while
the rest remains the same. The degree of the B-spline curves can be changed without changing the
number of defining polygon vertices. B-spline curves have the ability to interpolate or approximate a set
of given data points.
where the Pi are an input set of n + 1 control points and Bi,k (u) are the normalizedB-spline basis functions.
There are two major differences between equation (2.16) and equation (2.19).
1. The parameter k control the degree (k-1) of the resulting B-spline curve and it is usually
independent of the number of control points. The parameter k can be chosen to be any integer
value in the range from 2 up to the number of control points, n+1.
2. The range of parameter u now depends on how we choose the B-spline parameters. The maximum
limit of the parameter u is no longer unity as it was so chosen arbitrarily for Bezier curves.
3. Local control for B-splines is achieved by defining the blending functions over subintervals of the
total range of u.
For ith normalized B-spline basis function of order k (degree k-1), the basis functions Bi,k (u) are
defined by Cox-DeBoor recursion formula.
 where each blending function is defined over k subintervals of the total range of
u. The selected set of subinterval endpoints u is referred as a knot vector. The values of ui are elements of
knot vector satisfying the relation is ui ≤ ui+1. The parameters varies from umin to umax along the curve P(u).
Values for umin and umax then depend on the number of control points we select the value, we choose for
parameter k and how we set up the subintervals (knot vector).
The B-spline functions have the following properties.
1. Partition of unity:
This property ensures that the relationship between the curve and its defining control points is
invariant under after transformations.
2. Positivity:
This property guarantees that the curve segment lies completely within the convexhull of pi
3. Local support:
This property indicates that each control point affects only k curve segments.
4. Continuity:
The polynomial curve has degree k-1 and CK-2 continuity over the range of u.
Therefore, Bi,k (u) is (k-2) times continuously differentiable.
5. For n + 1 control points, the curve is described with n + 1 blending functions.
6. The range of parameter u is divided into n + k subintervals by n + k + 1 values specifiedin the knot vector.
7. Each section of the spline curve (between two successive knot values) is influenced byk control points.
8. Any one control point can affect the shape of at most k curve sections.
Formally, B-spline curve is defined as a polynomial spline function of order k(degree k-1) since it
satisfies the following two conditions.
(i) The function P(u) is a polynomial of degree k-1 an each interval ui≤u≤ui+1
(ii) P(u) and its derivatives of order 1,2…… k-2 are all continuous over the entirecurve.
Characteristics of the B-spline curves
1. The local control of the curve can be obtained by changing the position of a control point or using
multiple control points by placing several points at the same location. It can also be obtained by
choosing a different degree (k-1). Figure 2.7 illustrates the local control of a cubic B-spline curve
by moving the control points.
2. The B-spline curves do not pass through the first and last control points except when the linear
blending functions are used.

(a) Before modification (b) After modificationFigure 2.7 Local

control of B-spline curves
3. B-splines allow to vary the number of control points used to design a curve without changing the
degree of the polynomial. Also, any number of control points can be added or modified to
manipulate curve shapes.

Effect of the degree of B-spline curves on its shape

4. A non-periodic B-spline curve pass through the first and last control points and itis tangent to the
first and last segments of the control polygon shown in Figure 2.7.
5. As the number of degree of curve increases, the curve tightens shown in Figure
2.8 if the degree of curve is less the control points will be closer. When k = 1, a zero degree curve
results and the curve then becomes the control points themselves.
6. A second-degree curve (k = 3) is always tangent to the midpoints of all internal polygon segments.
This condition is not suitable for other degrees.
7. The B-spline curve becomes a Bezier curve if k equals the number of control points (n+1) shown
in Figure 2.9. In this case, the range of u becomes zero to one.

B-spline curve
8. Multiple control points results the regions of high curvature of a B-spline curve.Figure 2.10
shows this property of the curve.
9. As the degree of curve increases, it will be more difficult to control and calculateaccurately. Thus,
 a cubic B-spline curve is sufficient for many applications.
Figure 2.10 Multiple control points B-spline curve

RATIONAL CURVES
Rational curves were first introduced for the computer graphics by Coons. Rational curve is
defined as the ratio of two polynomials whereas a non-rational curve is defined by one polynomial.
Various rational curves such as rational Bezier curves, rational B-spline and B-spline curves, rational
conic sections and rational cubics have been formulated. The most widely used rational curves are Non-
Uniform Rational B- Splines (NURBS). NURBS is capable of representing in a single form non-rational
B- splines and Bezier curves as well as linear and quadratic analytic curves. Rational B- splines provide a
single precise mathematical form capable of representing the common analytical shapes such as lines,
planes, conic curves including circles, free form curves, quadric and sculptured surfaces etc.
Rational polynomials are functions in which one polynomial curve is divided by another
polynomial curve. In particular, they make use of homogeneous coordinates in which three dimensional
points of the form [x y z]T are mapped to four dimensions with an additional coordinate dimension w
using the form [xw yw zw]T where w>0. The termw is a weighing or scale factor. The rational form of the
polynomials is obtained by using homogeneous coordinates in the polynomial expressions and then
dividing xw, yw, zw coordinates of each point by their homogeneous weighing coordinates.
A rational B-spline curve defined by n+1 control points pi is given by
P(u) = ∑�= �iBi,k (u), 0≤u≤umax---------------------- 2.20
0
where pi are a set of n + 1 control points (defining polygon vertices) for the rationalB- spline curve.
Bi,k (u) is the rational B-spline basis function and it is given by
The above equations show that the rational B-spline basis functions and curves are a
generalization of non-rational B-spline basis functions. If we substitute wi =1 in the equation (2.21), Bi,k
(u) = Ri,k (u). The rational basis function Bi,k
(u) has nearly all analytic and geometric characteristics of their non rational B-spline counterparts. In
particular,
1. Each rational basis function is positive or zero for all parameter values i.e., Bi,k ≥0
2. The sum of the rational B-spline basis functions for any parameter value u is one,

∑ ��,�(�) = 1
=0

3. Except for k= 1, each rational basis function has precisely one maximum.
4. A rational B-spline curve of order k (degree k-1) is Ck-2 continuous everywhere.
5. The maximum order of the rational B-spline curve is equal to the number of defining polygon
vertices.
Rational splines have the following two important advantages compared to non- rational splines.
1. Rational splines provide an exact representation for quadric curves (conics) such as circles and
ellipses. Non-rational splines which are polynomials can only approximate conics. It allows
graphics packages to model all curve shapes with one representation rational splines without
needing a library of curve functions tohandle different design shapes.
2. Rational splines are invariant with respect to a perspective viewing transformation. It means, we
can apply a perspective viewing transformation to control points of the rational curve and we will
obtain the correct view of the curve. Non-rational splines, on the other hand, are not invariant with
respect to a perspective viewing transformation.
 We then obtain the various conics shown in Figure 2.11 with the following valuesfor weighting
factor r,
r > 1/2, w1 > 1 (Hyperbola section)
r = 1/2, w1 = 1 (Parabola section)
r < 1/2, w1 < 1 (Ellipse section) r = 0, w1 = 0 (Straight line segment)

Conic section from rational curves

SURFACE MODELING
Boundaries of the solid are defined by surfaces. Surfaces themselves are bounded by curves. A
surface is really just a set of related curves. A surface of an object is more complete and less ambiguous
representation than its wire frame model. It is an extension of a wire frame model with additional
information. A complex surface can be very difficult to visualize without a physical model and surface
modeling using a computer cases this process considerably. The basis of a surface is the definition of a
curve in two dimensions in a given plane. It can then be swept along another curve defined in another
plane.
Surface modeling defines a component with greater mathematical integrity as it models the
surfaces to give more definitive spatial boundaries to the design. It is particularly useful for modeling
objects which can be modeled as shells such as car body panels, aircraft fuselages or fan blades. The
surface modeling takes the modeling of an object one step beyond wire frame model by providing
information on surfaces connecting the object edges. Surface modeling can be used for calculating mass
properties, interference between parts, generating cross-sectioned views, generating finite element mesh
and generating NC tool paths for continuous path machining. Databases ofsurface models are centralized
and associative. Manipulation of surface entities in one view is automatically reflected in other views.
Surface models can be shaded andrepresented with hidden lines.
Surface creation on a CAD system usually requires wire frame entities such as lines, curves,
points, etc. All analytical and synthetic curves can be used to generate surfaces. In order to visualize,
surfaces on a graphic display, a mesh, say m x n in size isusually displayed. The mesh size is controlled
by the user. Most CAD systems provide options to set the mesh size.
Types of Surfaces
The surfaces generated by the surface modeling are classified as follows.
(a) Flat surface - most basic feature of surface model.
(b) Sculptured surfaces - based on flat face mostly used in FE analysis.
(c) Sculptured surfaces based on patches.
(d) Analytical surfaces (very rarely used).
 (e) Combination of the above types.
A simple and basic form of surface is flat surface. The most general and complex surface
representations are generally known as sculptured surface. Sculptured surface means the surface produced
by combining two families of curves which intersect one another in a criss-cross manner and creating
network of inter connected patches.
Common surface entities used in a surface modeling are as follows.
(a) Plane surface
(b) Ruled (lofted) surface
(c) Surface of revolution
(d) Tabulated surface
(e) Bezier surface
(f) B-spline surface
(g) Coons patch
(h) Fillet surface
(i) Offset surface

Sculptured surface
(a) Plane surface:
The most elementary and simplest form of the surface types is the plane surface which may be
defined between two parallel straight lines through three points or througha line and a point. Figure 2.13
shows an example of a plane.

Plane surface
(b) Ruled (lofted) surface:
A ruled surface is produced by linear interpolation between two different boundary curves that
define the surfaces shown in Figure 2.14. The effect is of a surface generated by a moving that straight
line with its end points resting on edge curves. This type of surface is more suitable for representing the
surfaces which do not have any twistsor kinks.
 Ruled (lofted) surface
(c) Surface of revolution:
A surface of revolution can be generated by revolving a generating curve about a centreline or
vector. This surface is particularly useful when modeling turned parts or parts which possess the axial
symmetry.

Surface revolution
(d) Tabulated surface:
It is a surface generated by translating a planar curve for a given distance along a specified
direction. The plane of the curve is perpendicular to the axis of the generated cylinder shown in Figure
Tabulated surface

B-spline surface
 A fillet surface is analogous to the fillet arc in curve construction. It is defined as a surface
connecting two other surfaces in a smooth transition (generally of a constant, orsmoothly changing, radius
of curvature). It is a B-spline surface which blends two surfaces together as shown in Figure 2.21.
(e) Offset surface:
Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape but they have different
dimensions. So, the new surface will be created at a faster rate. For example, tocreate a holding cylinder,
first inner or outer cylinder can be created using a cylinder command. Based on this surface, other
cylindrical surface can be created by using an offset command. It is shown in Figure 2.22

Offset surface
Applications of Surface modeling
Surface modeling can be used generally to model exterior shell objects such as sheet metal works
and thin moulded plastic parts. Other areas of applications of surface modelling are as follows.
1. Body panels of passenger cars, structural components of aircraft and marinestructures.
2. Plastic containers, telephones, impellers of pump and turbine, development ofsurface for
cutting shoe leather, glass marking etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface modeling
Advantages:
1. Unambiguities in the interpretation of object are less than wire frame models byusing the
provision of hidden line removal.
2. Surface modeling can be used to perform interference checking (i.e. penetrationof one part with
other).
3. Surface modeling can be used to check the aesthetic look of the product (By usingcoloring and
shade facilities).
4. As the surface models precisely define the part geometry such as surface andboundaries, they
can help to produce NC machine instructions automatically.
5. Complex surface features such as shoes, car panels, doors etc can be created veryeasily.
Disadvantages:
1. Interpretation of surface model is still ambiguous.
2. Surface models require more computational time when compared to wire framemodels.
3. More skill is required for surface modeling.
4. Mass properties such as weight, volume and moment of inertia cannot be derivedfrom surface
models.
5. Surface models cannot be used as a basis for finite element analysis for stressstrain prediction.
6. Neither hidden lines can be easily removed nor can internal sections be easilydisplayed.
 TECHNIQUES FOR SURFACE MODELING
Surface design may be treated as an extension of curve design in parametric dimensions.
Therefore, various curve generation techniques discussed in the first part ofthis chapter can all be applied
in surface modeling. The implicit, explicit and parametricforms of curves can be extended to surfaces.
In explicit form, a surface is represented by an equation of the form z=f(x, y) The implicit
form of surface representation is f(x, y, z) = 0.
In parametric form a surface may be represented asx= x(u, v)
y= Y(u, v)
z=Z (u, v)
where X, Y and Z are suitable functions of two parameters u and v. For example,the parametric
representation of the surface of a sphere whose centre is at the origin of coordinates and of radius R is
x= X(θ,φ) = R sin φ cos θ y= Y(θ,φ) = R
sin φ sin θz=Z(θ,φ) =R cos φ
Parametric surfaces may be defined in one of the following methods.
(a) In terms of points of data (positions, tangents, normals)
(b) In terms of data on a number of space curves lying in these surfaces.
The resulting surface will either interpolate or approximate the data. Surfaces are normally designed
in patches in which each patch corresponds to a rectangular domain inu-v space.
In the design of curves, more importance is given to the generic (non-analytical) parametric
representation of low degree polynomial segments which can be composed together to model a curve.
The reasons are to
(i) include a variety of shapes that analytical curves fail to provide
(ii) get better local control of shape
(iii) get better smoothness and continuity in curve design
(iv) evaluate derivatives easily
(v) prevent excessive oscillations that may be observed in higher degree polynomialsegments, and
(vi) make the representation free from singularities such as vertical slopes.
Also, the parametric representation makes easier to compute the intersection points or plot curves
easier which is not easy with implicit representations.
Once we have decided to use parametric polynomial curves, we must choose the degree of the
curve. If we choose a high degree, we will have many parameters which we can set to form the desired
shape but the evaluation of points on the curve will be costly. In addition, as the degree of a polynomial
curve becomes higher, there is more danger that the curve will become rougher. On the other hand, if we
pick too low a degree, we may not have enough parameters with which to work. However, if we design
each curvesegment over a short interval, we can achieve many of our purposes with low-degree curves.
Although there may be only a few degrees of freedom, these few may be sufficientto allow us to produce the
desired shape in a small region. For this reason, most designerswork with cubic polynomial curves.
 SURFACE PATCH
A patch is considered as the basic mathematical element to model a composite surface. In
computer graphics, the parametric surfaces are sometimes called patches, curved surfaces, or just surfaces.
Some surfaces consist of a single patch while others may consist of few patches connected together. A
surface patch defined in terms of point data will usually be based on a rectangular array of data points.
These points may be regarded as defining a series of curves in one parameter direction which in turn are
interpolated or approximated in the direction of the other parameter to generate the surface. Similar to
curves, cubic basis functions are a good compromise between complexity and flexibilityand they are most
commonly used in computer graphics.
where the surface is described by an XY grid of size (m + 1)*(n + 1) points.
A parametric surface is a surface and it can be parameterized by two variables, uand v. Parametric
surfaces have a rectangular topology. In parametric representation, three- dimensional curved surface in
space is given by
P (u,v)= [x y z]T = [x(u,v) y(u,v) z(u,v)]T,----------------------------(2.22)
umin ≤u≤ umax , vmin ≤v≤ vmax
where P(u, v) is the vector-valued function of two parameters u and v. The function P (u,v) at
certain u and v values is the point on the surface at these values. Valuesof u and y determine the position of
a point on the surface and thus, u and v may be regarded as the curvilinear or Gaussian coordinates.

Surface patch

Using equation (2.22), a general three-dimensional surface can be modeled by dividing it into an
assembly of patches. Figure 2.23 shows the parameter curves on a surface patch defined by a rectangular
array of data points.

COONS SURFACE
A linear interpolation between four bounded curves is used to generate a Coons surface which is
also called Coons patch. This type of surface is based on the pioneeringwork of Steven Anson Coons. The
Coons formulations interpolate to an infinite number of control (data) points to generate the surface and
hence, it may be referred as a form oftransfinite interpolation. The generalized Coons surface (shown in
Figure 2.24) is defined by four rectangular surface patches. By changing the shape of constituents, the
shape of the resulting surface will change as well even if the boundary lines are fixed.
 Coons surface
Consider a surface patch enclosed by four curves shown in Figure 2.24. Let u and v be two
parameters used to express this surface patch. It is assumed that u and v range from 0 to 1 along these
boundaries and each pair of opposite boundary curves are identically parameterized. Let P(0,0), P(0,1),
P(1,0) and P(1,1) be the position vectors atthe four corners, and they denote the four boundary curves by
P(u,0), P(u,1), P(1,v) and P(1,v).
Applications of Coons Surface
(i) Coons surface is easy to create and therefore, many 2-D CAD packages utilize it for generating
models.
(ii) It has only a limited application since the surface is inflexible and it cannot createvery smooth
surfaces.
(iii) It would be very difficult to produce a smooth automobile fender using the Coonssurface.
(iv) Several CAD softwares including AutoCAD use this surface for generatingsurfaces between 4-
bounded edges.

BICUBIC SURFACE PATCH

Parametric bicubic patch or surface is generated by four boundary curves which are parametric
bicubic polynomials. Bicubic parametric patches are defined over arectangular domain in uv-space and the
boundary curves of the patch are themselves cubic polynomial curves. Hence, we call it as bicubic. The
bicubic surface can be thought of as 4 curves along u parameter (or alternately as 4 curves along the v
parameter). To computethe location of the surface for some (u, v) pairs, each of the 4 u-curves can be first
solvedfor the specified value of u. Those 4 points now make up a new curve which can be evaluated at v.
Alternately, if we first solve the 4 v-curves and to create a new curve whichwe then evaluate at u, we will
get the exact same answer.

Bicubic surface patch

 Effect of lifting one of the control point of bicubic surface patch
Analogous to a cubic curve, a parametric cubic surface can be defined by 16 points.
 4 points for coordinates of the corner points
 8 points for slopes in the u and y directions
 4 points for twist vectors (second derivatives)

BEZIER SURFACE
Just as parametric cubic curves are extended to parametric cubic patches, Bezier curves may be
extended to Bezier surface patch. The Bezier surface is a type of parametric surface. Bezier surface is a
straightforward extension to Bezier curves. A Bezier patch isthe surface patch formed by sweeping each
control point of a Bezier curve along a path which is itself a Bezier curve. Instead of the curve being
parameterized by a single variable u, we use two variables such as u and v. As there are four control
points for a Bezier curve, the total of 16 control points is required for a single bi-cubic Bezier surfacepatch.
While the surface passes through the four comer points, the control points are controlled all other
points on the surface. Using the placement of these points to specify,edge slope is easier than determining
the parametric slopes and twist vectors for the parametric cubic curve surface. Bezier surface, as a result,
is easier to use because the control points themselves approximate the location of the desired surface.
Bezier surfaces can be generated with any order of the Bezier curve. Two surface patches can be joined
and the two surfaces do not have to be of the same order, one can be cubic and the othera quadratic.
The general equation of Bezier surface can then be expressed as
P (u,v) = ∑� = ∑ = �i,j Bi,n (u) Bj,m (v) 0≤u≤1, 0≤v≤1
0 0

where P(u, v) is any point on the surface and Pi,j are the control points. Bi,n(u) andBj,m(v) are the
Bernstein blending functions in u and v directions.

Blending Bezier patches

 Blending Bezier patches with slope continuity requires that (1) control points on the common
edges be shared and (2) three control points- one on the edge and one on the either sides of the edge to
form a straight line shown in Figure 2.27 below.
In Bezier surface,
(i) The surface takes the general shape of the control points.
(ii) The surface is contained within the convex hull of the control points.
(iii) The corner of the surface and the corner control points are coincident.
Properties of Bezier Surface
(i) Similar to Bezier curves, Bezier surfaces retain the convex hull property so that any point on the
actual surface will fall within the convex hull of the control points.
(ii) With Bezier curves, the curve will interpolate (pass through) the first and last control points but it
will only approximate other control points.
(iii) With Bezier surfaces, 4 corners will interpolate and other 12 points in the control mesh are only
approximated.
(iv) Four boundaries of the Bezier surface are just Bezier curves defined by points on edges of the
surface.
(v) By matching these points, two Bezier surfaces can be precisely connected.
(vi) The continuity of surface on each parametric direction is 2 less than the numberof vertices of the
control net in the same direction.
(vii) The surface generally follows the shape of the control net.
(viii) The surface passes through only the four comer points of the control net.
(ix) The tangent plane to the surface at a corner point is spanned by two sides of thecontrol net
joining the same corner point.
(x) The direction and magnitude of the twist vectors at four corners P0,0, P0,n, Pm,n andPm,0 of the control
net are influenced by their neighbouring points.
(xi) The surface is invariant under affine transformations which mean that thetransformed image of
the surface patch is also a Bezier surface patch.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bezier SurfaceAdvantages:
(i) Bezier patch meshes are superior to meshes of triangles as a representation of smooth surfaces
since they are much more compact, easier to manipulate and they have much better continuity
properties.
(ii) In addition, other common parametric surfaces such as spheres and cylinders canbe well
approximated by relatively small numbers of cubic Bezier patches.
(iii) It is easy to enumerate points on surface.
(iv) It is possible to describe complex shapes.
Disadvantages:
(i) Bezier patch meshes are directly difficult to render.
(ii) Their intersections calculations with lines are difficult.
(iii) It makes use of awkward for pure ray tracing or other direct geometric techniqueswhich do not use
subdivision or successive approximation techniques. They are also difficult to combine directly
with perspective projection algorithms.
(iv) Control mesh must be quadrilaterals.
(v) Continuity constrains are difficult to maintain.
 (vi) It is hard to find intersections.

B-SPLINE SURFACE
Using a corresponding basis function, uniform cubic B-Spline surface can be formed. The basis
function for a cubic B-spline surface is similar to a cubic B-spline curve. It has a net of control points
which define the surface, none of which interpolate the patch, as in the case of the B-spline curve. Similar
to an advantage of B-spline surface, it supports local control of the surface. Composite surfaces can be
obtained by combiningseveral surface patches.
The uniform B-spline surface patch is constructed as a Cartesian product of two uniform B-spline
curves. A rectangular set of control points creates the B-Spline surface.This set forms the vertices of the
characteristics polyhedron which approximates and controls the shape of the resulting B-spline
surface. The 'degree of the surface' isindependent of the number of control points. The continuity is
automatically maintainedthroughout the surface by virtue of the form of blending functions.

SOLID MODELING
Solid modeling is the most powerful 3D modeling technique. Solid models are considered as
complete, valid and unambiguous representation of objects. The completeness of the information
contained in a solid model allows the automatic production of realistic images of a shape and automation
of the process of interference checking. In many applications, it is important to distinguish between inside,
outside andsurface of a 3D object.
This classification is called spatial addressability or set membership classification.

Solid modeling
A valid solid model should not have sagging edges or faces. So, it will allow the interference
analysis, mass property calculations, finite element modeling and analysis, machine vision and NC part
programming. Solid model can be quickly created without having to define the individual location as in
case of wireframe models. In many cases, creating solid models are easier than wireframe or surface
models.
Solid models should contain two types of information such as metric or geometric data and
connectivity or topological data. The geometric data relate to the coordinate positions of the entities of the
object or actual dimensions that define entities of the object.
The topological data refers to the connectivity and associatively of the object entities. For solid models,
both information are necessary as different shapes can result the same geometry with different topology
and different geometry with same topology. Figure 2.38illustrate the difference between these two.
Solid Model Representation
There are three different forms in which a solid model can be represented in CAD.
 Wireframe model
 Surface model
 Solid model.
(a) Wireframe models:
Joining points and curves creates wireframe odels. These models can be ambiguous and unable to
provide mass property calculations, hidden surface removal or generation of shaded images. Wireframe
models are mainly used for a quick verificationof design ideas.
(b) Surface models:
Surface models are created using points, lines and planes. A surface model is unable to identify
points that do not lie on the surface, and therefore, the moment of inertia, volume, or sections of the
model cannot be obtained. A surface model can be shaded for better visibility. Surface models are used for
modeling surfaces of engineeringcomponents.
(c) Solid models:
Solid models are the most preferred form of CAD models and they represent unambiguous image
of a component. A solid model can be used to analyze the moment of inertia, mass, volume, sections of
the model, etc.
Solid Modeling Entities
Solid modeling entities are building blocks which are also called primitives. Most of the
commercially available solid modeling packages such as AutoCAD, SolidWorks, Unigraphics, IDEAS,
Pro/Engineer etc. have certain set of solid primitives which can be combined by a mathematical set of
Boolean operations to create the solid model. A solid modeler has a library of set of primitives such as
block, cylinder, sphere, cone, wedge, torus etc (as shown in Figure 2.29).
The short description of different solid primitives is given below.

Basic solid primitives

(a) Block:
It is a cuboid or box which is represented by its width, height and depth.
(b) Cylinder:
It is a right circular cylinder whose geometry is defined by its radius or diameterand length.
(c) Cone:
 It is a right circular cone or frustum of a right circular cone whose geometry isdefined by its
base radius, top radius and height.
(d) Sphere:
It is defined by its radius or diameter and it is centered about the origin.
(e) Wedge:
It is a right angled wedge whose geometry is defined by its height, width and base
depth.
(f) Torus:
It is generated by the revolution of a circle about an axis lying in its plane. Thegeometry can be
defined by both inner radius and outer radius.
Solid Modeling Approaches
There are two different types of solid modeling approaches: primitive based modelling and feature
based modeling.
In primitive based modeling, designers use the predefined primitives described above to create
complex solids. Designers must use Boolean operations to combine the primitives and produce the
required shape. A right combination of primitives is selected and their specific instances are used as bricks
or elements to build the solid. The available
Boolean operations are union or combination (U or +), intersection (∩or I) and differenceor subtraction (-).
The union operator is used to combine or add two primitives. The intersection operator gives a
shape equal to their common volume. The difference operator is used tosubtract one object from the other
object and it results a shape equal to the difference in their volume. An example for this activity is shown
in Figure 2.30. This approach is limited by the restricted shapes of the primitives.
Figure 2.30 Types of 2D Boolean operations

Feature based modeling is more flexible because it allows the construction of more complex shape
and it elaborates solids more readily than the primitive based modeling. This type of modeling is in fact a
generalization of primitives approach. Here also, Boolean operations are used but they are hidden from
the user.
For example, creating a protrusion on the face of a cube is a Boolean union and creating a cut in
the cube is a Boolean subtraction. These operations are must for the creation of final solid.
 Types of 3D Boolean operations
The following two basic approaches are important to create solid models.
(1) Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG).
(2) Boundary representation (B-rep.)
Advantages of Solid Modeling
1. Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, center of gravity and moment ofinertia of
physical model can be quickly calculated.
2. Solid models are un-ambiguous models.
3. Cross-section views of models can be easily obtained.
4. It can be used for interference/Clearance checking of moving parts.
5. Aesthetic look of finished object can be visualized in the computer screen itselfwith colour
shading, high-lighting and facilities available in solid modelers.
6. Different views of object (Isometric, Perspective and Orthographic view) can beobtained easily.
7. Solid model is very much useful for finite element analysis.
8. They can help to produce NC machining instructions automatically.

CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY (CSG)

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) is one of the most popular methods of representing and
building complex solids. In this scheme, simple primitives are combined in certain order by means of
regularized Boolean set operators which are directly included in the representation. Primitive themselves
are valid CSG solid model. The type of Boolean operations is used in CSG are Union (U), difference (-)
and intersection (∩). Thedata representation of CSG objects is represented by a binary tree. Directed graph
(binarytree) scheme is used to store the model in the data structure. The general form of the tree- type data
structure used in CSG approach is shown in Figure 2.32. Any node may have one parent node and two-
child node. The root node (R) has no parent and leaf node (L) has no children. The binary tree gives the
complete information of how individual primitives are combined to represent the object. The number of
primitives thus decides the number of Boolean operations required to construct the binary tree.
The balanced distribution of the tree is desired to achieve minimum computationswhile modifying
or interrogating a model. A balanced tree can be defined as a tree whoseleft and right subtrees have almost
an equal number of nodes. The creation of balanced or an unbalances tree is entirely dependent on the
user and it is related to how the primitives are combined. Ideally, the model should be built from an
almost central position and branch out in two opposite directions. For example, while doing subtracting
operation, it is preferred to combine all subtracts together rather than achieving subtracting of objects two
at a time. A balanced and an unbalanced method of building the same object is shown in Figure 2.33.

Tree

Unbalanced tree

Balanced tree

Boolean operations
For example, to create a model as shown in Figure 2.34, four primitives - two rectangular blocks
 and two cylinders are required. To create the final object following Boolean operation has to be carried
out. The CSG tree is organized upside down with theroot representing the composite object at the top and
primitives called leaves at the bottom.
Object (A - B) U (C-D) Balanced tree
CSG does not provide a unique representation. It can be particularly confusing ina system that lets
the user manipulate the leaf objects with tweaking operators. Applyingthe same operation to two objects
which are initially the same can yield two different results shown in Figure 2.35. The object shown in (a)
may be defined by different CSG operations shown in (b) and (c). The modification of the top face of (b)
and (c) upward yields different objects shown in (d) and (e). Nevertheless, the ability to edit models by
deleting, adding, replacing and modifying subtrees is coupled with the relatively compact form in which
models are stored and they have made CSG as one of the dominant solid modelling representations.
Advantages:
1. Since, the data to be stored are less and the memory required will be less.
2. It creates fully valid geometrical solid model.
3. Complex shapes may be developed relatively quicker with the available set ofprimitives.
4. Less skill is enough.
5. The data file of CSG is concise.
6. CSG guarantees automatically in which objects drawn by CSG are valid.
7. CSG is more user-friendly.
8. Algorithms for converting CSG into B-Rep have been developed.
Disadvantages:
1. More computational effort and time are required whenever the model is to bedisplayed in the
screen.
2. Getting fillet, chamfer and taperness in the model are very difficult.
3. CSG database contains information about a solid in an unevaluated form.
4. The validity of a feature of an object cannot be assessed without evaluating theentire tree.
5. The tree is not unique for the same part design.

BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-REP)

Boundary représentation (also known as B-rep) is based on the concept. Aphysical object is
bounded by a set of faces. This approach is widely used in most of the solid modelers. This scheme
describes an object in terms of its surface boundaries: vertices, edges, and faces. Some B-reps are
restricted to planer, polygonal boundaries andit may even require faces to be convex polygons or triangles.
Only the boundary surfaces of the model are stored and the volumetric properties are calculated by the
Gauss Divergence theorem which relates the volume integral to surface integrals.

The solid model created by using B-rep technique may be stored in graph based on data structure system. It is illustrated
with a simple example of tetrahedron shown in Figure 2.36 (a). The tetrahedron is composed of four vertices namely, A, B,
C and D. The coordinate of these vertices is stored in the database. Figure 2.36 (b) shows how the vertices are connected to
form edges (a, b, c, d, e and f) and how these edges are connectedtogether to form the face (ABC, BCD, ACD, ABD) which
makes the complete solid of tetrahedron. This connectivity to form the solid is popularly known as topology.
 Illustration of B rep data structure of tetrahedron
In a B-rep model, in addition to store the topology of solid, topological consistency of the models
is also carried out in order to create geometrically valid solid models. For topological consistency, certain
rules have to be followed. They are as follows.
a. Faces should be bound by a simple loop of edges and they should be notintersected by itself
b. Each edge should exactly adjoin two faces and each edge should have a vertex ateach end.
c. At least three edges, it should meet at each vertex.
In a B-rep, the surface of the solids has its interior and exterior. The surface consists of a set of
well-organized faces. The two important areas for B-rep models are the topological and geometrical
information. Topological information provides the relationship about vertices, edges and faces. In
addition to connectivity, topological information also includes the orientation of edges and faces.
Geometric information is usually in terms of equations of the edges and faces. For better
understanding of the difference between CSG and B-rep schemes, the information contained in a same
solid inboth the schemes are given in Figure. As stated earlier, in B-rep scheme, the solid is made of a set
of faces. These faces are subsets of closed and orientable surfaces. A closed surface is one and it is
continuous without break. In an orientable surface, it is possible to distinguish two sides by using the
direction of the surface normal to point inside or outside the solid model. Each face is bounded by edges
and each edge is bounded by vertices.
 UNIT - III
ASSEMBLY OF PARTS ANDCAD STANDARDS

ASSEMBLY MODELING
Assembly could mean various things to different engineers. In general, assemblies are simply
groups of parts which are brought together in some fashion so that they can perform their intended
purposes. However, mechanical engineers often consider the mechanical assembly at the shop floor or
assembly line. This topic emphasizes the physical assembly of a product such as manual assembly vs
automatic assembly, force and mass of parts, tool and equipment involved in assembly, tolerance analysis
and interference checking.
During the product design, more considerations are given to the ease of manufacture of its
individual components and aesthetic look for the final product. A littleattention is given to the assembly
aspects of parts and more reliance is placed on the assembly engineers to make the assembled product
work in a perfect manner. It leads to the overburdening of the assembly engineers.
The very effective way to solve this problem is to provide a good solution due toconsideration to
the assembly process of the product at the design stage. For example, introducing guides and tapers,
locators, etc. into the product design may facilitate the easeof assembly. In addition to this, modeling and
representing assemblies, generating assembly sequences and analyzing assemblies are all relevant issues
to be solved by the assembly engineers. Further, it is well known that the assembly design has a
significant impact on many downstream activities such as production process, planning and control,
tolerance analysis, and packaging.
Assembly design involves the creation of assembly models which specify the relative location and
orientation of components. In the design activity, componentgeometry is assembled together to create an
assembly model. Mating constraints also called assembly mates (or placement constraints) are used
to locate and orient the components with respect to one another. Assembly process planning and
assembly/disassembly are popular considerations for industrial engineers who are often in-charge of
designing and running a product assembly so that the practical aspects of product assembly can be
incorporated in product design line. Overall, it is essential for the design engineers to have essential
knowledge in these areas so that the practical aspects of product assembly can be incorporated in product
design. Assembly modeling is a technology and method used by CAD systems to handle multiple files
which represent the components within a product. The components within an are represented as solid or
surface models. Assembly models are then simply a 3-D based representation of these groups of parts.
This chapter is focused on which addresses the methods employed in CAD to represent assembly.
Figure3.1 shows the assembly model created in the CAD system to design torch light. Figure 3.1
represents the typical exploded view of the assembly with parts list along with overall dimensions of the
assembled product at the bottom.

Assembly model in CAD

Generation of Assembly Model
Assembly of a product may be done in a variety of methodologies such as partsmay be welded
together or they may be fastened together using bolts and nuts or they may be just parts which form a
working unit such as barrel and rod in a hydraulic cylinder.To use the correct methodology of assembly, it
is very important to know the nature andthe structure of dependencies between parts in an assembly. For
example, we must knowwhether a part can be moved relevant to other parts and the sub-components of
the part are movable or rotated. an assembly model should include the spatial positions and hierarchical
parts and the assembly or mating conditions between parts. Therefore, among relationships mewling
representation of hierarchical relationships and mating conditionsare the important considerations which
distinguish the assembly modelers and geometricmodelers. Assembly can be considered as more advanced
geometric modelers who know the hierarchical relationship and mating conditions of components of a
product.

Generation of an assembly model in CAD

CAD assembly has been commonly employed for product design. In CADmodelling, Component
geometric models are created and an assembly model is createdby specifying the relative location and
orientation of parts. The relationship between assembly modeler and geometric modeler is shown in
Figure 3.2 with the creation of an assembly model. The process starts with the creation of the shape
information of individual parts. The designers analyses these parts which include the mass property
calculations and stress analysis using finite element analysis. After completing the part design, the
assembly modeler is used to assemble the components and analysis. Assembly of parts requires the
mating and spatial relationships between parts. An assembly analysis may include interference checking,
calculation of mass properties, kinematic and dynamic analysis. In an assembly model, the link between
individual and assembled parts are created so that the design engineers need only to modify thegeometric
model of individual parts for any further design modifications and the assembly model is updated
automatically.
Many of the existing CAD modelling software offers the facility of geometric modelling as well
as assembly modelling. With a CAD assembly, the following essentialquestions in design can be readily
answered by the product assembled in CAD:
● Will the parts fit into the designated space as an assembly?
● Will the components of the assembly collide or interfere in operation?
● Will the assembly operate as intended?
Modelling and Representation of Parts
The initial process in creating the assembly model is creating the individual parts using a
geometric modeller with the proper representation scheme. As the assembly modelling requires mating
conditions and spatial relationships which are related to the faces, edges and vertices of the assembled
parts, a boundary representation scheme is used in geometric modelling. The part model may include not
only shape information butit may also include material type, mass properties, tolerances and fits, etc.
Assembly Modelling Approaches
The following three approaches used in assembly modelling.
  Bottom-Up approach
 Top-Down approach
 Combination.
(a) Bottom-Up approach:
Bottom-up approach is a logical, traditional and most common approach. The individual parts are
created independently inserted into the assembly and located and oriented (using the mating conditions)
as required by the design. The first part inserted isknown as base and it is fixed. The important features of
this approach are as follows.
● It allows the designer to use part drawings that already exist (off the shelf)
● It provides the designer with more control over individual parts
● The multiple copies (instances) of parts can be inserted into the assembly
● Any changes in the original part are reflected on all instances in the assembly.
(b) Top-Down approach:
In this approach, the assembly file is created first with an assembly layout sketch. The parts are
made in the assembly file or the concept drawing of parts are inserted and finalised in the assembly file. In
other words, the final geometry of the parts has not beendefined before bringing them into the assembly
file. The important features of this approach are as follows.
● It lends itself well to the conceptual design phase
● The approach is ideal for large assemblies consisting of thousands of parts
● The approach is used to deal with large designs including multiple design teams.
(c) Combination approach:
In this approach, the basic geometry for a part is first established, then it isbrought into an
assembly for further refinements
Hierarchical Relationship

Generation of an assembly model in CAD

As discussed earlier, the hierarchical relationship between various parts is very important for
assembly modelling. The most effective and natural way of such representation is an assembly tree.
 Table vice assembly
Figure shows the typical assembly tree. An assembly tree may be defined as a structured
diagrammatic representation of the hierarchical order of various parts of a product. An assembly tree
consists of a number of subassemblies at different levels and each sub assembly consists of a number of
parts. Number of subassemblies at different levels determines the tree depth. Assembly of the product is
at the top of the tree at zero depth which is the highest hierarchy of the assembly sequence. Figure 3.4
shows table vice assembly. The table vice consists of three main elements such as base, sliding jaw and
handle with vice screw. The base is held stationary and the sliding is driven by a handle through a vice
screw. Figure 3.5 shows the assemblytree of the table vice. The free represents an assembly sequence by
which the vice assembly can be produced. The assembly tree is not unique as it is possible to generate
other valid assembly sequences
 Assembly tree of table vice
Mating Conditions
Constraints or mating conditions refer to the geometric or mathematical rules orrestrictions
which are applied to restrict the location of parts in the assembly model.
Orienting parts in the Constraints or mating conditions refer to the geometric or mathematical rules
or assembly is achieved by specifying mating conditions between individual components. Mates specify
the spatial relationship between parts. In CAD, individual parts are created first and then it is assembled
together using a “merge” command. Each part has its own Model Coordinate System (MCS). For making
the assembly, one of the parts of a product is selected as a base part and it is merged with theother parts on
it. MCS of the base part becomes the Global Coordinate System (GCS) and MCS of each other parts
become a local coordinate system for this part. The final positionof each part in the assembly is obtained by
locating and orienting its corresponding MCSproperty with respect to WCS of the assembly.

GCS and local coordinates of parts of the assembly model

An example of the MCS and GCS of the assembly model is shown in Figure 3.6.In Figure 3.6 ,
XYZ represents the GCS of the assembly model with the origin (0, 0, 0) point. The X1 Y1 Z1, X2 Y2 Z2
and X3 Y3 Z3 are local coordinate systems of three parts with their origins O1, O2, and O3 which make the
assembly. The origins of individual parts are located relative to the assembly origin and their orientations
relative to the XYZcoordinate system reflect the proper orientations of the parts in their assembly.
There are two methods of representing an assembly depending on how we are providing the
locations and orientations of its various parts. In the first method, the part location is specified by a 4 x 4
homogeneous transformation matrix. The function of this transformation matrix is that it transforms the
coordinates of mating parts from its local coordinate to the global coordinate system of the assembly. The
easiest way to present the transformation matrix interactively is to specify the location of MCS of a part
relativeto the assembly GCS. Then the orientation of MCS is forced to coincide with the orientation of the
proper Working Coordinate System (WCS). This WCS is defined relative to the assembly GCS.
For example, let us consider the components as shown in Figure 3.7. Figure 3.7 shows the
individual components part A and B which should be assembled. To create the assembly, part A is
considered as a base part and two instances of part B are merged into it. The user defines WCS of the part
B as X1 Y1 Z1, to merge as shown in Figure 3.7. Similarly, another instance of part B is merged with X2 Y2
Z2 as WCS coordinates. The transformation matrices to merge the instances of part B into part A are
expressed as
The second method is based on specifying the spatial relationship between its individual parts as a
mating condition. This method uses simple graphics entities such as faces and centerlines as a mating
feature. For example, a mating condition may consist of plane surfaces to match against each other or
requiring centerlines of individual parts to be collinear. The mating conditions can be interactively
provided by users. By assigning these mating conditions, the CAD system automatically computes the
transformation matrices of parts. Basic mates use simple geometric entities such as points, lines (normalto)
and faces.

Creation of assembly
Basic mating conditions are as follows.
● Coincidence
● Tangent
● Parallel
● Concentric
● Coplanar
● Perpendicular
(a) Coincident (Mate):
The coincident mating condition is applied between to planar faces and it forces them to be in
touch with each other. This condition is also called “against” condition. Figure 3.8 shows the coplanar or
aligned mating condition applied between planar faces of two solid blocks such as part A and part B.
Each face is specified by its unit normal vector, na and nb point on the surface, P. The coincident condition
is satisfied by forcing n, and not to be opposite of each other and the two faces touch each other such that
Pa andPb are coincident. An offset option is provided as an option for this command to keep the parts at a
specified distance apart.
 Coincidence (mate) condition for assembly modelling
b) Coplanar (Aligned):
The coplanar mating condition is applied between two planar faces and it forces them to lie in the
same plane. Figure 3.9 shows the coplanar or aligned mating condition applied between planar faces of
two solid blocks such as part A and part B. Each face is specified by its unit normal vector, n, and a point
on the surface, P. The coplanar condition is satisfied by forcing na, and nb to be in the same direction, and
the two points, Pa, and Pb, are chosen to lie on the two edges to mate.

Figure: 3.9Coplanar (aligned) condition for assembly modelling

(c) Concentric (Insert):
The concentric mating condition also called “fit” condition is applied between twocylindrical faces
such as a cylindrical face of a shaft and cylindrical face of a hole as shown in Figure 3.10. The concentric
mating condition is achieved by forcing the axes tobecome collinear. Each axis is defined by two points.
The whole axis is defined by two points, Pa and Pb and the shaft axis is defined by two points, Pc and Pd.
 Concentric (insert) condition for assembly modelling
(d) Tangent:
The tangent mating condition is applicable between a planar and cylindrical surface of two
cylindrical surfaces. The tangent condition between a planar face (Part A)and a cylindrical surface (Part B)
is shown in Figure 3.11.
Other mating conditions:
Other mating conditions often used in assembly modelling are given as follows:
● Parallel
● Perpendicular
● Path mate
● Symmetric
● Surfaces intersecting an edge
● Linear/Linear coupler
● Angles of surfaces/planes to each other
● Relationship of geometry to a coordinate system

Tangent condition for assembly modelling

Most of the CAD designers use either Pro/ENGINEER or SolidWorks software for solid
modelling and assembly. The most commonly used mating constraints in Pro/ENGINEER and
SolidWorks software are given in Table 3.1.
 Mating constraints in Pro/ENGINEER and SolidWorks

S.NO. Pro/ENGINEER Solid works Descriptions

1. Mater surface Mate: Coincident, Positions selected faces or planes so

antialigned. they coincide.

2. Align surface Mate: Coincident Antialigned implies that the two

aligned faces or planes point in the opposite
directions and aligned implies that
the normal vectors of the two faces
or planes point in the same
directions.
3. Align axes or Mate: Concentric Place the selected cylindrical
insert surfaces surfaces so that they share the
common axis.

4. Orient Mate: Parallel Place the selected items in the same

direction and remain a constant
distance apart from each other.

5. Coordinate Default Place the first part to the default

system coordinate system in assembly.

6. Tangent Mate: Tangent Place the selected items in a tangent

mate (at least ibe items must be a
cylindrical surface).
Representation of Assemblies and Assembly Plans
A computer representation of mechanical assemblies is necessary in order to automate the
generation of assembly plans. The main issue in this stage is to decide the type of information about
assemblies required and how this information is represented inthe computer. An assembly of parts can be
represented by the description of its individual components and their relationships in the assembly.
Assembly database stores the geometric models of individual parts, the spatial positions and orientations
of the parts inthe assembly, and the assembly or attachment relationships between parts.
(i) Graph structure:
One of the widely used methods for representing the assemblies is based on a structure. In this
scheme, an assembly model is represented by a graphical structure in which each node represents an
individual part or a sub assembly. The branches of the graph represent relationships among parts. Four
kinds of relationships exist such as part-of (P), attachment (A), constraint (C) and Sub Assembly (SA).
➢ The "part-of" relation represents the logical containment of one object in another.For example, the
head and shaft of a screw are "part-of" the screw itself.
➢ There are three types of attachment relationships: rigid, non rigid, and conditional.
○ Rigid attachment occurs when no relative motion is possible between two parts.
○ Non rigid attachment occurs when parts cannot be separated by an arbitrarilylarge distance but
relative motion between two parts is possible.
○ Conditional attachment is related to parts supported by gravity but it is notstrictly attached.
➢ Constraint relationships represent the physical constraint of one part on another.
➢ Subassembly relationship indicates that an assembly is merged into a higher assembly
(ii) Location graph:
Another method for representation of assembly is the location graph of the part which is a relative
property. In this method, a coordinate system is used to specify locationof one part relative to another part.
A location in one coordinate system also defines a new coordinate system for the located part with its
origin and axes. Other locations can be defined in terms of this second one. Thus, a chain of locations can
be defined such thateach location is defined in terms of another party's coordinate system. A set of these
chains results in a graph referred to as a location graph.
Generation of Assembly Sequences and Assembly Plans
For usefulness, an assembly planning system must generate correct assembly plans. Further, to
solve problems, it requires optimization such as selection of the best assembly alternative. One must be
able to traverse the space of all candidate solutions. The number of distinct feasible assembly plans can be
large even for assemblies made of a small number of parts. Therefore, a complete enumeration is not
possible in most casesof real applications. Finding systematic ways to narrow down alternatives is crucial
for the automatic planning of assembly. Some of the widely used techniques in evaluation of assembly
sequence are discussed below.
(i) Precedence diagram:
The precedence diagram is a graphical representation similar to a network plan showing all tasks
of assembling the parts or completing the link or sequence necessary for assembly. It is designed to show
all the possible assembly sequences of a given product. To develop the precedence diagram for a product,
each individual assembly operation is assigned a unique number and it is represented by an appropriate
circle (or node) with the number inscribed. The circles are connected by arrows showing the precedence
relations. The precedence diagram is usually organized into columns. All operations which can be carried
out first are first column and so on. Usually, one operation appears in the first column by placing the base
part on the work carrier where the whole assembly process occurs.
(ii) Liaison-Sequence analysis:
The liaison method develops all possible assembly sequences in two steps. First, it characterises
the assembly by a network wherein nodes represent parts and lines between nodes represent any mating
conditions between parts. These mating conditions are referred to in this method as liaisons. The network
itself is known as a liaison diagram.
When developing a liaison diagram, the liaison count (number of liaisons) is related to the part
count (number of parts) n by the following inequality.
�2 − �
(� − 1) ≤ � ≤
2
(iii) Precedence graph:
In contrast to the previous two methods, this method is fully automatic. It is based on the virtual
link data structure and it requires the mating conditions as input to automatically generate the assembly
sequences for various assemblies. Once the mating conditions are provided, they are organised in the form
of a mating graph. The parts in an assembly are then structured in a hierarchical assembly tree. Then the
assembly sequence is generated with the aid of interference checking. In this method, the assembly
sequenceis referred to as a precedence graph.

INFERENCE OF POSITION AND ORIENTATION

The mating condition requirements for an assembly modelling are discussed till now. The
inference of position and orientation of mating parts in an assembly is actuallya reverse process. Here, the
position of mating parts and its orientations are found from the mating condition implied for assembly
modelling. This process requires the computing of its 4 x 4 homogeneous transformation matrix from the
mating conditions. Local coordinate system of the part is mapped with the global coordinate system of the
assembly by using this 4 x 4 homogeneous transformation matrix. The general mapping combines both
translational and rotational elements. The transformation matrix can be written as follows.
where 3 x 3 matrix R defines the rotation transformation and 3 x 1 column vectorL determines the
translation. Therefore, the transformation matrix has twelve variables consisting of nine rotational and
three translational elements. All these twelve variables must be determined from the mating conditions. If
an assembly consists of K parts and chooses them as a base part of the assembly, K-1 transformation
matrices have to be calculated. Hence, the variables to solve for simultaneously are 12  (K – 1) elements
ofthese matrices.
Physically, this transformation can be viewed as a representation of a coordinate system in a fixed
reference coordinate system. Each unit vector of the coordinate frame n1, n2, and n3 mutually
perpendicular as shown in Figure 3.12 With this, the transformation matrix can be rewritten as follows.
] defined in

With such a transformation matrix, any given vector =[

the mating part with respect to its local coordinate system can be transformed to =[ ] with
respect to the coordinate system of the base part by the following

Representation of a frame in a frame

It clearly shows the rotational and translational portions of the transformation. Therefore, the
transformation matrix in equation can be represented by the product of a translation matrix , and a
rotation matrix . as

In determining the transformation matrix, the rotation matrix TR is computed first by solving a set
of linear constraint equations associated with the orientation of two mating parts. After orienting the
mating part by applying the rotation matrix TR, the translation matrix TL is calculated by solving a set of
linear constraint equations associated with location. This method is computationally effective because the
transformation matrix for relative location and orientation of the mating part are algebraically and directly
derived from linear equations associated with the mating conditions. The mating part is fully constrained.
The mating conditions considered in this subsection are concentric and coincident.The conventions
in which the superscripts b, m, mr and ma in the following equation indicate the base part, the mating part,
the mating part after rotation and the mating part after assembly respectively.
When two independent pairs of direction vectors are ( , ) are given, = 2, from the well-
constrained mating conditions between a base part and mating part as shown in Figure 3.13 below. The
equation associated with rotation of components is expressed as
ni mr =Rnim, i=1,2
where ni mr = nib, i=1,2 is for aligned andni mr =- nib, i=1,2 is
for mate.
[ 1 2 3 ] = [ 1 2 3 ]
 Therefore, the rotational submatrix R is obtained by
� = [�1���2���3�� ][�1��2��3�]−1

Mating conditions for assembly modelling

The translation submatrix L is determined algebraically by solving the equations associated with
translation after reorienting the mating part by applying the rotation matrix .
After reorienting, the mating direction vectors are parallel and a point on the mating part after
assembly ma is expressed as
= +
where is a point on the mating part after reorienting and it is obtained by
=
Thus, the constraint equations associated with the translation of mating parts are expressed in the
next section.
As given in Figure, the coincidence (mate) holds between two planar faces and requires the two
faces to touch each other. Each face is specified by its unit normal vector n and one-point P on the face in
terms of its local coordinate system. This conditionis accomplished by constraining the two normal vectors
to be opposite to each other andthe two points that are non-coincidence to lie on the same plane at which
the two faces mate. Thus, equations of the coincidence constraint can be expressed as follows.
=
�
�� . (�� − ���) = 0
By substituting the value of pma from equation in the above equation. It can be expressed as
�
((�� − (��� �)� . + �)) = 0
For the case of coplanar (aligned) condition as in Figure 3.13, the above equation is slightly
modified in such a way that the two normal vectors and are required to be in the same direction. Thus,
coplanar (aligned) constraints can be expressed as follows.
=
and
�
�� . (�� − ���) = 0
The concentric (insert) condition holds between two cylindrical faces as shown in
Figure 3.13. This condition is accomplished by requiring the centre axes of a shaft and hole components
to be parallel and a point on the axis of the mating part lies on the axis of the base part. An axis is
defined by a unit direction vector and a point on it. The hole axis is specified by a point and a unit
direction vector in terms of its local ordinate system, Similarly, the shaft axis is specified by a point
and a unit direction Vector in terms of its local coordinate system. Thus, the constraint equations for
concentric conditions can be written as follows.
=

and
because vectors �� and ��� − �� are collinear.

Equations specify partially the relative rotation and translation of the mating part with respect to
the base part associated with the respective mating constraints. We assumethat the origins of the coordinate
system of the mating and base parts coincide (not necessarily aligned). For concentric mate, the centre
axes of the mating parts are parallel after repositioning. The constraint requires that one point on the
axis of the mating part lies on the axis of the base part. Thus, the translational constraint equations for the
concentric (insert) mating are expressed as follows.

DATA EXCHANGE STANDARDS

Recently, more design authority is delegated to suppliers. Suppliers must match their designs to a
number of specified variants. To support the process, a great deal of design data must be exchanged. It
requires CAD systems of manufacturers and suppliersto be able to exchange geometric (and other) data.
Data exchange refers to the share geometric data between locations, between different proprietary
modelers and between CAD/CAM systems. It transfers geometric data to other software applications.
Examples are analysis, CNC, etc.
The following reasons for exchanging the data are that
 All use the same CAD package.
 Special translator applications are used to change the data from one format tospecific one
needed.
 A neutral format is used for data exchange
 Data exchange between various systems
Above-mentioned parameters are the statement of database formats. These formats should be
identical on the basis of the modeling requirements and it is not possible to have identical format for all
systems. So, the standard format can be identified for theexchange of data. The standard was established
by the initiative of National Bureau of Standards (NBS). USA is termed as Initial Graphics Exchange
Specification (IGES)
The typical data exchange between various systems is shown in Figure 3.14. In addition to above
requirements, a neutral format must be standardized. Some standards have formal acceptance: National
and International standards. Some are de facto standards developed by particular companies which chose
to make the specifications public. Every CAD system uses its own proprietary data format. Design data
must be converted from one format to another format. So, the need arises for communication of software
and hardware via Standard Codes of Graphics Data (SCGD).

Need of standardization for data exchangeTurnkey System:

Software and hardware are obtained from one supplier. Suppliers of Turnkey system rarely
manufacture all items of system. Alternatively, the user chooses specialist software and hardware for the
best combination which suits to his application.
Requirements of Data Exchange
(i) Shape data:
It contains both geometric and topological information, part or form features.
Fonts, color and annotation are part of the geometric information.
(ii) Non-shape data:
It has graphics data such as shaded image and model global data as measuringunits of the database
and the resolution of storing the database numerical values.
(iii) Design data:
The design data consists of information about the designer's generation data from geometric
models for the analysis purposes. Mass property and finite element mesh data belong to this type of data.
(iv) Manufacturing data:
It is the information as tooling, NC tool paths, tolerancing, process planning, tooldesign and bill of
materials (BOM). So, it is necessity to translate drawings created in onedrafting package to another. For
example, the model can be created in PRO-e and generated geometric data. The generated geometric data
needs to be exchanged to analysethe model.
PRO-e---- >ANSYS
Methods of Data Exchange
(i) Direct CAD system export/import
(ii) Direct translation software
(iii) Neutral data exchange format.
Direct CAD System Export/Import
The data is exchanged based on the concept of one to one relationship. Some CAD systems can
directly read or write other CAD formats by using the file open and file saveas options. The problems of
many file formats are to be supported. As most CAD file formats are not open, this option is limited to
two CAD systems offered by the same software developer. One method is to write the direct translators
from one software to other software which has to be produced by the system developer.
Direct Translation Software

Direct CAD system export/import

Companies who specialize in CAD data translation software provide software which can read one
system and write the information in another CAD system format. They have their own proprietary
intermediate format. Some of these translators work stand-alone while others require one or both of the
CAD software installed.
Neutral Data Exchange Format
If three software packages are available, six translators are required among them.
It will necessitate a large number of translators.
 Neutral data exchange format

CAD data exchange using neutral files

Approaches in Data Exchange Format:
The data exchange format can be done using two approaches such as shape based format and
product data based format.
1. Shape based format:
In this case, all data exchange files are neutral files. These files do not have any software specific
function. It was developed by the US Air Force Boeing Company. Example, DXE & IGES are shaped
format. DXF file structure is simple and ASCII text
file. It handles simple images as drafting and modeling. The basic sections of DXE fileformat are given
below.
S. No. Sections Contents
1. Header It contains the general information about the drawing
This section has line type, layers, text style,
2.
Table coordinate system, view port etc.
3. block It includes information about the block end of the file
4. Entities Drawing entities with it related properties.
5. End The information about the end of the file

2. Product data based format:

 Initial effort US Air force led to obtain Product Data Defined Interface (PDDI) and STEP
(Standard for Transfer and Exchange of Product data). Some other formats are identified as Standard
product Data exchange Format (SDF), Electronic Design Interface Format (EDIF) and Product Data
Exchange using Step (PDES)

Three layered architecture for product data exchange

It consists of a three layered architecture such as application, logical and physical layer shown in
Figure. The application layer has full description and information about various application areas such as
mechanical, electrical etc. Then the logical layeris to provide a computer independent description of data
structures and formats and information to be shared. The third physical layer contains the data structures
and formatsfor the file exchange itself.
Classification of Data Exchange Standards or Neutral File Formats
In addition to IGES, some other formats are also identified to exchange data. So, the data
exchange standards are mainly classified as below.
1. IGES
2. STEP
3. DXF
4. STL
IGES - Initial Graphics Exchange Specification
IGES is the most comprehensive standard and it is designed to transmit the entire product
definition including manufacturing and any other associated information. IGES standard is essentially a
specification for the structure and syntax of a neutral file in ASCII, compress ASCII or binary format. It
is generally stable and reliable for the exchange of simple geometric entities such as points, lines, arcs and
little less so for complex entities such as splines. Sometimes, poor annotation, dimensions and group
entities are handled.
IGES works at the level of application database structure. It is based on the concept of entities
such as points, lincs, circles and surfaces etc. These entities in IGES are classified into three types.
(a) Geometric entities:
It contains lines, circles, surfaces etc.
(b) Annotations entities:
They contain additional information such as dimensions, blocks, additional notes
etc.
(c) Structure entities:
 They have information required for the descriptions of objects to define howobject is made
using basic entities.
An IGES file consists of the following file sections. They are as follows.
(i) Flag:
It is optional one and used to denote the form in which the data is specified. Theinitial version
contained ASCII format with a detailed structure. It is shown in Figure
3.20. From Version 3.0, it was standardized as follows.
(a) ASCII mode which is a default option
(b) Binary form and
(c) Compressed ASCII form
(ii) Start section:
It contains a man readable prologue file. It assists the user at the destination such as features
originating of system. Any number of lines can be contained in this section. It is used for initializing the
IGES file.
(iii) Global section:

Interchange method between two different CAD systems using neutraldata format such as IGES or
STEP
It contains details about the product, organization, software, date etc. They are necessary to
translate the file from any graphic software to other graphic software. It includes drafting standard used
and some information required for its post-processing on the host computer. It provides 24 fields, the
parameter necessary to translate the files, including (field no in bracket) delimiter character (1 & 2),
senders identifier (3), file name(4), IGES version (23) and drafting standard (24).
(iv) Directory section:
 contains attribute information such as color, line type, etc. It references the entities and necessary
data required for entities which are given in the next section. It is generated by preprocessor which
contains entry for each entity in the file compressing code representing the entity type and subtype and
pointed to the entity data in next sections, two lines comprising 18 field of 8 characters are used for each
entity.
(v) Parameter data section:
It contains data associated with entities such as constraint details, co-ordinate value, text etc.
IGES data type:
(i) Geometry entities:
101 Circular arc
102 Composite curve
104 Conic arc
106 Copious data - centre line
- linear path
- section line
- simple closed curve
- witness line
108 Plane
110 Line
112 Parametric spline curve
114 Parametric spline surface
116 Point
118 Ruled surface
120 Surface of revolution
122 Tabulated cylinder
124 Transformation matrix
125 Flash
126 Rational B-spline curve
128 Rational B-spline curve
130 Offset curve
132 Connect point
134 Node
136 Finite element
138 Nodal displacement and rotation
140 Offset surface
141 Boundary
142 Curve on a parametric surface
143 Bounded surface
144 Trimmed parametric surface
 146 Nodal results
148 Element results
150 Block
152 Right angular wedge
154 Right circular cylinder
156 Right circular cone frustum
158 Sphere
160 Torus
162 Solid of revolution
164 Solid of linear extrusion
168 Ellipsoid
180 Boolean tree
182 Selected component
184 Solid assembly
186 Manifold solid B-rep object
190 Plane surface
192 Right circular cylindrical surface
194 Right circular conical surface
196 Spherical surface
198 Toroidal surface.
(ii) Annotation entities:
106 Copious data - Centre line
- Section
- Witness line
202 Angular dimension
204 Curve dimension
206 Diameter dimension
208 Flag note
210 General label
212 General note
214 Leader (arrow)
216 Linear dimension
218 Ordinate dimension
220 Point dimension
222 Radius dimension
228 General symbol
230 Sectioned area
(iii) Structure entities:
 302 Associativity definition
304 Line font definition
306 Macro definition
308 Sub-figure definition
310 Text font definition
312 Text display template
314 Colour definition
316 Units data
320 Network sub-figure definition
322 Attribute table definition
402 Associativity instance
404 Drawing entity
406 Property entity
408 Singular sub figure instance entity
410 View entity
412 Rectangular armay sub figure instance entity
416 Circular array sub figure instance entity
418 External reference
420 Nodal load/constraint
422 Attribute table instance
502 Vertex
504 Edge
508 Loop
510 Face
514 Shell
600 to 699 Macro instance entity Or 10000-99999 as
specified by the user.
The data present in the parameter section changes with the type of entity. Somedata recorded are
shown below.
For a circular arc (type 100), the parameter data stored are
(i) Parallel displacement of X, Y plane containing the arc along Z axis
(ii) Are centre coordinate, X
(iii) Arc centre coordinate, Y
(iv) Start point of the arc, X
(v) Start point of the are, Y
(vi) End point of the arc, X
(vii) End point of the arc, Y
(viii)Back pointers as required for the properties.
(vi) Termination section:
 It marks the end of the data file and contains the subtotal of records for datatransmission
check purposes.
Problems with IGES:
Problems have occurred with IGES for the particular geometry between differentsystems due to
the following reasons.
a) Export choices
b) Tolerances, accuracy and resolution.
c) Many incompatible "flavours"
d) Unreliable translation particularly for complex geometry
e) No formal information modelling basis
f) Insufficient support for conformance testing
Solid modeling is more sensitive than surface modeling in IGES. The solids areincluded for CSG
modeling (IGES 4.0) as follows.
(i) Block
(ii) Right angular wedge
(iii) Right angular cylinder
(iv) Right angular cone frustum
(v) Sphere
(vi) Torus
(vii) Solid of revolution
(viii) Solid of linear extrusion
(ix) Ellipsoid
(x) Boolean tree
(xi) Solid instance
(xii) Solid assembly.
Drawing Exchange Format (DXF)
It was developed by Autodesk. Drawing file is converted into an ASCII file format. The main
objective is to make drawing files readable and editable. Because of popularity of AutoCAD, it was de-
facto standard for data exchange between CAD/CAM systems. A drawing interchange file is an ASCII
text file with an extension of .DXF andspecially formatted text. The format of the organization is given
below.
(i) Header:
It has general information about the drawing similar to the global section of IGES. It has an
AutoCAD version number and a number of system variables. Each parameter iswith a variable name and
associated value. This information is used for the database conversion purpose.
(ii) Classes:
It has the information for application-defined classes with its instances in blocks, entities and
objects of the database. It is permanently fixed in the class hierarchy.
(iii) Tables:
It contains definitions of the following symbol tables which directly link to the object types
available in AutoCAD.
 (a) Line type table
(b) Layer table
(c) Text style table
(d) View table
(e) User coordinate system table
(f) Viewport configuration table
(g) Dimension style table
(h) Application identification table
(i) Block reference table.
(iv) Blocks:
They have the block symbol definition and drawing entities which make up eachblock reference
in the drawing.
(v) Entities:
They include the graphical objects (entities) in the drawing along with blockreferences (insert
entities).
(vi) Objects:
They hold the non-graphical objects in the drawing. All objects which are not having entities and
symbol tables are stored. DXF file is with many groups and each oneoccupies two lines in DXF files. The
first line is for a group code and the one is for depending on the type of group specified by the group code.
Limitations of IGES and DXF:
(i) Both file systems were developed to exchange the product defeated of productdata
(ii) The product data encompasses the entire life cycle of products manufacturing,quality assurance
testing and support.
(iii) Although specifications of both IGES and DXF have been updated to includesome product
data, the data carried by those files are inherently insufficient.

STEP. STANDARD FOR EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA

New CAD data standard was developed through a worldwide effort Known as STEP in 1997.The
ability to share data across applications, across vendors, platforms, contractors, suppliers and customers is
the main objective of STEP Standard.
STEP seeks to address a number of limitations of RS IGES in IGES does not clearly between the
logical specification of the standard( the meaning of the data from CAD system point of view), the
applications requirements (how the data will be used in a particular application) and the physical
specification for the storage of data in exchangesfiles
Data loss:
Similar to any language translation, there is always informations during the pass data Information
translation
Examples:
(i) A design tolerance is captured as a text placed on drawing and its numerical valuesare lost
(ii) Circular cylinders a hole is repented by NURBS.(iii)The offset
information is lost in offset.
The broad scope of STEP is as follows
(i) The standard method of representing the informations necessary to completely define a product
throughout its entire bile from the product connection to the endof useful life.
(ii) Standard methods for exchanging the data electronically between two different systems.
STEP uses the formal model for the data exchange which is described using an information
modeling language called EXPRESS. It is both human readable and computer processable. STEP has
three layers architecture which enables the multiple application views and implements to be defined. The
STEP documentation has eight major areas which are described below
1. Introductory: It contains the details about general introduction and overview of the standard.
It forms the part 1 of the ISO standard 10303. It comprises of part I which has overview and general
principles.

Three layer architecture of STEP

2. Description method:
When compared to other standards, the application protocols are planned to reach vendors. So, a
new descriptive formal information modelling language called EXPRESS developed and defined. It is
given in part 11 to 13.
3.Implementation method:
It describes how express map physical file and storage mechanisms are represented for the data
exchange. In addition, it refers to the actual implementation level.These details are given in part 21 to 26.
4. Conformance testing methodology and framework:
It provides the methods for testing implementation and test suites to be used during conformance
testing. It also gives the specifications for conformance testing of the processors, guidance for creating
abstract-test suites and the responsibilities of testing laboratories. These details are given in part 31 to 35.
5. Integrated-generic resources:
It contains the specifications of the information models about generic resources such as geometry
and structure representation. The specifications are geometric and topological representation, product
structure organization, materials, visual presentation,tolerances, form features and process structures, and
properties. These details are given in part 41 to 99.
6. Application information models:
They specify the information models used for the particular application areas such as draughting,
finite element analysis, kinematic, building core model and engineering analysis core. The details are
given in part 101.
7. Application protocols:
It describes implementations of STEP specific to a particular industrial application and they are
associated with implementation methods to form the basis of a STEP implementation which provide test
suites for each of the application protocol. It also defines the context for the use of product data for a
specific industrial need. More complexmodels are used to illustrate the specific product-data applications.
It uses the integratedinformation resources in well defined combination and configuration to represent a
particular data model of some phase of product life. The information is given in part 201.
8. Application interpreted construct:
It describes the various model entity construct and specific modeling approach. They relate to the
specific resources useful for defining the generic structures useful for applications. In this case, the
information can be reused. So, it makes the process easier to express the identical semantics in more than
one application protocol.

CONTINUOUS ACQUISITION AND LIFE-CYCLE SUPPORT(CALS)

It was developed by US Department of Defense. It prescribes the formats for storage and
exchange of technical data. It focuses mainly technical publications. It is alsoknown as CALS, CAL, RAS.
Important CALS standards:
1. Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) is an important standard. It was developed in
1960s IBM. It has the document description language. It separates content from structure. It uses
"tags" to define headings, sections, chapters, etc. Mainly, HTML is based on SGML
2. Computer Graphics Metafile (CGM) is the next important standard. It wasdeveloped in 1986. It is
used for the vector file format for illustrations and drawings. All graphical elements can be
specified in a textual source file which can be compiled into a binary file or one of two text
representations.
CALS is an attempt to integrate text, graphics and image data into standard document architecture.
Its ultimate goal is to improve and integrate the logistics functionsof the military and its contractors.
All technical publications for the federal government must conform to the CALSstandard. Many
other government organizations are also quickly adopting CALS. Commercial businesses such as medical,
telecommunications, airline and book publishing industries have also standardized on CALS.
CALS has also come into wide use in the commercial computer industry such as in CAD/CAM
applications and in the aerospace industry which owes a large part of its business to government and
military contracts. CALS compliant technical illustration systems also use the Post Script Page
Description Language and Encapsulated Post Script files to exchange data between themselves and
commercial systems.
File organization:
There are two types of CALS raster formats as defined by MIL-STD-28002A. They are specified
as the Type 1 and Type II raster formats. Type I raster data files contain a single monochrome image
compressed using CCITT Group 4 (T.6) encoding algorithmand appended to a CALS raster header record
data block.
 Type II image files contain one or more monochrome images which are also stored using CCITT
Group 4 encoding algorithm. In addition, Type II format supports the encoding of image data as a
collection of pel tiles. Each tile of image data is either separately encoded using CCITT Group 4 or it is
stored in its raw and unencoded format.The location of each tile within the image is stored in a tile offset
index for convenient retrieval of individual tiles.
The structures of the two CALS variants such as Type I and Type II are shown below. The Type I
file format consists of the following.
(i) Header
(ii) Image Data
The Type II file format looks similar to the format given below.Header
Document profile Presentation
stylesDocument layout Root layout
Layout object page 1
Tile index Image data
Layout object page 2
Tile index Image data
Layout object page N
Tile indexImage data

Type II format is considerably more complex than Type I. Each Type II file may contain one or
more pages of image data. There is also a considerable amount of page and document formatting data
present in a Type II file. But, the most common use of the TypeII format is simply to store a collection of
Type I CALS raster images in the same physical file. In such an arrangement, all the image pages are
untiled, CCITT Group 4 encoded and the profile, style, and layout information are omitted.
The raster data in a Type I file is always encoded using a CCITT Group 4 encodingmethod. CCITT
Group 3 encoded and unencoded data are not supported. Type II files may contain tiles which are either
CCITT Group 4 encoding method. CCIIT group 3 encoded or raw, unencoded data. both raw and encoded
tiles may occur in the same TypeII CALS file and they are always 512 pels in size. If the end of the image is
reached beforea tile is completely encoded, then this partial tile is completed by addition of padding.
Two other types of tiles found in Type II images are null foreground and null background tiles.
Null tiles are entirely white or entirely black depending upon the designated background and foreground
colors. They are actually pseudo-tiles which are not present in the image data and have no tile offset value.
Tile data is stored in the image data along the pel path (rows) and down the line progression
(columns). Storage of randomly distributed tiles is possible but it is discouraged. Tiles are normally
encoded, unless the image data is so complex that the time required to encode the image is too great or
unless very little reduction in the size of the data would result if the tile was encoded. The inclusion of
unencoded data in a T.6- encoded data stream is not supported by the CALS raster format.
(i) File details:
This section contains detailed information about the components of a CALS raster
file.
(ii) Header Record Data Block:
The CALS raster header is different from most other graphics file format headers.They are entirely
composed of 7-bit ASCII characters in a human-readable format. When most graphics image files are
displayed as a text file, seemingly random garbage is displayed on the screen. Listing a CALS raster file
will reveal ASCII information whichis quite understandable to a human reader.
The CALS raster data file header is 1408 bytes and it is divided into eleven 128- byte records.
Each record begins with a predefined 7-bit ASCII record identifier which is followed by a colon. The
remaining part of the 128-byte record is the record information.
If a record contains no information, the character string NONE is found in the record. Theremainder of the
bytes is in each record contain space characters (ASCII 32) as fillers. All data in the header block is byte-
oriented, so no adjustments need to be made for byteorder.
The raster image data always begins at offset 2048. Although this padding is not actually defined
as a part of the header, additional records added to future versions of theCALS header would be placed in
this area. The byte value used for the padding is usuallya space character but any ASCII character can be
used.
The structure for the CALS raster header block is shown below.
Typedef struct _Cals Header
{
CHAR SourceDocId(128); /* Source Document Identifier */CHAR
DestDocId[128]; /* Destination Document ID */ CHAR
TextFileld[128]; /* Text File Identifier */
CHAR Figureld[128]; /* Table Identifier */
CHAR SourceGraph[128]; /* Source System Filename */CHAR
DocClass[128]; /* Data File Security Label */ CHAR
RasterType[128]: /* Raster Data Type */
CHAR Orientation[128]; /* Raster Image Orientation */CHAR
PelCount[128]; /* Raster Image Pel Count */ CHAR
Density[128]; /* Raster Image Density */ CHAR Notes[128];
/* Notes */
CHAR Padding[640]; /* Pad header out to 2048-bytes */
} CALSHEAD;
(iii) Image record identifiers:
Each record in a CALS raster file starts with a record identifier which is a string of ASCII
characters followed by a colon and single space. Record data immediately follows the record identifier. If
the record does not contain any relevant data, then the ASCII string NONE is written after the identifier.
(iv) Source DocId:
Source DocId starts with the source system document identifier (sredocid). This record isused by
the source system to identify the document to which the image is attached. This identifier can be a
document title, publication number or other similar information.
(v) Dest DocId:
Dest Docld starts with the destination system document identifier (dstdocid). Thisrecord contains
information used by the destination organization to identify the documentto which the image is attached.
Also, it may contain the document name, number or title,the drawing number or other similar information.
(vi) Text Fileld:
Text Fileld starts with the text file identifier (txtfilid). This record contains a string indicating the
document page in which this image page contains. A code is usually found in this record to identify the
section of the document to which the image page belongs. Such codes may include:
S.No Codes Full text
1 COV Cover or title page
2 LEP List of effective pages
3 WRN Warning pages
4 PRM Promulagation pages
5 CHR Change record
6 FOR Forward or Preface
7 TOC Table or preface
8 LOI List of illustration and tables
9 SUM Safety summary
10 Ptn Part number n
11 Chn Charter number n
12 Sen Section number n
13 App-n Appendix n
14 GLS Glossary
15 INX Index
16 FOV Foldout section
(vii) Figure Id:
Figure ld starts with the figure or table identifier (figid). It is the number by whichthe image page
figure is referenced. A sheet number is preceded by ASCII string -S and followed by the drawing number.
A foldout figure is preceded by ASCII string -F and followed by the number of pages in the foldout.
(viii) Source Graph:
Source Graph starts with the source system graphics filename (srcgph). This record contains the
name of the image file.
(ix) Doc Class:
Doc Class starts with the data file security label (docels). This record identifies the security level
and restrictions which apply to this image page and associated document
(x) Raster Type:
Raster Type starts with the raster data type (rtype). It is the format of raster image data which
follows the header record data block in this file. This record contains the character 1for Type I raster data
and 2 for Type II raster data.
(xi) Orientation:
Orientation starts with the raster image orientation identifier (rorient). This record indicates the
proper visual orientation of the displayed image. This data is represented bytwo strings of three numeric
characters separated by a comma. The first three characters are the direction of the pel path of the image
page. Legal values are 0, 90, 180, and 270 representing the number of degrees the image was rotated
clockwise from the origin when scanned. A page scanned normally has a pel path of 0O while an image
scanned in upside-down has a pel path of 180° The second three characters represent the direction of line
progression of the document. Allowed values are 90 and 270 representing the number of degrees
clockwise of the line progression from the pel path direction. A normal image has a line progression of
270 while a mirrored image has a line progression of 90.
(xii) Pel Count:
PelCount starts with the raster image pel count identifier (rpelent). This record indicates the width
of the image in pels and the length of the image in scan lines. This data is represented by two strings of
six numeric characters separated by a comma. Typical values for this record are shown in Table CALS
Raster-1
S.NO DRAWING SIZE Pels per line and number of lines
1 A 001728&002200
2 B 002240&003400
3 C 003456&004400
4 D 004416&006800
5 E 006848&008800
6 F 005632&008000

(xiii) Density:
Density starts with the raster image density identifier (rdensity). This density is a single four-
character numeric string representing the numerical density value of the image. This record may contain
the values 200, 240, 300, 400, 600, or 1200 pels per inchwith 300 pels per inch being the default.
 CALS in AutoCAD
CAL is an online geometry calculator to evaluate the point (vector), real or integerexpressions. The
expressions can access existing geometry using the object snap functions such as CEN, END and INS.
AutoLISP® variables can be inserted into the arithmetic expression and assigned the value of the
expression back to an AutoLISP variable. These arithmetic and vector expressions can be used in any
command which expects points, vectors, or numbers.
CAL options:
(i) Understand syntax of expressions
(ii) Format feet and inches Format angles
(iii) Use points and vectors
(iv) Use Auto lisp variables
(v) Use system variables in calculations
(vi) Convert units of measurement
(vii) Use standard numeric functions
(viii) Calculate a vector from two points
(ix) Calculate the length of a vector
(x) Obtain a point by cursor
(xi) Obtain the last-specified point
(xii) Use snap modes in arithmetic expressions
(xiii) Convert points between UCS and WCS
(xiv) Calculate a point on a line
(xv) Rotate a point about an axis
(xvi) Obtain an intersection point
(xvii) Calculate a distance
(xviii) Obtain a radius
(xix) Obtain an angle
(xx) Calculate a normal vector
(xxi) Use shortcut functions

PDES - PRODUCT DATA EXCHANGE STANDARD

To overcome the limitations in application of IGES as standard for CAD data exchange, new
standards were developed by IGES organization in 1984 called PDES- Product Data Exchange Standard.
Later, it changed to Product Data Exchange Using STEP. PDES is a much more comprehensive and
complex standard than IGES or any other predecessors to include all data which are relevant to the entire
life-cycle of a product, design, analysis, manufacturing, quality assurance, testing, support, etc. PDES and
STEP are identical. In 1985, the acronym PDES had been changed to STEP.
 Three layer architecture of PDES
A standard format for exchanging data is between advanced CAD and CAM programs. It
describes a complete product including the geometric aspects of images and manufacturing features,
material properties and tolerance and finish specifications. STEPis ISO 10303. The user interface is not as
simple as "put IGES" and "get IGES. "Product data is exchanged through discipline models or mental
models. Both sender and receivermust know these models. So, the discipline models are standardized by
PDES. PDES methodology contains three-layer architecture reference models, formal languages and
coordination with other standards. The three-layer consists of application layer, logical layer and physical
layer.

Product data exchange using PDES.

The application layer is the interface between user and PDES. It has all information and
descriptions of various application areas. These two are expressed withinPDES through reference models.
In logical layer, a consistent-computer independent description of the data is provided. The data contains
all information to be exchanged about the product. Also, it is a key parameter to check the redundancy in
data in PDES. Last, the physical layer consists of data Structures and file syntax for PDES. It establishes
and maintains the efficiency in the file size and processing time. It helps to avoid the related problems
dealt in IGES.
PDES is developed to have a proactive influence on both users and vendors. Theproduct data is
exchanged through PDES discipline models in CAD/CAM systems. Then PDES. Follows the
correspondence When entering product data into their systems. So expensive exange of date can be made
by the standards PDES disciplines models.
Preprocessors of PDEC enable users to specify the processor action from entities of their own
system and entities of PDES. It is based the correspondence made by the discipline model. The
preprocessors act on the basics of the action of application layer followed by logical layer and physical
layer. Then the date will be passed to exchange unit and to post processor. Finally, the date reaches the
date receiving device through discipline model to fix the actions.
 UNIT-IV
FUNDAMENTAL OF CNC ANDPART PROGRAMING
INTRODUCTION
In the late 1940's, T. Parsons formulated a method of using punched cards containing coordinate
position data to control a machine tool. The machine was directedto move in small increments to generate
the desired surface of an airfoil. In 1948, Parsonsdemonstrated his concept to the US Airforce. Then it was
taken as a series of research projects at Servo Mechanisms Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). The initial stage involved in the development of a prototype NC milling machineby
retrofitting (back fit) a conventional tracer mill position. Servo mechanisms were usedfor the movement of
three machine tool axes. The First demo of an NC prototype was held in 1952. By 1953, the usefulness of
the NC concept had been proven.
APT is used in many industries and most other languages used in NC and CNC machinesare based
There are numbers of problems in conventional NC machines as given in Chapter 4 which have motivated
the machine tool builders to seek improvements in basicNC. To rectify these problems, digital computers
were integrated into the NC system. Theintegratie: System computers with NC machine tools resulted in
the following advantages:
i The memory for part program processing is increased.
ii The capacity for storing large part programs is increased.
iii Editing of part programs on the control console made it easy.
iv Substantial improvements made in controls for NC systems.

v Realisation of control logic through software.

vi The reliability of operation of NC machines is improved, equity large and easy.
vii In the manufacturing system, the integration of NC machines is made.

INTRODUCTION TO NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) SYSTEM:

Numerical control (NC) refers to a form of programmable automation in which the mechanical
actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program obtaining coded alphanumeric
data encoded on a storage medium. NC machine tools are the machine tools operated by programmed
commands in contrast to the manual control through band wheels or levers, or mechanically automated
through cams alone.
Basic Principle of NC Machines
Controlling a machine tool by means of a prepared program is known as Numerical Control or NC.
A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertionof numerical Controlling a machine tool by
means of a prepared program is known as Numerical data at some point is known as the NC system. In
other words, it is defined asa form of software controlled automation in which the process is controlled by
alphanumeric characters
A general configuration of the NC machine tool system is shown in Figure 4.1. ANI machine tool
consists of a Machine Control Unit (MCU) and the machine tool as shown Figure 4.1(a). The machine
tool has various drives such as X-axis, Y-axis and Z- axis drive which are driven by the servomotors. The
feedback device or feedback controlis used to integrate the MCU and the machine tool.
 NC Machine tool

(a) Configuration of NC system

The MCU consists of two main units such as Data Processing Unit (DPU) and Control Loops Unit
(CLU) as shown in Figure 4.1(b). The coded information received from a tape reader passes through
decoding circuits of DPU and sends the data to CLU. These data are used to control various axes of the
machine tool.
The basic elements of a typical NC machine are data input, data processing and data output. For
data input, the numerical information is stored in the tape reader, floppydiscs or in the computer memory
in the form of programmed codes. For data processing,the programs are read by the Machine Control Unit
(MCU) for processing. For data output, this information is translated into commands in the form of pulsed
signals to the motor. The motor moves the table on which the workpiece is placed in specified positions
through linear or rotary movements by motors, lead screw, ball screw and other devices.A NC machine
can be controlled through two types of feedback controls such as open loop and closed loop systems. It is
also classified on the basis of control systems in numerical control into two types such as point-to-point
and contouring.
Machine axis and Coordinate system
As per manufacturing concepts in obtaining the degrees of freedom for the linear and transverse
movements, each free body has six degrees of freedom. Among these degrees of freedom, three positive
or negative translations are along X, Y and Z-axes and three rotations. Clockwise or counter-clockwise
about these axes as shown in Figure 4.2.
NC systems which control three linear translations or three linear translations and one rotation of
the worktable are the most common.Machine tools, each axis of motion isequipped with a separate driving
device which replaces the hydraulic actuator or a stepping motor. The type of motor selection mainly
depends on the power of the hand wheel of the conventional machine.
Fixed Zero and Floating Zero Positioning
Origin is considered as zero-point of the coordinate system. The programmer needs to determine
the position of the tool relative to the origin (i.e. zero point) of the coordinate system. There are two
methods of specifying the zero point.
1. Fixed zero positioning
2. Floating zero positioning
In a fixed zero positioning system, the origin is always located at the southwest corner i.e. lower
left-hand corner of the table and all tool locations will be defined by positive X and Y coordinates.
In a floating zero positioning system, the machine operator sets the zero point at any Positions on
the machine table. The part programmer decides the zero point to be located. It is also known as a
reference point. At the beginning of the job, the operator moves the tool under manual control to 'target
point' on the table. The target point is at aconvenient place on the workpiece or table for the operator to
position the tool. Then, theoperator presses a 'zero' buttons on the machine tool which tells the machine
where the zero point is located subsequent tool movement.
Absolute Positioning and Incremental Positioning
The machine tools require the position of cutting tool and workpiece. They moverelative to each
other. Absolute and incremental positions are concerned with whether thetool positions are defined relative
to the origin of the coordinate system or relative to theprevious location of the tool. There are two ways of
positioning the tool in relative to theworkpiece as follows:
1. Absolute positioning
2. Incremental positioning.
Absolute positioning means that the tool locations are always defined in relation to zero point.

\
Figure 4.4 Absolute Vs incremental positioning.
Incremental positioning means that the next tool location must be defined withreference to the
previous tool location.
In Figure 4.4, the tool head is presently at point (20, 20) and it is to be moved to po (40, 50). In
absolute positioning, the movement is specified from the origin as X= 40, Y=50; but in incremental
positioning, the movement is specified from the present tool position as X=20, Y = 30.
The absolute system has the following two significant advantages over theincrement system.
1. Interruptions caused by, for example, tool breakage (or tool change, or checking the parts) and
would not affect the position at the interruption.
2. Easy change of dimensional data
The incremental mode has the following two advantages over the absolute system.
1. Inspection of the program is easier because the sum of position commands for each axis must be
zero. A non-zero sum indicated as an error. Such an inspection is impossible with the absolute
system.
2. Mirror image programming (for example, symmetrical geometry of the parts) is simple by
changing the signs of the position commands.
Both systems are incorporated in most CNC systems. For an inexperienced operator, it is wise to
use incremental mode.
Elements of NC System
A typical NC system consists of part program, machine control unit and machine tool shown in
Figure 4.5.
(a) Part program or software:
The part program or software refers to the set of instructions, languages, punchedca magnetic tape,
punched paper tape and other information processing items. It is the detailed step by step set of
instructions which tell the machine tool what to do. The software is the sole element to control the
sequence of movement of NC machines. Hence, it is also called software-controlled machines. The
programmer plans the entire operationsand the sequence by referring to the product drawing supplied to
him. Then the instructions in the for of the program are prepared, known as part program. The part
program is prepared on program manuscript. Then these instructions are punched on the control tape.
According t the instructions punched in tapes, tape reader feeds the codes toMachine Control Unit (MCU).
Finally, MCU converts the supplied instructions into the machine movement connected with the machine
tool.

Figure 4.5 Basic components of an NC system

(b) Machine Control Unit (MCU).
The NC machine tool has a main unit known as Machine Control Unit (MCU).It has some
electronic hardware elements to read the NC program, interprets it and equallytranslates it for mechanical
actions of the machine tool. It is the brain of an NC machine.
MCU is the automatic control unit which provides information for manual intervention of the
operator. It converts the information from the tape program into the desired command signals. The
actuation systems come into the desired action on receiving the command signal MCU. MCU may be
housed in a separate body or on the machine itself. It controls the path of the cutting tool, speeds and
feeds, tool change and several other functions.
Capabilities of MCU:
MCU should be capable of doing the following functions.
 1. Starting and stopping the machine tool spindle.
2. Varying the spindle speed.
3. Changing the direction of rotation of the spindle.
4. Starting and stopping the coolant supply.
5. Changing the desired tool.
6. Changing the workpiece as required.
7. Locking and unlocking fixtures and workpieces.
8. Guiding the cutting tool tip along the desired path.
9. Controlling the feed rate or movement of the tip.
A typical MCU consists of the following units.
(i) Input or reader unit:
This input unit consists of electro-mechanical devices used to collect the input from punched tape,
cards, magnetic tape and disk. Then the system is driven by a reading head, interpreted the coded
information and collected it again for reuse.
(ii) Memory:
A set of information consists of words which are read from tape and stored into a temporary
memory called buffer. One block may contain one complete set of instruction Words in a particular
sequence. The memory helps to keep on storing the next block of words when the machine processes the
previous block.
(iii) Processor:
The unit which coordinates and controls the functions of other units by sending the signals to the
machine at the appropriate point of time is called processor.
(iv) Output channels:
The channels which convert the stored data in the memory into actuation signals supply the output
channels as pulses.
(v) Control panel:
The control panel consists of switches, indicators, Manual Data Input (MDI) and d for supplying
the information about the process to the operator.
(vi) Feedback channels:
A feedback channel is to check the process whether it is going right or not by sending signals to
the operator.
(c) Machine tool:
Machine tool is the main component of a numerical control system which executes operations. It
consists of the worktable, cutting tools, jigs and fixtures, motors for drivin spindle and coolant and
lubrication systems. It is a single machine capable of performing operations such as milling, boring,
drilling, reaming, and tapping by Automatic Tool Change (ATC) under the control of tool selection
instruction.
In NC machines, to control the position of a machine slide, a group of elect mechanical,
pneumatic or hydraulic components is used which are known as se mechanism. The output from the data
handling equipment is passed through sepan channels to a servo system which drives the machine slides.
Types of NC Systems based on the Type of Machine Control
NC systems are classified on the basis of types of machine control as follows.
 (a) Traditional numerical control (NC)
(b) Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
(c) Distributed Numerical Control (DNC).
(a) Traditional Numerical Control (NC):
The original numerical control machine is referred to as a NC machine tool. It has a Hardwired
control where the control is proficient through the use of punched paper (orplastic), tapes or cards. Tapes
tend to wear and become dirty. It leads to misreading. Someother limitations are also noticed with the use
of traditional NC tapes. For example, NC tapes consume more time. Finally, it led end users to move to
further development of CNC and should manually be reloaded for each new part. It lacks the program
editing abilities of the DNC systems.
(b)Computer Numerical Control (CNC):
CNC refers to a system which is locally linked with a computer to store all necessary numerical
data. To enhance the performance of tapes, CNC was used due to the compatibility of incorporating other
storage media such as magnetic tapes and hard disks. The main advantage of CNC systems is the
flexibility allowed to edit the programs according to the need for executing cycles of machining
commands.
(c) Distributed Numerical Control (DNC):
The further development of CNC systems over many years with the use of local area networking
has changed the modern concept of updating fields. Therefore, it led to the development of a modern
numerical control system called Distributed Numerical Control (DNC). The DNC system is almost
similar to CNC except an isolated computer used to control a number of machines. An off-site mainframe
mass computer grasps the programs for all parts to be manufactured using the DNC facility. First, the
programs aredownloaded from the mainframe computer, and then the local controller supplies data tothe
hardwired NC machines. In the advanced DNC system, a central computer is used tofeed the data to local
CNC computers.
Classification NC Machines Based on the Type of Control System
NC systems are classified on the basis of type of control system used as follows.
(a) Open-loop system
(b) Closed-loop system.
Open-Loop System
In the open-loop control system, the programmed instructions are fed into the controller through
an input device. These instructions are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) byn the controller and
sent to the amplifier to energise the stepper motors.A stepping motor is defined as one whose output shaft
rotates through a fixed angle in response to a given input pulse. The stepping motors are the simplest way
for converting the digital electrical signals into a proportional moment. So, they are relatively a cheap
solution to the control problem. The open-loop NC systems are always of a digital type and they use
stepper motors for driving slides.
Figure 4.6 Open-loop machine slide control
 The primary drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no feedback to check whether the
program position and velocity have been achieved. If the performance is affected by load, temperature,
humidity or lubrication, then the actual output could deviate from the desired output. Since there is no
check on the slide position system, accuracy is solely a function of the motor's ability to step through the
exact number stepsprovided at the input. For these reasons, the open -loop system generally uses point-to-
point systems where the accuracy requirements are not critical.
Closed-Loop System
The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct any
discrepancy from the programmed input. These systems use position and ve feedback. A position
transducer acts as a feedback device. The feedback system could be either analog or digital. The analog
systems measure the variation of physical variables. as position and velocity in terms of voltage levels.
Digital systems monitor output variation by means of electrical pulses. To control the dynamic behaviour
and thefinal position of machine slides, a variety of position transducers are employed.
Figure illustrates the concept of closed-loop digital control for one axis of theclosed-loop control
measures the axis' actual position and compares it with the reference position. The difference between
actual and desired values is the error and control is designed in such a way to eliminate or to reduce the
error to a minimum. case, the systemis a negative feedback one. Closed-loop systems are very powerful

and accurate because they are capable of monitoring operating conditions through feed subsystems and
automatically compensating for any variations in real-time.
Closed-loop positioning control
Classification NC Machines Based on Type of Motion Control
There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use with them
differ because of the basic differences in the functions of the machines to be controlled. There are three
types of NC systems used which are based on the type of motion control.
They are:
1. Point-to-point NC system
2. Continuous path NC system
(a) Straight-cut system
(b) Contouring system.
Point-to-Point System
Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc. require the cutter and
the workpiece to be placed at certain fixed relative positions at which they must remain while the cutter
does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point machines. In this point-to-point system, the
objective of the machine tool control is to move the cutting tool to a predefined location. It moves the tool
only in straight lines. The speed or path is not important in this system. The point-to-point system is also
called a positioning system in which each axis of the machine is separately drivenby a ball screw or lead
screw, depending on the type of operation. The operation such asdrilling or punching, the positioning and
cutting takes place sequentially using a point to point NC system. The time required in the operation is
minimised for good efficiency.

Point-to-point NC system
The simplest example of a point-to-point system is a drilling machine. In this system first, the start
point is set for the drill. The workpiece is moved along the axes of motion untill the centre of the hole to
be drilled exactly under the drill. Then the drill is moved towards the workpiece, the hole is drilled and the
drill moves out in a rapid traverse feed. The workpiece moves to a new position for the next hole to be
drilled. The drillingis carried in the sequence of 1-2-3-4 as shown in Figure 4.8. At each X-Y position, the
table movement stops to perform the drilling operation. Point-to-point systems are used mainly in drilling,
punching and straight milling operations.
Continuous Path NC System
Other types of machine tools involve motion of the workpiece with respect to the cut while the
cutting operation is taking place. Continuous path systems generally refer to systems that are capable of
continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes. In continuous path NC machines, the tool performs
the process while the worktable is moving. Thus, it enables the system to generate angular surfaces, two-
dimensional curvesor three-dimensional contours to the workpiece. This control mode is required in many
milling and turning operations. The continuous path machines can be classified into the following two
types depending on the movement of the tool during cutting.
(a) Straight-cut NC system:
When continuous path control is utilised to move the tool parallel to only one of the major axes of
the machine tool worktable, it is called straight-cut NC system as shownin Figure 4.9. It is preferred for
milling operations. Here, it is not possible to combine more than a single axis direction. Hence, angular
cuts are not possible.

Straight-cut NC system
(b) Contouring system:
When continuous path control is used for simultaneous control of two or more axis machining
operations, it is called contouring NC system. It is a complex and flexible method of tool control. It is
capable of performing both point to point and straight-cut operations. The path of the NC cutter is
continuously controlled to generate the desired geometry of the workpiece as shown in Figure 4.10. The
system is able to generate angular surfaces, two dimensional curves or three-dimensional contours in the
work part. The positioning are the cutting operations that take place along controlled paths. The
contouring system is used for milling machines, grinders, welding machinery and machining centres.

Contouring NC system
Applications of NC Machines
Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes. The applications can be divided
into two categories:
1. Machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning and other working.
2. Non-machine tool applications, such as assembly, drafting and inspection.
The common NC machine tool applications are listed in the following along with typicalfeatures:
(a) NC lathe, either horizontal or vertical axis:
Turning requires two-axis, continuous path control, either to produce a straight cylindrical
geometry (called straight turning) or to create a profile (contour turning).
(b) NC boring mill, horizontal and vertical spindle:
Boring is similar to turning, except that an internal cylinder is created instead of an external
cylinder. The operation requires continuous path, two-axis control.
(c) NC drilling press:
These machines use point-to-point control of the work head (spindle containing the bit) and two
axes (x-y) control of the worktable. Some NC drill presses have turen containing six or eight drill bits.
The turret position is programmed under NC control, thus allowing the different drill bits to be applied to
the same work-part during the machine without requiring the machine operator to manually change the
tool.
(d) NC milling machine:
Milling machines require continuous path control to perform a straight cut or contouring
operations.
The other applications of NC machine tools are as follows:
1. Press working machine tools
2. Welding machines
 3. Inspection machines
4. Automatics drafting
5. Assembly machines
6. Tube bending
7. Flame cutting
8. Industrial robots
9. Automated knitted machines
10. Automatics riveting.
Advantages and Disadvantages of NC Machines
Advantages of NC Machines :
1. Reduced non productive time
2. Provides greater accuracy and repeatability
3. Lower labor cost
4. High production rates
5. Improved product quality
6. Lower scrap rates
7. Reduced inspection requirements
8. Simpler fixtures are needed
9. Shorter manufacturing lead time
10. Reduced parts inventory

Disadvantages of NC machines: Higher investment cost:

1. Higher labour cost
2. Higher maintenance effort
3. Higher running cost
4. Demand for higher utilisation of NC equipment

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC)

MACHINES
Rapid development in the field of electronics such as integrated circuit, large integrated circuits
and development of minicomputer lead to the development minicomputers based CNC systems.
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a NC system that utilises a store to perform the basic
numerical control functions. A mini or microcomputer based controller is used.
Principle of Operation of CNC:
CNC is a microprocessor-based control system which accepts a set of instructions, processes and
feeds the output control information to a machine tool, accepts feedback information from the machine
tool and it assures the proper motion, speed to perform the operations. Otherwise, CNC machines are
programmed and controlled by a computer. So,it offers very short set-up time and the flexibility is more to
run batches from one-offs toseveral thousand.
 General configuration of CNC system
The development of CNC machines is an outstanding contribution to the manufacturing industries.
It has made possibility for the automation of the machining process with flexibility to handle a small to
medium batch of quantities in part production. The external appearance CNC is very similar to NC. The
part programs are entered in a similar manner. punched tape readers are common devices for both CNC and
NC systems. In CNC systems the program is entered once and then it is stored in the computer memory
whereas in conventional NC machines, the punched tape is cycled through the tape reader for every
workpiece. The machine follows a predetermined sequence of machining operations 2 the predetermined
speeds necessary to produce a workpiece of the right shape and size and program when according to
completely predictable results. When compared to NC, CNC offers more flexibility and computational
capability. The reprogramming is easy because of this facility. CNC is often termed as softwired NC.
Features of CNC
Computer NC systems include additional features beyond what is feasible with conventional hard-
wired NC. These features, many of which are standard on most CNC
MCUS whereas others are optional, include the following:
1. Storage of more than one part program:
` With improvements in computer storage technology, newer CNC controllers have the sufficient
capacity to store multiple programs. Controller manufacturers generally offer one or more memory
expansions as options to the MCU.
2.Various forms of program input:
Whereas the conventional (hard-wired) MCUs are limited to a punched tape as the input medium
for entering part programs, CNC controllers generally possess the multiple data entry capabilities, such as
such as floppy disk, hard disk, CD ROM, DVD,USB flash drive, or RAM card, RS-232 communications
with external computers and manual data input.
3. Program editing at the machine tool:
CNC permits a part program to be edited while it resides in the MCU computer memory.
Hence, the process of testing and correcting a program can be done entirely at the machine site
rather than returning to the programming office to correct the tape. After correcting and optimising the
program, the revised version can be stored on a punched tape or other media for future use.
4. Fixed cycles and programming subroutines:
The increased memory capacity and the ability to program the control computer provide the
opportunity to store frequently used machining cycles as macros that can be called by the part program.
Instead of writing the full instructions for the particular cycle into every program, a call statement is
included in the part program to indicate that the macro cycle should be executed.
5. Interpolation:
Some of the interpolation schemes are normally executed only on a CNC system because of the
computational requirements. Linear and circular interpolations are sometimes hard-wired into the control
unit but helical, parabolic and cubic interpolationsare executed in a stored program algorithm.
6. Positioning features for setup:
Setting up the machine tool for a given workpiece involves installing a fixture onthe machine tool
table. It must be accomplished with respect to the workpiece. The alignment task can be facilitated using
certain features made possible by software options in a CNC system. Position set is one of the machine
tables with extreme accuracy. Instead,the machine tool axes are referenced to features. With the position
set, the operator is notrequired to locate the fixture location of the fixture by using a target point or set of
targetpoints on the work of fixture.
7. Tool length compensation:
Therefore, it may be convenient to set the tool to an approximate dimension and then The setting
of the depth of the tool to an exact is very difficult and time-consuming adjusts the difference by some
external means switches on control systems. This procedure is called tool length compensation. It allows
the programmer to ignore the precise length Each tool as a program is written. The CNC system facilitates
this feature.
8. Acceleration and deceleration calculations:
This feature is applicable when the cutter moves at high feed rates. It is designed to avoid tool
marks on the work surface that would be generated due to machine tool dynamics when the cutter path
changes abruptly. Instead, the feed rate is smoothly decelerated in anticipation of a tool path change and
then it is accelerated back up to the programmed f rate after the direction change.
9. Communications interface:
With the trend toward interfacing and networking in plants today, the most modem C controllers
are equipped with a standard RS-232 or other communications interface to allow the machine to be linked
to other computers and computer-driven devices. It is useful f various applications, such as:
(1) Downloading part programs from a central data file as distributed NC
(2) Collecting operational data, such as workpiece counts, cycle times, machineutilisation; and
(3) Interfacing with peripheral equipment, such as robots that and unload parts.
10. Diagnostics:
Many modern CNC systems possess an on-line diagnostics capability that monitors certain aspects
of the machine tool to detect malfunctions or signs of impending malfunction or to diagnose system
breakdowns.
Classifications of CNC Systems
CNC systems are broadly classified as followers.
(a) According to the structure of the control system used
1. Analog system
2. Digital system.
(b) According to the type of control loop used
1. Closed-loop system
2. Open-loop system.
(c) According to the type of tool motion control system used
1. Point-to-point or positioning system
2. Continuous path system.
a) Straight-cut system
b) Contouring system
 (d) According to the programming mode used
1. Closed-loop system
2. Open-loop system.
(e) According to the controller design
1. Hybrid CNC
2. Straight CNC.
Construction Features of CNC Machine Tools
Some of the important parts of CNC machines tool are as follows:
(a) Machine structure,
(b) Slideways or guideways,
(c) Spindle / spindle bearings
1) Hydrodynamic
2) Hydrostatic
3) Antifriction
(d) Spindle drives
1) Electrical drives
2) Hydraulic drives
3) Pneumatic drives
(e) Feed drives
1) Servo motor
2) Mechanical transmission system
(f) Measuring systems
1) Direct
2) Indirect
(g) Controls, software and user interface
(h) Gauging
(i) Tool monitoring systems
1) Direct
2) Indirect.
Some of the important features are described here.
(a) Machine structure:
The machine structure is the load carrying and supporting member of the machine, each other and
rigidity fixed to the machine structure. The machine structure is subjectedto static and dynamic forces and
it is, therefore, essential that the structure does not deform and vibrate beyond the permissible limit under
the action of these forces. All components of a machine must remain in correct relative positions to
maintain the geometrica irrespective of the magnitude and direction of these forces. The machine
configuration is also influenced by the consideration of manufacture, assembly and operation.
The basic design factors involved in the design of machine structure are as follows.
1. Static load
2. Dynamic load
3. Thermal load
(b) Slideways or Guideways:
Generally, machine tools are provided with tables, slides, carriages, etc. to carryworkpieces or cutting
tools. These parts are mounted in the ways and slide along the way. They are also fixed on the parts of the
machine tools such as a column, housing, bed or one. Various slideways used in CNC machine tools are
elaborately discussed in the further chapter with the required properties of a good slideway system.
(c) Spindle:
The spindle of a machine tool is driven by the power obtained from the drive unit transmits the
same power to the work or tool. In lathe machines, this power is used to b the workpiece. The main
functions of spindles are given below.
(i) Centering the job or tool
(ii) Holding the job or tool
(iii) Rotating the job or tool.
So, the spindle should be stiff, stable and short in length. For good stability of t spindle, it should
pass minimum distortional strain and it should be close to the front as much as possible. The required
properties of good spindles, various spindles used in CNCchapters.
(d) Spindle bearings:
In CNC machine tools, spindles are mounted on the antifriction bearings. Varioustypes of bearings
used to mount spindle are as follows.
(i) Preloaded taper roller bearings
(ii) Preloaded ball bearings
(iii) Hydrostatic journal bearings
(iv) Oil retaining bearings.
(e) Drive systems:
The driving system is a main component of a CNC machine as the accuracy and repeatability
mainly depend on the characteristics and performance of the driving system.For obtaining good accuracy
and better performance, the driving system has to response accurately according to the programmed
instructions. This system usually uses electric motors although hydraulic motors are sometimes used for
large machine tools. The motoris either directly coupled or through a gearbox to the machine lead screw
to move the machine slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical motors are commonly used. The three
important components of a drive system are the prime mover, energy transmitting device and machine
tool to perform the actual work. The prime mover and energy transmitting device are involved in
imparting the motion and the machine tool is used to perform the operation to complete the task. The
driving system is classified into spindledrives and feed drives.
The spindle drives are used to provide the angular motion to the workpiece or a cutting tool.
The feed drives are used to drive the slide or a table. The feed drive consists of anelectromotor and
mechanical transmission elements. Various drive systems such as spindle drives and feed drives used in
CNC machine tools are elaborately discussed in coming chapters.
Slideways Used in CNC Machine Tools
Precise positioning and repeatability of machine tool slides are the major functional requirements
of CNC machines. The inaccuracies are mainly due to the stick- slip motion when the plain (metal to
metal contact) slideways are used. To fulfil the elimination of stick-slip, there are different slideway
systems such as rolling sideways and sideways with low friction developed. These have low wear,
negligible slip, good vibration damping, easy machinability, low price and low coefficient.
(a) Requirement of a good slideway system:
A good slideway system must possess the following functions.
1. Low coefficient of friction at varying slide velocities.
2. Minimum difference between static and dynamic friction coefficient positiveslope for friction-
velocity characteristics.
3. Low rate of wear.
4. High stiffness at the sliding joints.
5. Sufficient damping.
(b) Types of slideways used in CNC machines:
In recent years, various types of slideways are developed to overcome friction.
The listed below.
1. Hydrostatic slideways
(i) Oil lubricated slideways
(ii) Air bearing slideways.
2. Anti-friction slideways.
(i) Ball bearing slideways
(ii) Roller bearing slideways
(iii) Wear-resistant slideways.
(i) Anti-friction slideways:
The detailed description of various types of anti-friction bearings used in slideways the CNC
machine tools is given as follows.
1. Linear bearings with ball/roller:
The sliding friction is due to metal to metal contact between mating parts of slide and slideway.
This friction could be avoided by placing the antifriction ball or roller bearings
2. Between slide and slideways

Linear ball and roller bearings

2) Wear-resistant recirculating ball screw/Power screw:
The reduction in friction in power screws is very much essential in the case of hand operated
drives and power operated precision movement devices. Ball screw is oneof the most efficient methods of
power transmission with less friction. It uses the rollingfriction substituted instead of sliding friction.
 Wear-resistant Recirculating ball screw/Power screw
A typical ball screw assembly as shown in Figure consists of two components such as a screw with
circular form threads and a nut assembly with an internal helical ballgroove to permit the flow of a continuous
row of steel balls. The rotation of either a screwor a nut causes the rolling balls to move along the helical path.
The balls approximately travel for the half speed of the races and exit at the trailing end of the nut. To keep
the balls continuously rolling in the system, a return tube deflects and recirculates the balls to the loading
end of the nut.
Due to a ball arrangement, the friction losses are very less and operating high as 90% are achieved.
The coefficient of friction ranges from 0.0003 to 0.0015. Be efficiently reversible, i.e. a linear mof low
coefficient of friction, both rotary to linear functions of either the screw or the nut can cause other
members to rotate.
Threads on most types are machined or rolled. When machined, they hardened and then ground to
obtain the highest precision accuracy to obtain high cheap to prod more load capacity and greater life. On
the other hand, rolled threads are and offer a considerable cost saving if quantities are sufficiently high.
Various types of anti-friction bearings used in slideways made of different materials
(ii) Hydrostatic slideways:
In hydrostatic slideways, air or oil is pumped into small pockets cavities providedin carriage which
is directly in contact with slideways. The pressurized fluid gradually reduce and it attains atmospheric
pressure when the fluid comes from the cavity through the pa provided between slide and slideways. This
type of slideway provides the friction- condition to the slideway movement.
In addition, both hydrostatic and aerostatic slideway systems (as in coordinate measuring
machines) can also be used. Plain slideway has good damping property than antifriction pressurised
slideways. But there is a tendency for stick-slip at low feed rates. If it is coa with some antifriction
material, a good damping and low friction can be obtained.

Hydrostatic slideways
 Spindles Used in CNC Machine Tools

Design changes for reducing overhang of spindle in vertical machiningcentres

The machine spindle is a very important element in CNC machine tools. In addition, a bridle
assembly is subjected to radial loads that cause deflection. It is also subjected to a thrust load acting along
its axis.
The design of the spindle assembly must be such that these loads are adequately contained.
Inadequate support results not only the dimensional inaccuracies but also the poor surface finish and
chatter. The spindle should be rigid in construction to avoid deflection. The overhang of the spindle needs
to be kept to a minimum. The more the spindle is greater the risk of deflection. Figure 4.16 shows the
design changes could be done to the overhang of the spindle in vertical machining centres when it moves
verticallyextended down.
Requirements of spindles for CNC machines:
(i) High stiffness - both static and dynamic
(ii) Running accuracy
(iii) Axial load carrying capacity
(iv) Thermal stability
(v) Axis freedom for thermal expansion
(vi) High speeds of operation.
1. Spindle tooling:
A spindle tooling provides an objective connection between the cutting tool and spindle the
machine tool. The spindle is employed to perform a variety of cutting operations.
The following are typical spindle tooling for various machining requirements.
(i) Drill chuck adapters
(ii) Collet chucks
(iii) Morse taper adapters
(iv) Shell mill adapters
(v) Face mill adaptors
(vi) Screwed shank end mill adapters
(vii) Boring bars
(viii) Boring heads.
2. Spindle heads:
The following are the various types of spindle heads.
(i) Inclinable head(ii)Robot-head
(iii) Horizontal spindle head
(iv) Vertical spindle head
(v) Universal head.
In Robot- heads, nine axes are available in the machines and six axes are controlled
simultaneously. In Universal-head, pitch and roll are also offered on a large floor-type machine. In
horizontal and vertical heads, a long beam is available to rotate theorientation of the spindle through 90°. It
is similar to right angle spindle attachments.
Elements of Machine Control Unit (MCU):
Machine Control Unit (MCU) is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC. The
general configuration of the MCU in a CNC system is illustrated in Figure 4.17 .
The MCU consists of the following components and subsystems:
(a) Central processing unit
(b) Memory
(c) Input/Output interface
(d) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed, and
(e) Sequence controls for other machine tool functions.
These subsystems are interconnected by means of a system bus whichcommunicates data and
signals among the components of a network.

Configuration of CNC machine control unit

(a) Central processing unit:
The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the MCU. It manages the other components in
the MCU based on software contained in main memory. CPU can be divided into three sections:
(1) Control section
(2) Arithmetic-logic unit, and
(3) Immediate access memory.
The control section retrieves commands and data from memory and activates other components in
the MCU. In short, it sequences, coordinates and r to perform various calculations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication), counting and logie the activities of theMCU computer. The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU)
consists of the circuitry memoryproviding a temporary storage of data being processed by the CPU. It
is connected to the main memory functions required by software residing in memory. The immediate
accessof the system data bus.
(b) Memory:
The immediate access memory in the CPU is not intended for storing CNC software. A Much
greater storage capacity is required for the various programs and data needed to operate the CNC system.
As with most other computer systems, CNC memory can be divided into two categories: (1) primary
memory and (2) secondary memory. Main memory (also known as primary storage) consists of ROM
(read-only memory and RAM(random access memory) devices. Operating system software and machine
interface programs are generally stored in ROM. These programs are usually installed by the
manufacturer of MCU. Numerical control part programs are stored in RAM devices. Current programs in
RAM can be erased and replaced by new programs as jobs are changed.
High-capacity secondary memory (also called auxiliary storage or secondary storage devices are
used to store large programs and data files which are transferred to main memory as needed. Common
among the secondary memory devices are hard disksand portable devices that have replaced most of the
punched paper tapes traditionally usedto store part programs. Hard disks are high-capacity storage devices
that are permanentlyinstalled in the CNC machine control unit. CNC secondary memory is used to store
part programs, macros and other software.
(c) Input/Output Interface:
The I/O interface provides communication software between the various components: the CNC
system, other computer systems, and the machine operator. As its name suggests The I/O interface
transmits and receives data and signals to and from external devices. The operator control panel is the
basic interface by which the machine operator communicates to the CNC system. It is used to enter
commands related to part program editing, MCU operation mode (e.g., program control vs. manual
control), speeds and feeds, cutting fluid pump on/off and similar functions. Either a 4.43 alphanumeric
keypad or keyboard is usually included in the control panel. I/O interface also includes adisplay (CRT or
LED) for data and information from MCU to the machine operator. The display is used to indicate the
current status of the program as it is being executed and to warn the r of any malfunctions in the CNC
system.
As included in 1/0 interfaces are one or more means of entering the part programinto storage. As
indicated previously, NC part programs are stored in a variety of ways. Programs transmitted via Local
Area Network (LAN) to the CNC system. Whichever means is employed n also be entered manually by
the machine operator or stored at a central computer site and , a suitable device must be included in I/O
interface to allow input of the program the plant, by into MCU memory.
(d) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed:
These are hardware components that control the position and velocity (feed rate)of each machine
axis as well as the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle. The control signals generated by MCU
must be converted to a form and power level suited tothe particular position control systems used to drive
the machine axes. Positioning systems can be classified as open loop or closed loop, and different
hardware components are required in each case. Depending on the type of machine tool, the spindle is
used to drive either (1) workpiece or (2) a rotating cutter. Turning exemplifies the first case whereas
milling and drilling exemplify the second. Spindle speed is a programmed parameter for most CNC
machine tools. Spindle speed components in MCU usually consist of a drive control circuit and feedback
sensor interface. The particular hardware components depend on the type of spindle drive.
(e) Sequence controls for other machine tool functions:
In addition to control of table position, feed rate and spindle speed, several additional functions
are accomplished under part program control. These auxiliary functions are generally ON/OFF (binary)
actuations, interlocks and discrete numerical
data. To avoid overloading the CPU, a programmable logic controller is sometimes usedto manage the
I/O interface for these auxiliary functions.
Spindle Drives in CNC Machines
The spindle drives are used to provide angular motion to the workpiece Figure
4.18 shows the components of a spindle drive. These drives are required to maintain the speed accurately
within a specified power limit which will enable machining a variety of materials with variations in
material hardness. The speed ranges can be from 10 rpm to 20,000 rpm.
The spindle drive system usually uses electric motors although hydraulic is sometimes used for
large machine tools. Electric motor is an electric machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Most electric motors operate through the motor. Many modern machine tools employ DC spindle
drives. DC drives were interaction between an electric motor's magnetic field and winding currents to
generate for very popular speed control using voltage variation. By varying the voltage input, theirspeeds
are infinitely variable as they rotate and a constant cutting speed can be maintained.
AC motors are also used as spindle drives in many CNC machines. Nowadays, AC drives are
preferred to DC drives due to the advent of microprocessor-based AC frequency inverters. The use of AC
motors usually involves a stepped drive. It means, a series of spindle speeds will be available and the
selection of a particular speed may involve switching from one speed range to another speed range. The
advantage of using AC drive for spindle is that it can also be used for positioning the spindle axis in turn
millcentres.
The classification of spindle drives with type of controller for each type is as follows.

High overload capacity is also needed for unintended overloads on the spindle due to an
inappropriate feed. It is desirable to have a compact drive with highly smooth operation.
Modern spindle drive and bearing designs are now allowing high-speed machining using more
than ten thousand rpm. Researchers have developed fluid or air bearing high-speed spindle that provides
higher stiffness, better running accuracies, full range of operation with high HP, lower runout, better
dampening and lower vibration along with unlimited bearing life. These aerostatic bearings use a spindle
shaft run on a film of air. The machine spindle becomes the motor shaft running on this film of air.
 Components of a spindle drive
The motor is coupled either directly or through a gearbox or belt drive to the machine spindle.
Many machines have a final belt drive which is quiet and it produces less vibration than a geared drive.
Two types of electrical motors are commonly used for spindle drives as follows.
(a) Direct Current (DC) motors
1) Permanent magnet type
2) Electromagnet type
a) Shunt wound
b) Series wound
c) Compound wound
d) Separate wound.
(b) Alternating Current (AC) motor
1) Induction motors
2) Synchronous motors.
DC Motors
Direct Current (DC) motors allow the precise control of the speed range by manipulating the
voltage applied to the motor. They are well suited for driving. axes of small-to medium-sized NC
machines and robots. DC motors are also used to drive spindles in lathes and milling machines when
a continuous control of the spindle is desired.
DC motors work based on the principle that "when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a force. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an e.m.f. is induced."
(i) Brush type DC motor:
A typical brushed motor consists of an armature coil, slip rings divided into two parts pair of
brushes and horse shoes electromagnet as shown in Figure.
A simple DC motor has two field poles namely a north pole and a south pole. Themagnetic lines of
force extend across the opening between poles from north to south. Theco is wound around a soft iron core
made of magnetic material called armature placed inbetween magnet poles. These electromagnets receive
electricity from an outside. The coilends are connected to split rings or commutators. The carbon brushes
are in contact with the split rings. The split rings are rotated with the coil while the brushes remain
stationary.
 Basic principle of brush type DC motor
Advantages of brushed DC motor:
(i) The design of the brushed DC motor is quite simple.
(ii) Controlling the speed of a Brush DC Motor is easy.
(iii) It is cost effective. Disadvantages of brushed
DC motor:
(i) It needs high maintenance.
(ii) Performance decreases with dust particles.
(iii) It is less reliable in control at lower speeds.
(iv) The brushes wear off with usage.
(ii) Permanent magnet DC motors or Brushless DC motor:

Permanent magnet DC motors or Brushless DC motor

In permanent magnet motors, the stator fields are provided by permanent magnets as shown in
Figure which require no external power source.
The rotor can be of a ceramic permanent magnet type. The brushes and commutator are and the
windings are connected to the control electronics. Here, the conductor is fixed and the magnet moves.
This motor is lighter and smaller than other equivalent DC motors because the coil's field strength
of permanent magnets is high. These motors are easily reversed by switching the direction of the applied
voltage because the current and field change direction only in the rotor. It is ideal in control applications
because of the linearity of itstorque-speed relation. When a permanent magnet motor is used in a position
or speed control sensor feedback to a controller, it is referred to as a servo motor.
Advantages of brushless DC motor:
i) More precise due to computer control
ii) More efficient
iii) No sparking due to absence of brushes
iv) Less electrical noise
v) No brushes to wear out
vi) Electromagnets are situated on the stator and hence, it is easy to cool
vii) Motor can operate at speeds above 10,000 rpm under loaded and unloadconditions
viii) Responsiveness and quick acceleration due to low rotor inertia.Disadvantages of
brushless DC motor:
i) Higher initial cost
ii) Complex due to presence of computer controller
iii) Brushless DC motors also require additional system wiring in order to powerelectronic
commutation circuits.
AC Motors:
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC). An ACmotor commonly
consists of the following two basic parts.
(i) An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with alternating current toproduce a
rotating magnetic field, and
(ii) An inside rotor attached to the output shaft producing a second rotating magneticfield.
The working principle of AC motor is shown in Figure 4.21 by considering the rotor to be a
permanent magnet. Current flowing through conductors energizes the magnets and s N and S poles. The
strength of electromagnets depends on current. First half cycle current flows in one direction and in the
second half cycle, it flows in oppositedirection as AC voltage changes the poles alternate.

Working principle of AC motor(i)AC synchronous motors:

Synchronous motor is an AC motor which runs at constant speed fixed by
frequency of the system. These motors have the rotor (which is connected to the load) rotating at the same
speed. In other words, these motors don't slip with respect to the stator current. The stator consists of a
group of individual wounded electro-magnets arranged in such a way that they form a hollow cylinder as
shown in Figure.
The stator winding produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the frequency
supplied. The rotor may be a permanent magnet or it may be an electromagnet. As the magnetic field
produced by the stator rotates, the rotor is rotated with it. Since a synchronous motor has little starting
torque, some means must be provided to bring it upto synchronous speed. The most common method is to
start the motor at no load, allow itto reach full speed and then energize the magnetic field. The magnetic
field of the rotor locks with the magnetic field of the stator and the motor operates at synchronous speed.
Advantage of AC synchronous motors:
i) It is relatively easy to control the speed of rotation.Disadvantages of
AC synchronous motors:
i. It is costly.
ii. The power decreases with rpm below the base speeds.
iii. It involves large dimensions and weight.

Synchronous AC motor
(ii) AC induction motors:
The main parts in an AC induction motor are rotor (rotating element) and(stationary element that
generates the magnetic flux). The rotor construction looks similar to a squirrel cage, hence, it is called a
squirrel cage induction motor. Figure illustrates the rotor and stator constructions. The rotor is made of
copper or aluminium bars and it fits in slots in end rings to form complete electrical circuits.
Induction motors can be classified into two types:
(b) Single-phase induction motor
(c) Three-phase induction motor
A single phase induction motor has only one stator winding. This windinggenerates a field which
merely pulsates instead of rotating. When the rotor is stationary, the expanding and collapsing stator
fields induce electric current in the rotor. These currents have a rotor field opposite in polarity similar to
the stator. The opposition of thefield exer turning force on the upper and lower parts of the rotor trying to
turn it 180° from its position.
Since these forces are exerted through the center of the rotor, the turning force isequal in direction.
The motor is not self-starting. Hence, a number of methods are used tomake the motor self-starting. One
method is to use an auxiliary starting winding to give an initial rotor.
 AC induction motor
The rotor rotates at the speed determined by the frequency of alternating current applied to the
stator. Thus, for a constant frequency supplied, the magnetic field will alternate at this frequency. This
speed of rotation of the magnetic field is known as synchronous speed. The rotor differs from this
frequency of rotation about 1% to 3% andthis difference is termed as slip. Three phase induction motors
are similar to single phaseinduction motors but the stator has three windings located 120° apart and they
are connected to three lines of supply. The three-phase current produces a rotating magneticfield in the
stator.
This rotating magnetic field causes a magnetic field to be set up in the rotor also. The attraction
and repulsion between these two magnetic fields causes the rotor to turn. As a result, it completes one full
rotation in one full cycle of the current. The direction ofrotation can be changed by interchanging any two
of line connections.
Advantages of AC induction motors:
1. It has a simple design, low initial cost, rugged construction almost unbreakable.
2. The operation is simple with less maintenance (as there are no brushes).
3. The efficiency of these motors is very high as there are no frictional losses with reasonably good
power factor.
4. The control gear for the starting purpose of these motors is minimum and this simple and reliable
operation.
Disadvantages of AC induction motors:
1. The speed control of these motors is at the expense of their efficiency.
2. As the load on the motor increases, the speed will reduce.
3. The starting torque is inferior when compared to DC motors.
Feed Drive in CNC machines
Feed drive consists of a feed servomotor and electronic controller. Unlike a Feeddrives are used to
drive the slide or a table. Figure shows various elements and positioning. Also, in contouring operations,
several feed drives have to work spindle drive, the feed drive motors have some special characteristics
such as constant torque simultaneously because of the requirement to follow a prescribed path
continuously. It requires a sufficiently damped servo-system with high bandwidth i.e., fast response and
matched dynamic characteristics for different axes.
 Components of a feed drive
Feed drives used in CNC machine tools are as follows.
(a) Servomotors
(i) DC Servomotors
(ii) AC Servomotors
(b) Stepper motors
(c) Linear motors
(d) Hydraulic drives
(e) Pneumatic drives.
Stepper Motors
Stepper motor is a special type of DC motor having a permanent magnet or variable reluctance
DC motor. It is the simplest device that can be applied to CNC machines since it can convert digital data
into actual mechanical displacement. It is an electromechanical device which converts the electrical DC
voltage pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in
discrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. This
characteristic of the motor makes it ideally suited for the use with a digitally based controlsystem such as a
microcontroller.
Stepper motors have the following performance characteristics.
(i) It can rotate in both directions.
(ii) It can move in precise angular increments.
(iii) It can sustain a holding torque at zero speed, and
(iv) It can be controlled with digital circuits.
There are three basic types of stepper motors based on the construction.
(a) Variable reluctance stepper motor
(b) Permanent magnet stepper motor
(c) Hybrid stepper motor.
(a) Variable reluctance stepper motor:
The variable reluctance stepper has a multi-toothed non-magnetic soft iron rotor with a wound
stator shown in Figure. Usually, the number of poles on the rotor is less than the number of poles on the
stator. This motor usually has eight stator teeth and
six rotor teeth. The number of teeth on the rotor and stator together with the winding configuration is
designed to determine the step angle. The teeth of the rotor are so aligned to one phase and they get
misaligned to the other. The stator poles have windings where they are switched ON by means of an
electronic switching device. The function stepper motor. a switching device is to switch the control
windings in the stator of a Stator.

Three-phase variable reluctance stepper motor

In this type of motors, the large difference in magnetic reluctances that exists in phases. Its simple
construction and low cost makes it an ideal choice for non-industrial applications such as a line printer
and print wheel positioner.
(b)Permanent magnet stepper motor
This is a stepper motor whose rotor is made from two permanent magnet rotors which are slightly
offset from each other. The permanent magnet is axially magnetized; meaning that the north and south
poles alternate and are on the same axis as the motor shaft.
The rotor and stator poles of a permanent magnet stepper are not teethed. Instead The rotor is
magnetised with alternating north poles, south poles are situated in a straightline parallel to the rotor shaft.
The rotor used in the permanent magnet type stepper motor consists of a circular permanent magnet
mounted onto the shaft. The stator has four polesshown in Figure each pole being geometrically separated
by a 90° angle from the adjacent one. I Figure, AA' and BB' are two phases. Each pole is wound with a
fieldwinding. The coils are on opposite pairs of poles being in series. The step angle for this motor is 45°.
At the end of each step, the rotor assumes the minimum reluctance positionthat corresponds to a particular
magnetic polarity pattern in the stator. It is a relatively low speed, low torque device with large step
angles ranging from 45° to 120°.
Applying current to each phase in sequence, the rotor is caused to rotate by adjusting to the
changing magnetic fields when the current is given in the situation shownin Figure, the rotor moves to 45°.
If the current is switched so that the polarities are reversed, the rotor will move a further 45° in order to
line up again. Thus, the rotor rotatesby 45° steps by switching ON the current through the coils. Although
it is operated at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a relatively high torque characteristic.

Two-phase permanent magnet stepper motor

 (c) Hybrid stepper motor:
Hybrid stepper is a combination of both permanent magnet and variable reluctance. Hence, it
combines the best features of both permanent magnet and variable reluctance type stepper motors. They
are constructed with multi-toothed stator poles anda permanent magnet rotor. Typically, the stator has eight
salient poles which are energizedby a two-phase winding. The rotor is multi-toothed similar to a variable
reluctance motorand it contains an axially magnetized concentric magnet around its shaft shown in Figure.
The magnetic rotor has two cups. One cup is for north poles and the second cup is for south poles. The
rotor cups are designed so that the north and south poles arrange in an alternative manner shown in Figure.
The rotor is made up of a permanent magnetcore with two soft iron discs with teeth on the periphery.
The number of teeth decides the step angle of the motor. The teeth on the rotor provide an even
better path which helps to guide the magnetic flux to preferred locationsin the air between the direct and

quadrature axis that develops the torque. When the statorcoil windings are energised with DC current, the
poles become magnetised. Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted to energised stator poles. In
the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic form in the air gap as the stator is an electromagnet
andthe rotor is a piece of soft iron, hence there is no detent torque.
Two-phase hybrid stepper motor

Rotor of hybrid motor

Advantage of stepper motors:

(i) Low cost
(ii) Ruggedness
(iii) Simplicity of construction
(iv) Low maintenance

(v) (v)Less likely to stall or slip

(vi) Will work in any environment

 (vii) Excellent start-stop and reversing responses.
Disadvantages of stepper motors:
(i) Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
(ii) Limited speed
(iii) During overloading, the synchronization will be broken.
(iv) Vibration and noise occur when running at high speed.
Servo Motors:
Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that operate in precise degrees of rotation. This type of
motor quickly responds to positive or negative signals from a servo amplifier. The important
characteristics of a servomotor are as follows.
(i) Fast response
(ii) High accuracy
(iii) Fast and accurate speed
(iv) Very high starting torque
(v) Unattended control
(vi) Direction control
(vii) Remote operation.
Servomotor is a simple electric motor combined with a position sensing device (Ex. digital
decoder) and controlled for specific angular rotation with the help of servomechanism. Servomechanism
is a typical closed-loop feedback control system. Theposition of a servo motor is decided by an electrical
pulse and its circuitry is placed besidethe motor. Servo Motors are used when the table or slide is required
to move precisely byrotating the motor shaft at some specific angles.

Closed-loop servo system

It is just made up of simple DC, AC or brushless DC motors through servo mechanism.
Servomotors are also called control motors as they are involved in controlling a mechanical system. The
servo motor is equipped with a position sensor which provides the controller with position and speed
information. As a standard, AC servo motors are equipped with resolvers.

Components of servo controlled CNC

 Figure illustrates the components of servo controlled CNC. A motor speed control is used to
control the speed of the servomotor. The servo motor drives the lead screw which in turn drives the slide
or table. A position sensing encoder is mounted on the machine which is a feedback device. This
feedback from the encoder is sent to the motor speed control.
Servo motors are more robust than stepper motors but they pose a more difficult control problem.
They are primarily used in applications where speed, power, noise levelas well as velocity and positional
accuracy are important.
mainly two types of servo-motors used.There are
(i) AC servomotors
(ii) DC servomotors.
If a DC powered motor is used, then it is called DC servomotor and if it is AC powered motor,
then it is called AC servo motor. AC servomotors are generally preferred for low-power use. For high-
power use, DC servomotors are preferred because they operate more efficiently than comparable AC
servomotors.

Hydraulic Drives
The Hydraulic systems are extensively used for driving high-power machine toolsindustrial robots
since they can deliver large power while being relatively small in size. They can develop much higher
maximum angular acceleration than DC motors of the same power. They have small time constants and it
results in the smooth operation of themachine tool slides and robot axes.

A hydraulic system
Hydraulic systems, however, present some problems in terms of maintenance and leakage of oil
from the transmission lines and the system components. The oil must be cleaned and protected against
contamination. Other undesirable features are the dynamiclags caused by transmission lines and viscosity
variations with oil temperature. In Figure, hydraulic systems generally consisted of the following
components.
1. A hydraulic power supply
2. A servo valve for each axis of motion
3. A sump
4. A hydraulic motor for each axis of motion.
1. Hydraulic power supply:
Hydraulic power supply is a source of high-pressure oil for the hydraulic motor and servo-valve.
The main components of the hydraulic power supply system are as follows.
1. A pump is used for supplying the high-pressure oil. The frequently used types arethe gear pump
 and radial or axial displacement pumps.
2. An electric motor of three-phase induction motor type is used for driving thepump.
3. A fine filter is used to protect the servo system from any dirt or chips.
4. A coarse filter is located at the input of the pump for protecting the latter oneagainst
contamination that has entered the oil supply.
5. A check valve eliminates a reverse flow from the accumulator into the p
6. A pressure-regulating valve is used for controlling the supply pressure to thesystem.
7. An accumulator is used for storing hydraulic energy and for smoothing thepulsating flow.
The accumulator supplies the peak requirements and it is subsequently recharged by pump.
Another function of the accumulator is for smoothening the pulsations c pumpand the variations caused
by the sudden motions of the valve. The accumul caused by functions as a capacitor in an electric circuit.
2. Servo valve:
The servo valve receives a voltage-actuating signal and it drives a solen The electro-hydraulic
servo valve controls the flow of the high-pressure oil to the device to move the valve spool. The flow
rate of oil through the valve is proportional to velocity ofthe hydraulic motor.
3. Sump:
The used oil is returned to a sump or tank through a special return line. The offi back to the
hydraulic power supply and it forms the source of fluid for the latter.
4. Hydraulic motor:
The hydraulic motor or actuator is either a hydraulic cylinder for linear motion rotary-type motor
for angular motion. The hydraulic cylinder is due to the large line motion. The rotary hydraulic motor is
usually used in large power servo systems. It operates at high speeds and it is geared down to the lead
screw which drives the table.
Pneumatic Drives
The pneumatic drives also obey the same principle of hydraulic system, i.e., pressure a fluid and
deliver it under pressure to where it can do work as in the hydraulic components. It drives use air as a
working medium which is available in abundance and its proof. They are simple and cheap in construction.
However, these drives generate lowpower have less positioning accuracy and are noisy.
Operating principle:
In pneumatic power systems, an air compressor is used in place of a hydraulic pump; it is usually
located in a remote position within the factory. The pneumatic actuatorof either linear rotary type is used
instead of a hydraulic actuator. The compressor will normally be of such a size as to be able to provide a
compressed air supply as per the requirement. The high pressure air in CNC machines is around 15 bar
and low pressure air is used for various control functions about 6 bar. As a result of the air being
compressed, heat, water and oil are introduced into the air supply. Coolers are used to remove the heat and
more water is removed by air dryer. The remaining water will require draining at regular points in the
system using a drain valve.
Linear Motors
The working principle of a linear motor is similar to a rotary electric motor. It hasa rotor and the
stator circular magnetic field components are laid down in a straight line. Since the motor moves in a
linear fashion, no lead screw is needed to convert the rotary motion into linear. Linear motors can be used
in outdoor or dirty environments, however,the electromagnetic drive should be waterproofed and sealed
against moisture andcorrosion.
 Compensations for Machine Accuracy
Machine accuracy is the accuracy of the movement of the carriage and it isinfluenced by
i. Geometric accuracy in the alignment of the slide ways
ii. Deflection of the bed due to load
iii. Temperature gradients on the machine
iv. Accuracy of the screw thread of any drive screw and the amount of backlash (lostmotion)
v. Amount of twist (wind up) of the shaft which will influence the measurement ofrotary
transducers
CNC systems offer compensation for the various machines accuracy. These are detailedbelow:
(i) Lead screw pitch error compensation:
To compensate for movements of the machine slide due to the accuracy of the pitch along the
length of the ball screw, pitch error compensation is required. To begin with, the pitch error curve for the
entire length of the screw is built up by physical measurement with the aid of an external device (similar to
laser) as shown in Figure. Then the required compensation at predetermined points is fed into the system.
Whenevera slide moves, this compensation is automatically added up by the CNC system.

Typical error curve

(ii) Backlash compensation:
Whenever a slide is reversed, there is some lost motion due to backlash between nut and screw.
Compensation is provided by the CNC system for the motion lost due to reversal, extra movement is
added into the actual movement whenever the reversal takes place. The extra movement is equal to
backlash between screw and nut. It has to be measured in advance and fed to the system. This value keeps
on varying due to wear of ball screws. Hence, the compensation value has to be updated regularly from
time to time.
(iii) Sag compensation:
Inaccuracy due to sag in the slide can be compensated by the system. Compensation required
along the length of the slide has to be physically measured and fed to the system The system
automatically adds up the compensation to the movement of the slide.
(iv) Tool nose compensation:
Tool nose compensation normally used on tools for turning centers. While machining chamfers,
angles or turning curves, it is necessary to make allowance for the tool tip radius; this allowance is known
as radius compensation. As shown in Figure,if the allowance is not made, the edges of the tool tip radius
would be positioned at the programmed coordinates and the tool will follow the path resulting in a taper
produced which will be incorrect. In order to obtain the correct taper, tool position has to be adjusted.
It is essential that the radius at the tip of the tool is fed to the system to make the automatic
adjustment on the position and movement of the tool to get the correct taper ofwork. In Figure 4.33, the
distance Xc and Yc are the adjustments necessary in X axis andaxis respectively distance.

Tool nose compensation

(v) Cutter diameter compensation:
The diameter of the used tool may be different from the actual value because ofregrinding of the tool
or due to non-availability of the assumed tool.
Tooling for CNC Machine Tool
Since CNC machines are, in general, more expensive than general purpose man-operatedmachine tools, a
special attention is given to the design of the CNC machines and production tooling in order to reduce the
time spent in both work and machine set up.
In general, the following points are to be considered while designing of CNC tooling:
i. High accuracy
ii. Variety of operations
iii. Interchangeability to produce the same accuracy
iv. Flexibility
v. Rigidity of tooling to withstand cutting forces
vi. Rigidity to transmit the power at higher speeds
vii. Quick changing of tools to keep the downtime minimum.
Tooling systems for CNC are designed to eliminate operator error and maximizeproductive
machine hours. They do this in one or more of the following ways:
(a) Using quick change tool holders
(b) Automatic tool selection
(c) Automatic tool changer
(d) Presetting of tool
(e) Facilitating tool selection and tool changing through the numerical controlProgram.
While tooling for CNC machines might appear to be specialised, the actual components and
principles involved have much in common with what would be considered a proper practice for
conventional machine tools.
(a) Quick change tool holders:
Quick change tool holders are designed so that cutting tools can be readily positioned with respect
to the spindle axis of the machine. It requires that tolerances on length and or diameter be held on all tools
used in the machine.
Arbour type cutters such as face mills and shell end mills are held in arbour type tool holders.
Shank type mills are held in a positive lock holder. Drills, reamers and boring tools are held in a straight
shank collet type holder. Taps are held in tension and compression collet type holders.
(b) Automatic tool selection:
Automatic tool selectors in NC make all tool changes required to complete a predetermined
sequence of machining operations on a part.
There are two basic approaches to automatic tool selection:
● When a relatively small number of different tools are required, a selector is the turret type. The
turret is rotated under program control to bring the adapter's proper tool into position. The tools are
held in preset tool holders and are mountedinto turret spindles.
● An automatic tool changer and magazine of tools is frequently used in prefere to the turret
approach when the number of tools to be used is large. Each is inserted in a common spindle as
required. The tools which are mounted uniform holders are automatically picked up, placed into
the spindle and lock completed, it is returned to it in place. When the operations using that tool are
tool storage magazines. or turret in the order For changing tools rapidly, it is better to place the
tool in the magazine in which they will be used.
(c) Automatic tool changer:
Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) is often used with automated tool storage devicesCNC machines to
improve its tool carrying capacity. ATC changes the tool very quickly and reduces the non-productive
time. Generally, it is used to improve the capacity of themachine to work with a number of tools. It is also
used to change worn out or broken tools.
In operation, the automatic tool change works as follows:
I. By tape command (and from any location the magazine), the tool magazin rotates to the proper
position to bring the pre-selected tool into place for particular operation.
II. One end of the tool changes your arm then grasps the tool while the opposite grasps the tool to be
replaced in the spindle.
III. The tool changer arm moves out away from the spindle removing one tool in the magazine and
another tool from the spindle.
(d) Preset tooling:
The setting of tools in advance at a place away from the machine tool or special holders is known
as preset tooling. A presetting device is used to preset axial radial positions of the tool tip on the tool
holder. Once it is done, the tool holder is ready to mount on the machine and produce a known
dimension. Presetting devices to various levels of sophistication are available similar to an optical
projector. Tool length and tooldiameter compensation facilities available in the present day CNC machines
have broughtdown the importance of presetting.
In machining relatively small batches of work, very considerable savings can be made by reducing
the machine downtime during the period needed for the initial machine tool setupie when preparing two
machines a batch of different components. This reduction in setup time favourably influences the
breakeven point towards the use of CNCmachine tools.
Since the cost per minute of maintaining the CNC machine in production is muchgreater than the
cost of a tool setter working on a bench with special tool setting equipment, it arises the necessity for
presetting the tools to be used by CNC machines.
In other words, the advantage of presetting tools in the tool room on precision tool presetting
machines can readily be seen by calculating the cost of operator mistakes and machine downtime on jobs
which require continuous machine cycling. The time and costsfor any interruption for trial cuts or to adjust
the tooling would be prohibitive.
Cutting Tools for CNC Machines:
The cutting tools satisfy the following requirements:
(a) Tools need not be measured individually.
(b) No presetting device is used.
(c) The dimensions of the tool holder which are fixed and known.
(d) Set up time is reduced.
(e) Control dimensions of the tool are nominal and fixed.
(f) Higher control on resharpening e.g. Drills, reamers.
(g) Cutter for better size control e.g. End mills, reamers.
(h) Chip breaking facilities incorporated in the tool.
Cutting tools are available in three basic material types: high-speed steel, tungsten carbide and
ceramic. High-speed steel is generally used on aluminium and other nonferrous alloys while tungsten
carbide is used on high-silicon aluminiums, steels, stainless steels and exotic metals. Ceramic inserts
are used on hard steels and exotic metals. Inserted carbide tooling is becoming the preferred tooling for
many CNC applications.
The cutting tools can be classified on the basis of setting up of tool, toolconstruction and cutting
tool material:
(i) On the basis of setting up of cutting tool
(a) Preset tools
(b) Qualified tools
(c) Semi qualified tools.
(ii) On the basis of cutting tool construction
(a) Solid tools
(b) Brazed tools
(c) Inserted bit tools.
(iii) On the basis of cutting tool material
(a) High-Speed Steel (HSS)
(b) High Carbon tool Steel (HCS)
(c) Cast alloy
(d) Cemented carbide
(e) Ceramics
(f) Boron Nitride
(g) Diamond.
Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)
CNC machines are designed to perform a number of operations in a single setting of the job. A
number of tools may be required for making a complex part. In a manual machine, they changed
manually whenever required. In a CNC machine, tools are changed through program instructions.
An Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) is equipment that reduces cycle times by automatically
changing tools between cuts through programmed instructions. The tools are fitted on a tool magazine or
drum. When a tool needs to be changed, the drum will rotate-to an empty position, approaches the old
tool and pulls it. Then it again rotates thenew tool, fits it and then retracts. The concept of ATC with the
 range of tools for a specificjob shall be made available for automatic selection and positioning.
The automatic tool change system may consist of following elements:
(a) Rotary tool storage magazine for numerous tools.
(b) Automatic tool changer to remove tool holders from the machine spindle andreplace them
with tape programmed tools.
(c) Basic tool holders adaptable to a multiplicity of cutting tool types and workspecifications.
(d) Tool coding rings and system for selection of proper tools in accordance with tapesignals.
Tool change system with gripper arm:
In this system , there are mainly two elements :
a) Disc with magazine
b) Gripper arm.
Disc with magazine:
In this system, a disc is provided with a magazine in which different types of rollsare loaded. It can
hold a maximum of 32 tools. In magazines, all tools which are requiredare fixed in the magazines.

Automatic tool changer

Gripper arm :
The tool changer gripper arm consists of a central aluminium structure with a terminal tool of
hardened steel. Tool gripping and release are obtained by means of a spring- I mechanism actuated by the
rotation of the arm. Latter one, in turning, engages or grippers operated disengages the grippers from the
tools when these are in exchange position.
(ii) Tool change system with chain magazine:
In this kind of system, a chain is provided with magazines for tool holding. This chain can hold
numerous tools so it is used in heavy machinery. Starting from 32 it can hold more programmed positions.
In this kind of system, there is no arrangement similar to a gripper arm than 100 tools. This chain is
indexed in front of the headstock directly as per the tool The chain itself is indexed and the machining is
done while keeping the toolin the chain only.
 Chain magazine
For more tools (40 or more), the tool speed is less. As soon as the tool selection command is
received by the system, the selected tool comes to a fixed place known as tool change position. The
selected tool is transferred to the spindle from the magazine after the previous tool is transferred to the
magazine from the spindle. It is called the toolchange cycle.
(iii) Tool change system with disc magazine:
In this system, the tools are held in a big disc. This disc is not similar to the disc provided in the
gripper arm mechanism. In this disc, there are tool grippers provided separately for each magazine and
these grippers hold the tool and also they perform machining operation as well. This system disc can hold
32 to a maximum of 64 tools. These types of tool changers are used in medium capacity machinery.

Disc magazine
Advantages:
● The advantages of automatic tool changer are as follows:
● ATC increases the machine tool's productive time.
● It significantly reduces the times for changing worn tools.
● It provides storage of the cutting tools which are returned automatically to themachine tool
after carrying out the required operations.
● New cutting tools are automatically delivered to the machine by the tool changingsystem.
● The rotating magazine holder can provide tool-storage capacities ranging from 60to 240 cutting
units up to 24 different types of tool geometries.
● The integration of these mechanisms into machine tools can easily be ensuredwith a view in
achieving superior performance.
● These systems can cover a wide range of size and options to suit most machiningapplications.
MACHINING CENTRES
Machining centre is a highly automated machine tool capable of performing multiple than one face
of a component with minimal human attention. Workers are neededto load and machining operations under
 computer numerical control in one setup and it can work on m unload components which usually takes
considerably less time than the machine cycle time, so be able to tend more than one machine. Machining
centres are among the most popular types of CNC machine tools these days.
Classification of machining centres:
1. Horizontal spindle machining centre
2. Vertical spindle machining centre
3. Universal machining centre.
Horizontal Spindle Machining Centre.
A horizontal spindle machining centre has the spindle oriented in the horizontal position. They are
generally single spindle machines with automatic tool changers. They are bed type machines. A typical
horizontal spindle machining centre configuration is shown figure generally.

Horizontal machining centre.

The table of most horizontal machining centres can rotate by either an indexer or a rotary axis.
This feature helps in multiphase machining at different angles in a single setup. My horizontal machining
centres manufactured today will also have an automaticpallet that allows the It operator to be loading one
workpiece while the machine is running. Since the horizontal machining centre allows access to any side of
the workpiece,it can be done per setup.
The machining operations and horizontal spindle machining centre are given below.
X axis→ Table or column motion left to right as viewed from the spindle
Y axis → Spindle head motion up and down
Z axis → Saddle / column / spindle head motion toward and away from the spindle.
Vertical Spindle Machining Centre
A vertical spindle machining centre has the spindle oriented in the vertical
position. These are also bed type machines. It also contains an automatic tool changer to
allow tools to be loaded into the spindle without operator intervention. A typical vertical
spindle machining configuration is shown in Figure 4.38.
 Vertical machining centre
Basic vertical machining centres will allow three directions or axes of motion as follow X axis
Table or column motion left to right as viewed from the spindle Y axis Saddle or table motion toward and
away from the spindle Z axis Spindle head or headstock motion up and down.
Some vertical spindle machining centres have the table that can rotate by either indexer or a rotary
axis. This feature allows more than one surface of the workpiece to bemachined during a machining cycle.
The axis of the rotary table is parallel to the Z-axis and it is called B Axis.
The biggest limitation of a vertical machining centre is that the spindle makes programming for
the typical vertical machining centres easier than the horizontal one sideof the workpiece at a time unless
the machine is attached with the rotary device machiningcentres.
Universal Machining Centre
` Universal machining centres are similar to horizontal machining centres but it is with the spindle
axis capable of tilting from horizontal to the vertical position. This feature allows ease of machining
inclined surfaces. In some machines, the table can be tilted instead of the spindle. In these machines, all
five sides of a component can be machined in a single setup; it is possible to access the top surface of the
workpiece mounted on a horizontal machine centre. The other features of the universal machining centre
are listedbelow.
i. It has a single spindle.
ii. It has five axes.
iii. The flexibility is more than the other two types.
iv. Tool breakage detection is possible.
v. Automatic loading and unloading of the workpiece are possible.
4.7. APPLICATIONS OF CNC MACHINES
1. Metal cutting industry for processes.
Milling, Drilling, Boring, Turning, Grinding, Sawing etc.
For production jobs where the
i. Part geometry is complex.
ii. parts and processed frequently are in small lot sizes.
iii. many operations must be performed on the part in its processing.
iv. design changes are proper.
v. close tolerances are necessary.
 vi. expensive parts and a mistake would be costly.
2. In addition to metal cutting machines, CNC has also been applied to the following.
i. Welding machines
ii. Press working machine tools
iii. Inspection machines
iv. Wire-wrap machines
v. Cloth cutting
vi. Automated knitting machines
vii. Laser beam processes
viii. Flame and plasma cutting
ix. Assembly machines etc.
The types of CNC machines used in these above-said fields are given below.
1. CNC machining centre
(a) Horizontal
(b) Vertical
(c) Universal
2. CNC lathes
3. CNC turning centres
4. Turn-mill Centres
5. CNC milling/drilling machines, plane milling machines
6. CNC special purpose machines7.Gear hobbing
machines
8. Gear shaping machines
9. Wire Cut EDM/EDM
10. Tube Bending
11. Co-ordinate measuring machines (CMM)
12. Grinding machines
(a) Surface grinder
(b) Cylindrical grinder
(c) Centreless grinder
13. CNC boring and jig boring machines
14. CNC guillotines
15. CNC transfer lines.
Advantages of CNC machines:
1. It increases the memory for part program processing.
2. It increases in capacity for storing large part programs.
3. It increases productivity.
4. High accuracy and repeatability are obtained.
5. It reduces the production costs and indirect operating cost.
6. It is easy to edit the part programs on the control console.
7. CNC is more compatible and flexible.
Disadvantages of CNC machines:
1. Specialised and skilled operators are required.
2. Computer programming knowledge is essential.
3. Maintenance requirements are high.
4. Machines have to be installed in air conditioned places.
5. High investment cost.

INTRODUCTION TO PART PROGRAMMING

The conversion of engineering blueprint to a part program can manually be performed with the
assistance of a high-level computer language. In both cases, the part programmers determine the cutting
parameters, spindle speed and feed, based upon characteristics of the workpiece, tool material and
limitations of the machine tool. Therefore, they must have extensive knowledge of machining process and
machine tool.

Steps in developing part program and running machine

In a conventional machining system, a machine operator guides cutting spindle onthe basis of print
information on engineering drawing. The successful operation of a machine tool and quality of the
component produced depend mostly on the skill of the operator or machinist developed over many
years of practice. But in CNC machines, the drawings are studied and the information about the
workpiece is converted into a series of code numbers by the part programmer. Figure 4.39 illustrates the
series of steps followed for developing the part program from the drawing and operating the machine tool.
Every movement, path or action of the machine tool to machine the workpiece as required is based on the
code numbers. The part program is a complete series of codes required to manufacture a workpiece on
machine tool using a CNC machine.
Part Program
The part program is a set of instructions proposed to get the machined part starting with the
desired blank and NC machine tool. Part programming contains geometric data about the part and motion
information to move the cutting tool with respect to the workpiece.

Methods of Creating Part Programming

The following are various methods of creating part programming.
i. Manual part programming (FANUC).
ii. Computer-assisted part programming (CAD/CAM based programmingsystem).
iii. Manual data input
iv. NC programming, using CAD/CAM
v. Computer automated part programming.
In computer-assisted part programming, much of the tedious computational work required in
manual programming is performed by the computer. For complex, the work part or jobs with many
processing steps and use of the computer results in significant savings in the part programmer's time.
When computer assisted part programming is used, the programmer prepares the set of processing
instructions in a high-level computer language. For complex jobs, this computer language is much easier
to use than the lower-level coding required in manual part programming. The high-level language
commands are interpreted by the computer and the required calculations and data processing are
accomplished to prepare the NC program for the tape reader (or other input device)
NC part programming using CAD/CAM is an advanced form of computer- assisted part
programming in which an interactive graphics system equipped with NC programming software is used to
facilitate the part programming task. The term CAD/CAM means computer-aided design and computer-
aided manufacturing. In this method, the programmer works on a CAD/CAM workstation to enter the
machining commands. The actions indicated by the commands are displayed on the graphics monitor
which provides the visual feedback to the programmer. Also, certain portionsof the programming cycle
are automated by the NC programming software to reduce the total programming time required.
Computer-automated part programming extends the notion of automating certain portions of NC
part programming procedure to its logical conclusion. It automates the complete part programming task
using software which is capable of making logical and even quasi intelligent decisions about how the part
should bemachined.

MANUAL PART PROGRAMMING (FANUC)

To prepare a part program using a manual method, the programmer writes the machining
instructions on a special format called part programming manuscript. The programmer first prepares
the program manuscript in a standard format. The instructions must be prepared in a very precise manner
because the typist prepares NC tapes directly from the manuscript Manuscripts come in various forms
depending on the machine tool and tape format to be used. The manuscript is the relative tool and
workpiece locations. It includes the preparatory functions, miscellaneous instructions and speed/feed
specifications which are needed to operate the machine under the tape control. Complex shaped
components require tedious calculations. Manuscripts are typed with a device known as Flexowriter or
similar tape-punch device which is also used to type the program instructions. After the program is typed,
the punched tape is prepared on the flexo writer. The program can also be prepared microprocessor based
terminals or microcomputers and then be stored or transmitted directly to the machine tools. Figure 4.41
shows the block diagram of manual part programming

Block diagram of manual part programming

To be able to create a part program manually, it needs the following information:

a. Knowledge about various manufacturing processes and machines.
b. Sequence of operations to be performed for a given component,
c. Knowledge of the selection of cutting parameters,
d. Editing the part program according to the design changes.
e. Knowledge about the codes and functions used in part programs.The manual
programming jobs can be divided into two categories.
i. Point-to-point jobs
ii. Contouring jobs.
Except for complex work parts with many holes to be drilled, the manual programming is ideally
suited for point-to-point applications. On the other hand, except for the simplest milling and turning jobs,
the manual programming can become quite time-consuming for the application requiring continuous path
control of tool. So, contouring is much more suitable only for point-to-point operations. for computer-
assisted part programming. Therefore, the manual part programming is used.
Structure of Part Program
A CNC program consists of blocks, words and addresses. Basically, the machine receives
instructions as a sequence of blocks containing commands to set machine parameters, speed, feed and
other relevant information. Each line of instruction is capable of specifying dimensional and non-
dimensional data and it is written in a specific format. This format is known as NC block.
Figure 4.42 Structure of CNC part program

(a) Word:
Each of the necessary instructions for a particular operation given in the part program is known as
NC word. A block is composed of one or more words. A word is composed of an identification letter and
a series of numerals, for example, the command for a feed rate of 100 mm/min is F100.
(b) Block:
 A block is equivalent to a line of codes in a part program. A group of such NC words constitutes a
complete NC instruction, known as block. A command is given to the control unit using a block. Each
block contains all words in the same sequence for specifying the information related to machining. A
block contains the following information:
1. Machining sequences such as classification of process, tool startup point,cutting depth, tool
path, tool offsets, and tool comer wear compensation etc.
2. Cutting conditions such as spindle speed, feed rate, etc.
3. Selection of cutting tool
4. Other parameters such as coolant requirement, clamping, change of tool etc.
(c) Address:
The identification letter at the beginning of each word is called address. The meaning of the
address is in accordance with EIA (Electronic Industries Association)standard RS-274-D.
The most common 'addresses' are listed below:
Function Address
Sequence number N
Preparatory function G
Coordinate word X,Y,Z
Parameters for Circular Interpolation I,J,K
Feed function F
Spindle function S
Tool function T
Miscellaneous function M
The detailed description of all the addresses and their meanings are given infurther topics.
The typical program format is N10 G01 X50 Y100 Z30 F100 S200 T02 M03.
From above format, the following should be understood.

Important Terms Used in Part Programming

(1) Sequence number (N Address)
(ii) Preparatory function (G Address)
(iii) Co-ordinate word (XY/Z Address)
(iv) Parameter for circular interpolation (I/J/K Address)
(v) Spindle function (S Address)
(vi) Feed function (F Address)
(vii) Tool function (T Address)
(viii) Miscellaneous function (M Address)
Preparatory Function (G) Codes in Part Programming
Preparatory commands which prepare the machine or tool for different modes of movement,
positioning, contouring, thread cutting and also precede the dimension word. They are grouped. The
group cannot affect each other. Only one function from the same group can be performed at a time. The
preparatory functions and their codes used for turning and milling are given in Table.

Preparatory function (G)codes and their function

Code Turning Milling
G00 Point-to-point positioning Point-to-point positioning
G01 Linear Interpolation Linear Interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation clockwise Circular interpolation clockwise
G03 Circular interpolation counter Circular interpolation counter
clockwise clockwise
G04 Dwell (as a separate block) Dwell (as a separate block)
G09 Exact stop check - one block only Exact stop check - one block only
G10 Programmable data input (data Programmable data input (data
setting) setting)
G11 Data setting mode cancel Data setting mode cancel
G15 - Polar coordinate command cancel
G16 - Polar coordinate command
G17 - XY plane designation
G18 - XZ plane designation
G19 - YZ plane designation
G20 English units of input English units of input
G21 Metric units of input Metric units of input
G28 Machine zero return (reference Machine zero return (reference point)
point)
G40 Tool nose radius offset cancel Cutter radius compensation cancel
G41 Tool nose radius offset left Cutter radius compensation - left
G42 Tool nose radius compensation Tool nose radius compensation right
right
G43 - Tool length compensation - positive
G44 - Tool length compensation - negative
G49 - Tool length offset cancel
G50 Tool position register/Maximum r Scaling function cancel
/min present
G51 - Scaling function
G52 Local coordinate system setting Local coordinate system setting
G53 Machine coordinate system setting Machine coordinate system setting
G54 Work coordinate offset 1 Work coordinate offset 1
G55 Work coordinate offset 2 Work coordinate offset 2
G56 Work coordinate offset 3 Work coordinate offset 3
G57 Work coordinate offset 4 Work coordinate offset 4
G58 Work coordinate offset 5 Work coordinate offset 5
G59 Work coordinate offset 6 Work coordinate offset 6
G60 - Single direction positioning
G61 Exact stop mode Exact stop mode
G62 Automatic corner override mode Automatic corner override mode
G63 - Ting mode
G65 Custom macro call Custom macro call
G66 Custom macro modal call Custom macro modal call
G67 Custom macro modal call cancel Custom macro modal call cancel
G68 Mirror image for double turrets Mirror image for double turrets
G69 Mirror image for double turrets Mirror image for double turrets
cancel cancel
G70 Profile fishing cycle -
G71 Profile roughing cycle -Z axis -
direction
G72 Profile roughing cycle -X axis -
direction
G73 Pattern repetition cycle High speed peck drilling cycle(deep
hole)
G74 Drilling cycle Left hand threading cycle
G75 Grooving cycle -
G76 Threading cycle Fine boring cycle
G80 - Fixed cycle cancel
G81 - Drilling or spot drilling cycle
G82 - Dwell or counter boring cycle
G83 - Peck-drilling cycle (deep hole drilling
cycle)
G84 - Right hand threading cycle
G85 - Boring cycle
G86 - Boring cycle
G87 - Back boring cycle
G90 Cutting cycle A [Group type A] Absolute dimensioning mode
G90 Absolute command [Group type -
B]
G91 Incremental command (Group Incremental command (Group type B]
type B]
G92 Thread cutting cycle [Group type Tool position register
A]
G94 Cutting cycle B [Group type A] -
G94 - Feed rate per minute (Group type B)
 G95 - Feed rate per revolution (Group type
B)
G96 Constant surface speed control -
G97 Constant surface speed control -
cancel
G98 Feed rate per minute Return to initial level in fixed cycle
G99 Feed rate per revolution [Group Return to R level in a fixed cycle.
type A]

Miscellaneous Function (M) Codes in Part Programming

The function is not relating to the dimensional movement of the machine but it denotes the auxiliary
or switching information called miscellaneous functions. Forexample, cool on/off, spindle speed etc. The
most common miscellaneous functions andtheir codes used for turning and milling are shown in Table .
Table Miscellaneous function codes and their function of FANUC system
M Code Turning Milling
M00 Compulsory program stop Compulsory program stop
M01 Optional program stop Optional program stop
M02 End of program (usually with End of program (usually with reset on
reset on rewind) rewind)
M03 Spindle rotation normal Spindle rotation normal
M04 Spindle rotation reverse Spindle rotation reverse
M05 Spindle stop Spindle stop
M06 Tool change Automatic tool change (ATC)
M07 High-pressure Coolant mist High-pressure Coolant mist ON
ON
Coolant ON (coolant pump Coolant ON (coolant pump motor
M08
motor ON) ON)
Coolant OFF (coolant pump Coolant OFF (coolant pump motor
M09
motor OFF) OFF)
M10 Chuck open -
M11 Chuck close -
M12 Tailstock quill IN -
M13 Tailstock quill OUT -
M19 Spindle orientation (optional) Spindle orientation
M21 Tailstock forward -
M22 Tailstock backward -
Program end (always with Program end (always with reset and
M30
reset and rewind) rewind)
M98 Subprogram call Sub program call
M99 Subprogram end Subprogram end
 Work Coordinate Setting
The NC system must know where the part is positioned in the workspace. The procedure for
defining Work Coordinate System (WPC) is called workpiece coordinate setting, Two important factors
deal with workpiece coordinate setting are as follows:
(1) where the part datum (the origin of the WPC) is situated with respect to the workpiece
(2) where the part datum is situated with respect to the machine tool. The methods for
locating the positions of WPC origin with respect to the machine tool vary for each machine tool.
There are three methods of workpiece coordinate setting normally used:
(a) Machine zero point (machine datum) reference
(b) Workpiece origin reference
(c) Tool home position reference.
(a) Machine zero point (machine datum) reference:

WPC origin from where the part features are dimensioned

Machine zero point (machine datum) is a fixed point on the machine tool and it cannot or altered.
The machine datum is fixed by the machine manufacturer. It cannot be altered by the programmer /
user. It is used to calibrate the measuring system of NC machine tool. G54 code tells the machine where
the position of WPC is measuredfrom the machine zero point.
(b) Workpiece origin reference:
WPC origin may be located at any part of the workpiece but to avoid dimensional recalculations
and respectively errors, the good programmers will choose WPC origin at the point from where the part
features are dimensioned as shown in Figure.
(c) Tool home position reference:
Another important point is the tool home position reference program start point (also). This point is
selected by the programmer at some distance from the workpiece.It should not be too far to save some
time when the tool returns home, and not too close to allow for safe indexing of the tool turret when the
cutting tool is changed. The program, therefore, the new part machining, starts and ends with the
tool at home position but the tool needs also to be returned to home whenever a tool change takes
place during the program execution.
Tool Length Compensation
Setting of the depth of the tool to an exact is very difficult and time-consuming. Therefore, it may
be convenient to set the tool to an approximate dimension and then it adjusts the difference by some
external means switches on control systems. This procedure is called tool length compensation. Figure
describes the tool length compensation.

Tool Length Compensation

It allows the programmer to ignore the precise length of each tool as a programis written. CNC
system facilitates this feature. These practices are found very useful when the tool needs to be replaced
and then the machine instructions need not be changed and only the difference in two dimensions is fed
through the switches. Further, this facility can usefully be employed to program a number of tools with
the same instructions for tool travel. Tool length compensation is instated with a G43 code.
Cutter Radius or Diameter Compensation
In profile milling operations, it is essential to calculate the tool path for preparing the program. This
path refers to the spindle axis which is away from the profile required.When constructing the tool path, the
basic factor to be considered is the size of the cutting tool. The actual tool path is different from the part
outline because the tool path is the path taken by the center of the cutter. It is at the periphery of the cutter
that the machining takes place.
The purpose of the cutter radius offset is to offset the tool path from the desired part surface by the
radius of the cutter. It means that the part programmer can define theexact part outline in his geometry
statements. The cutter radius offset is illustrated in Figure. In Figure, in order to cut a workpiece indicated
as a part outline with the cutter of a particular radius, the path for the centre of the tool must be separated
by the distance equal to the cutter radius from the part outline.

Cutter diameter or radius compensation

The cutter radius compensation is instated with the following G code functions.
G code Function
G40 Cutter radius compensation cancel
 G41 Cutter radius compensation left side
G42 Cutter radius compensation right side

Loop, Subprogram and Subroutines

1. Loop:
If an operation is to be repeated over a number of equal steps, it may be programmed with the help
of using do loops.
In a do loop, MCU is instructed to repeat an operation rather than be programmed for number of
separate hole locations. A do loop simply instructs MCU to repeat a series of NC program statements a
specified number of times.
Usually, looping capability on a CNC controller is optional. In some machines, the looping feature
is added to the controller by the controller's manufacturer but inother machines, it is programmed into
the controller by the machine tool manufacturer. It means that NC codes used to initiate a do loop can
vary widely from machine to machine even if they are all equipped with the same basic controller model.
Usually, there is a G code to institute a do loop. As mentioned earlier, there are no standard codes
for do loops. An example is shown in Figure below.
2. Subprogram:
Subprogram is a separate program called by another program. The use of subprograms can
significantly reduce the amount of programming required on some parts. For example, the holes occur in
the same geometric and dimensional pattern in four different locations. A do loop could be programmed
to drill the holes but programming steps can be minimized by placing the pattern in a subprogram.
The subprogram can be used to place one or more do loops in the main program. It is known as
nesting. Subprograms can also be nested in other subprograms or nested within do loops. It provides the
programmer a great deal of flexibility and a powerful programming tool.

Process flow of do loop

3. Subroutines:
User subroutines are useful when the necessary canned cycle is not available. The user subroutine is
an NC program which describes a sequence of operations which is often repeated when machining a
particular part.
 If the same machining operation which was carried out already is to be performed at many different
positions on the same workpiece, it can be executed by means of a program called subroutines. The
subroutine can be used anywhere in the part program. If the machining operation is to be done at the
same place repeatedly, the used program is called repeat loop.
If the subroutines are written in the same CNC program file as the calling mother program, it is
called internal subroutines. If the subroutines are written in separate files as an external program and
referred in the main program, it is called subprogram.
The subroutine is called from the main NC program with a M97 or M98 command. Subroutines
(within the same program) and subprograms (separate file on disk) can be called using M97 and M98
respectively using the same syntax. A subprogram can start with N. Repetitions can be given using the L
word. Return from subprograms and subroutines can be done with M99.
Programming structure in subroutine
The basic syntax and use of the M97 subroutine are as follows:O0004 (Main
program)
N1 G21 (Start up block)
………
………
N100 M97 L1234 (Call subroutine on line1234)
………
………
N1234 (start of subroutine)
………
………
M99 (End of subroutine)
Macros
A special type of user-defined cycles is called macros which are generic cycles with parametric
variables. It would be used where certain motion sequences would be repeated several times within a
program. It is used to reduce the total number of statements required in APT program

Use of Macro
The macro is called from the main program with a set of numerical values for these variables. It
allows to use one and the same macro to machine different in size but it is similar in shape components.
Programming with macros is often referred as aparametric programming
Macros are blocks of code that use any of the logical features such as variables, decision structures
or functions. It provides the user with some flexibility and automation through the use of variables, loops
and decision structures.
 special type Macro
Macro is a programming concept used to
(i) program
(ii) store
(iii) recall, and
(iv) execute automatic cycles and family of programs.The features of
macros are as follows:
(i) Variables are allowed.
(ii) Mathematical operations +, -, , % are possible.
(iii) Interrupt control can be done.
Macro is mainly useful where there is a need to produce similar components with different sizes or
variables. For example, a place which manufactures components those vary only in length or size of the
holes. An example for the situation where the macrois useful is given in Figure. The rail A has 5 post
holes and rail B has 11. In this case, one program can be written to drill a set of both holes. The operator
would simply change the variables to match the customer's requirement.

Macro for an Increasing

Programming structure in Macro:
The macro can be called using a G65 command. The basic syntax and use ofG65 are as follows:
00005 (Main program)
N1G21 (Startup block)
……..
……..
N100 G65 L1234 F150.0 (Call of macro 01234 with F argument = variable #9)
……..
……..
N150 M30 (End of main program) 01234 (Start
of macro program)
 ……...
………
N25 G01 X150.0 Y200.0 F#9 (variable #9 applied to feedrate)
……….
……….
M99 (End of macro program)

MANUAL PART PROGRAMING (FANUC) ON FOR LATHE,MILLING AND

DRILLING MACHINES
(All dimensions are in mm for all programs and Figures)
Manual Part Programming on Lathes
Problem 1
Prepare a part program for manufacturing the given component for the givendimensions as
shown in Figure.
Solution:
The part program is prepared for the tool position from A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H tothe given
component.

Component drawing

Tool positions for turning

For turning and facing processes, code G01 is used and code GOO is used for rapid traversing of
the tool to the required position. The part program is prepared for the tool position of A-B-C-D-E-F-G-
H to manufacture the given component.
Programming in incremental mode:
O0001 (Program number)
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00
N01 M06 Τ01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N02 G54 G91 S1500 M03 Τ01
(Select coordinate system, incremental mode, start spindle CW at 1500 RPM, gettool number one
ready)
N03 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
N04 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N05 G01 X00 Y-40 F80
(Facing the edge AB up to position B & feed 80)
N06 G01 X-30 Y00
(Turning to 70 mm diameter for 30 mm length at position C)
N07 G01 X00 Y5 (Facing the edge CD at position D & feed 80)
N08 G01 X15 Y00
(Turning to 70 mm diameter for 15 mm length at position E)
N09 G01 X00 Y-5 (Facing the edge EF at position F)
N10 G01 X-45 Y00
(Turning to 80 mm diameter for 45 mm length at position G)
N11 G01 X-00 Y40 (Parting-off the edge GH at position H)
N12 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
NI3 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N14 M02 (End of program)
N15 G28 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)
Programming in absolute mode:
O0002
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00 (Program number)
N01 M06 Τ01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N02 G90 S1500 M03 Τ01
(Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle CW at 1500 RPM, get toolnumber one ready)
N03 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
N04 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N05 G01 X00 Y-40 F80
(Facing the edge AB up to position B & feed 80)
N06 G01 X-30 Y-40
(Turning to 70 mm diameter for 30 mm length at position)
N07 G01 X-30 Y-35 (Facing the edge CD at position D & feed 80)
N08 G01 X-45 Y-35
 (Turning to 70 mm diameter for 15 mm length at position E)
N09 G01 X-45 Y-40 (Facing the edge EF at position F)
N10 G01 X-90 Y-40
(Turning to 80 mm diameter for 45 mm length at position )
N11 G01 X-90 Y40 (Parting-off the edge GH at position H)
N12 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N13 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N14 M02 (End of program)
N15 G28 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)
[Hint: In incremental mode, the distance is measured between successive points. But inabsolute mode, the
distance is measured from fixed reference point).
Problem 2
A 60 mm long cylindrical is to be turned into a component as shown in Figure using a CNC
lathe. Prepare a part program for manufacturing thiscomponent.
Solution:
The part program is prepared for the tool position of A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-I-J- K-L 10
manufacture the given component. Same sign conventions and codes as mentioned in Problem 1 are
followed to prepare the part program
Programming in incremental mode:
O0003 (Program number)
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00
N01 M06 Τ01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N02 G54 G91 S1500 M03 Τ01
(Select coordinate system, incremental mode, start spindle CW at 1500 RPM, get toolnumber one ready)

Tool positions for turning

 N03 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
N04 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N05 G01 X00 Y-12.5 F80
(Facing the edge AB up to position B & feed 80)
N06 G01 X-10 Y00
(Turning to 25 mm diameter for 10 mm length at position)
N07 G01 X-2.5 Y2.5
(Taper turning to 20 mm diameter for 2.5 mm length from position C to position D)
N08 G01 X-2.5 Y-2.5
(Taper turning to 25 mm diameter for 2.5 mm length from position D to position E)
N09 G01 X-10 Y00
(Turning to 25 mm diameter for 10 mm length at position F)
N10 G01 X-10 Y5
(Turning to 15 mm diameter for 10 mm length to produce taper surface at position G)
N11 G01 X-10 Y00
(Turning to 15 mm diameter for 10 mm length at position H)
N12 G01 X00 Y-5 (Facing the edge HI up to position I)
N13 G01 X-5 Y00
(Turning to 25 mm diameter for 5 mm length at position J)
N14 G01 X-10 Y5
(Taper turning to 20 mm diameter for 10 mm length from position J to position K)
N15 G01 X00 Y10 (Parting-off the edge KL at position L)
N16 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N17 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N18 M02 (End of program)
N19 G28 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)
Pro gramming in absolute mode:
O0004 (Program number)
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00
Ν01 M06 Τ01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N02 G54 G90 S1500 M03 Τ01
(Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle CW at 1500
RPM, get tool number one ready)
M08 N03 (Turn ON coolant)
N04 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
 N05 G01 X00 Y-12.5 F80
(Facing the edge AB up to position B & feed 80)
N06 G01 X-10 Y-12.5
(Turning to 25 mm diameter for 10 mm length at position C)
N07 G01 X-12.5 Y-10
(Taper turning to 20 mm diameter for 2.5 mm length from position C to position D)
N08 G01 X-15 Y-12.5
(Taper turning to 25 mm diameter for 2.5 mm length from position D to position E)
N09 G01 X-25 Y00
(Turning to 25 mm diameter for 10 mm length at position F)
N10 G01 X-35 Y-7.5
(Turning to 15 mm diameter for 10 mm length to produce taper surface at position G)
N11 G01 X-45 Y-7.5
(Turning to 15 mm diameter for 10 mm length at position H)
N12 G01 X-45 Y-12.5 (Facing the edge HI up to position 1)
N13 G01 X-50 Y-12.5
(Turning to 25 mm diameter for 5 mm length at position )
N14 G01 X-60 Y-7.5
(Taper turning to 20 mm diameter for 10 mm length from position to position K)
N15 G01 X-60 Y00 (Parting-off the edge KL at position L)
N16 G00 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N17 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N18 M02 (End of program)
N19 G28 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)
[Hint: In incremental mode, the distance is measured between successive points. But inabsolute mode, the
distance is measured from fixed reference point)
Manual Part Programming for Drilling Machines

Problem 4
Prepare a part program for manufacturing the given component shown in
Figure in CNC drilling machine.

Component Drawing
Solution:
O0007 (Program number)
N10 G28 T00 U00 W00
N20 M06 Τ01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N30 G54 G90 S1500 M03 Τ01
(Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle CW at 1500 RPM, get toolnumber one ready)
N40 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
%EXEI
N50 G00 G90 T0 X0 Z0
N60 TO101 M06
N70 X2 Y0 G95 F0.3 M03
N80 G83; 50; 20; 75; 4; 0; 1
(Total hole depth; First depth cut; Reduction (%); Min, peak; Dwell; Part retract)
N90 G00 G90 T0 X0 Y0 M05
N100 M30
%
N110 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N120 M02 (End of program)
N130 G28 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)
Problem 5
Prepare a part program to drill the given component of 10 mm thick shownin Figure in a
CNC drilling machine.
Solution:
The part program is prepared for the tool position of A-B-C-D-E to drill the givencomponent. Same
sign conventions as mentioned in Problem 4.1 are followed to the prepare part program.

Component drawing

Tool positions for drillingProgram in absolute mode:

 O0008 (Program number)
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00
NI0 M06 Τ01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N20 G54 G90 S200 M03 Τ01
(Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle CW at 200 RPM, get toolnumber one ready)
N30 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
N40 G74 G98 (Selecting the tool for drilling cycle using G74 code)
N50 G00 X00 Y00 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N60 G00 X10 Y10 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position B)
N70 G01 Z-10 F5 (Drilling at position B for 10 mm deep)
N80 G00 X40 Y10 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position C)
N90 G01 Z-10 F5 (Drilling at position C for 10 mm deep)
N100 G00 X25 Y25 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position D)
N110 G01 Z-10 F5 (Drilling at position D for 10 mm deep)
N120 G00 X25 Y40 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position E)
N130 G01 X-32 F5 (Drilling at position E for 10 mm deep)
N140 G00 X00 Y00 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N150 M05 (Spindle stop)
N160 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N170 M02 (End of program)
N180 G28 Z00 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)
Manual Part Programming for Tapping Process
Problem 6
Prepare a part program for manufacturing right hand internal threadsin above
mentioned component shown in Figure in a CNC machine.
Solution:
For M8 tap, code G84 is selected. So, above written part program for drilling is used just by
replacing G74 code by G84 because G84 is used for tapping process with right hand threads)
 Component drawingProgram in absolute mode:
O0009 (Program number)
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00
N10 M06 T01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N20 G54 G90 S200 M03 T01
(Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle CW at 200 RPM, get toolnumber one ready)
N30 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
N40 G84 G98 (Selecting the tool for tapping cycle using G84 code)
N50 G00 X00 Y00 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N60 G00 X10 Y10 (Rapid traversing of tool to position B)
N70 G01 Z-10 F5 (Tapping at position B for 10 mm deep)
N80 G00 X40 Y10 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position C)
N90 G01 Z-10 F5 (Tapping at position C for 10 mm deep)
N100 G00 X25 Y25 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position D)
N110 G01 Z-10 F5 (Tapping at position D for 10 mm deep)
N120 G00 X25 Y40 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position E)
N130 G01 Z-32 F5 (Tapping at position E for 10 mm deep)
N140 G00 X00 Y00 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N150 G80 (Cancelling tapping cycle)
N160 M05 (Spindle stop)
N170 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N180 M02 (End of program)
N190 G28 Z00 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)

Manual Part Programming for Boring Process

Problem 7
Prepare a part program for enlarging the drilled holes 8mm diameter to 10mm diameter by
boring process for above mentioned component shown in Figure in a CNC machine.
Solution:
For boring, code G85 or G86 is used for rough boring and G76 is used for finish boring. Rough
boring is carried out with diameter 39 mm boring bar and finish boring is carried out with 40 mm
diameter boring bar.
Part program:
O0011 (Program number)
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00
N10 M06 T01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N20 G54 G90 S200 M03 T01
(Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle CW at 200 RPM, get tool
number one ready)
N30 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
N40 G85 G98
(Selecting the tool for drilling cycle using G85 code for rough boring)
N50 G00 X00 Y00 Z00
(Rapird traversing of the tool to position A)
N60 G00 X10 Y10 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position B)
N70 G01 Z-10 F 0.5 (Boring at position B for 10 mm deep)
N80 G00 X40 Y10 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position C)
N90 G01 Z-10 F0.5 (Boring at position C for 10 mm deep)
N100 G00 X25 Y25 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position D)
N110 G01 Z-10 F0.5 (Boring at position D for 10 mm deep)
N120 G00 X25 Y40 Z00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position E)
N130 G01 Z-32 F0.5 (Boring at position E for 10 mm deep)
N140 G00 X00 Y00 Z00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N150 G76 G98
(Selecting the tool for drilling cycle using G76 code for finish boring)
N160 G00 X00 Y00 Z00
(Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N170 G00 X10 Y10 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position B)
N180 G01 Z-10 F 0.5 (Boring at position B for 10 mm deep)
N190 G00 X40 Y10 Z00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position C)
N200 G01 Z-10 F0.5 (Boring at position C for 10 mm deep)
N210 G00 X25 Y25 Z00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position D)
N220 G01 Z-10 F0.5 (Boring at position D for 10 mm deep)
N230 G00 X25 Y40 Z00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position E)
N240 G01 Z-32 F0.5 (Boring at position E for 10 mm deep)
 N250 G00 X00 Y00 Z00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N260 G80 (Cancelling boring cycle)
N270 M05 (Spindle stop)
N280 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N290 M02 (End of program)
N300 G28 Z00 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)
[Hint:- Reaming can also be performed by using the similar part program of finishboring.]
Manual Part Programming for Milling Process
Problem 8
Prepare a part program for manufacturing the given component shown in Figure profile milling
process in a CNC milling machine by considering cuttercompensation.

Figure 4.65 Component drawing

Solution:
The part program is prepared in incremental mode for the tool position of A-B-C- D-E to mill the
given component. Same sign conventions as mentioned in Problem 1are followed to prepare the part
program.

Tool PositionsPart program in

incremental mode:
O0012 (Program number)
N00 G28 T00 U00 W00
N01 M06 T01 (Place tool number one in the spindle)
N02 G54 G91 S400 M03 T01
(Select coordinate system, incremental mode, start spindle CW at 400 RPM, get toolnumber one ready)
 N03 M08 (Turn ON coolant)
N04 G17 (Interpolation XY plane)
N05 G01 X00 Y00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to (0, 0))
N06 G00 X20 Y20 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N07 Z-10 F0.8 (Z refers to the depth of cut and feed=0.8)
N08 G42 D1
(Cutter radius compensation - right & Cutter dimension ON)
N09 GI Y20 F199 (Entry block)
N10 X40 Y20
(Milling the edge AB linearly in the horizontal direction towards right up to positionB for 20mm
length)
N11 X60 Y40 (Milling the edge BC up to position C)
N12 X60 Y50
(Milling the edge CD linearly in the vertical direction towards up for 10 mm lengthup to position D)
N13 X20 Y50
(Milling the edge DE linearly in the horizontal direction towards left up to positionE for 40mm
length)
N14 X60 Y50
(Milling the edge EF linearly in the vertical direction towards down for 30 mmlength up to position
F)
N15 X00 Y00 Z00 (Rapid traversing of the tool to position A)
N16 G40 D0 (Cutter dimension OFF & Cutter compensation cancel)
N17 M05 (Spindle stop)
N18 M09 (Turn OFF coolant)
N19 M02 (End of program)
N20 G28 Z00 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle)

INTRODUCTION OF CAM PACKAGE

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of software and computer- controlled machinery to
automate a manufacturing process. The components for a CAMsystem to function are:
(i) Software to feed data to a machine to make a product by generating tool paths.
(ii) Machinery that can turn raw material into a finished product.
(iii) Post-processing elements that converts tool paths into a language machines canunderstand.
Without CAM, there is no CAD. CAD focuses on the design of a product or part in terms of
appearance and functions but CAM focuses on the manufacturing side of a product to be made.
When a design is complete in CAD, it is loaded into CAM. It is traditionally done by exporting a
CAD file and then importing it into CAM software. If a tool such as Fusion 360, both CAD and CAM
exist in the same software. So, there is no requirementof importing/exporting the files.
After CAD model is imported into CAM, the software starts preparing the model for machining.
Machining is the controlled process of transforming raw material into a defined shape through machining
operations such as cutting, drilling or boring.
 In recent years, CAM software are used to prepare a model for machining by working through
several machining which includes the following:
(i) Checking if the model has any geometry errors which will impact the manufacturing process.
(ii) Creating a tool path for the model which is a set of coordinates the machinewill follow
during the machining process.
(iii) Setting any required machine parameters including cutting speed, voltage,cut/pierce height, etc.
(iv) Configuring nesting where the CAM system will decide the best orientationfor a part to
maximize machining efficiency.
Some CAM packages are listed with their features below.
 UNIT - V
CELLULAR MANUFACTURING AND FLEXIBLE
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM(FMS)

GROUP TECHNOLOGY
It is estimated that batch production is the most common form of production in theworld, generating
a great deal of industrial output. It accounts for 60 to 80% of all manufacturing activities. This fact
emphasizes on a growing need to make batch production more efficient and productive. Also, there is an
increasing trend toward achieving a higher level of integration between the design and manufacturing
functions in a company. Both these objectives are achieved by an approach called group technology(GT).
Definition:
Group technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy to increase production efficiency by
grouping a variety of parts having similarities of shape, dimension, and/or process route. Thus in GT,
similar parts are identified and grouped together to take advantage of their similarities in design and
production.
GT may be defined as a manufacturing philosophy that justifies batch production by capitalizing on
design and/or manufacturing similarities among component parts.

ROLE OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY IN CAD/CAM INTEGRATION

Adaptation of a group technology philosophy is gaining importance due to the following trends in
manufacturing, as listed by Ham and Hitomi
1. A rapid proliferation of numbers and variety of products, resulting in
smaller lot sizes.
2. A growing demand for closer dimensional tolerances, resulting in a need
for moreeconomical means of working to higher accuracies.
3. A growing need for working with increased varieties of materials,
heightening theneed for more economical means of manufacturing.
4. An increasing proportion of cost of materials to total product cost due to
increasing labour efficiency, thereby lowering acceptance scrap rates.
5. Pressure from the above factors to increase communication across all
manufacturing functions with a goal of minimizing production costs and
maximizing production rates.

PART FAMILIES
A part family is a collection of parts which are similar either because of geometric shape and size
or because similar processing steps are required in their manufacture.
The parts which are similar in their design characteristics (i.e., shape and geometry) are grouped
in a family referred to as a design part family.
The parts which are similar in their manufacturing characteristics are grouped in a family referred
to as a manufacturing part family.
The characteristics used in classifying parts are referred to as "attributes".
Illustration of the Part Family Concept

Design Part family

Manufacturing part family

The 10 parts shown in Figure constitute a part family in manufacturing, but theycannot be grouped as a
design part family.

A family of parts with similar manufacturing process requirements butdifferent design attributes.
All parts are machined from cylindrical stock by turning; some parts require drilling and/or milling
METHODS FOR PART FAMILY FORMATION
The three general methods for grouping parts into families are:
1. Visual inspection,
2. Parts classification and coding system, and
3. Production flow analysis.

VISUAL INSPECTION METHOD

Visual inspection method is the simplest and least expensive method.
It involves looking at parts, photos of parts, or drawings of parts and arranging them into similar
groups.
 Illustration: Consider a set of parts in Figure. These eight parts can be arranged grouped into two
part families (viz., prismatic parts and rotational parts) by visually inspecting their physical characteristics,
as shown in Figure. This method is the easiest approach, especially for grouping parts by design
characteristics. For obvious reasons, its utility is limited to companies having smaller number of parts.

Visual inspection method

PARTS CLASSIFICATION AND CODING METHOD

Coding is a systematic process of establishing an alphanumeric value for parts based on selected
part features. Classification is the grouping of parts based on code values.
Parts classification and coding method is the most sophisticated, most difficult, most time-
consuming, and widely used of the three methods.
In parts classification and coding, the various design and/or manufacturing attributes of a part are
identified, listed, and assigned a code number.
Though several classification and coding systems have been developed, no system has been
universally adopted. One of the reasons for this is that the information that is to be represented in the
classification and coding system will vary from one company to another company. In other words, a
coding system is best for one company may not be best for another company. Thus the classification and
coding system should be customized for a given company.
Design and Manufacturing Attributes
Any parts classification systems fall into one of the following three categories:
1. Systems based on part design attributes.
2. Systems based on part manufacturing attributes.
3. Systems based on both design and manufacturing attributes.
Parts classified by design attributes can be coded from information on the engineering drawing.
This first category systems are useful for design retrieval and to promote design standardisation.
In grouping of manufacturing attributes, in addition to drawing information, other information such
as operation sequence, lot size, machines used, production processes, surface finish, etc., are also
considered. Systems in the second category are used for computer-aided process planning, tool design,
and other production related functions,
The third category represents an attempt to combine the functions, and advantagesof the other two
systems into a single classification scheme.
Table lists the common design and manufacturing attributes typically includedin GT classification
and coding system.
 Common design and manufacturing attributes
Part design attributes Part manufacturing attributes
Basic external shape Major production processes
Basic internal shape Minor operations
Rotational or rectangular shape Operation sequence
Major dimensions Major dimension
Minor dimensions Production time

Material type Tools required

Part function Fixtures required
Length to diameter ratio (rotational parts) Batch size
Aspect ratio(rectangular parts) Machine tool
Surface finish Annual production
Tolerances Surface finish

From Table it may be noted that a certain amount of overlap exists between design and
manufacturing attributes. This is because a part's geometry is largely determined by the sequence of
manufacturing processes performed on it.
Coding System Structure
A GT code is a string of characters capturing information about an item. A coding scheme is a
vehicle for the efficient recording, sorting, and retrieval of relevant information about objects.
A part coding scheme consists of a sequence of symbols that identify the part's design and/or
manufacturing attributes. The symbols in the code can be all numeric, all alphabetic,or a combination of
both types.
There are three basic code structures used in group technology applications. They are:
1. Hierarchical codes (or monocodes or tree structure);
2. Attribute codes (or polycodes or chain type structure); and
3. Decision tree codes (or hybrid codes or mixed codes).
1. Hierachical Code (or Monocode):
In hierarchical structure, the interpretation of each successive symbol depends on value of the
preceding symbols. Each symbol amplifies the information contained in preceding digit, so a digit in the
code cannot be interpreted alone.
The structure of these codes is like a tree in which each symbol amplifies the information provided
in the previous digit. The hierarchical coding system can be depicted using a tree structure as shown in
Figure.
Illustration: The application of above tree structure can be best illustrated with a simple coding
scheme for a spur gear. Figure shows the hierarchical code for a spur gear shown in Figure.
 Structure of monocodes

Figure 5.6 Illustration of hierarchical code structure

For assigning a code, one has to start from the main trunk of the tree and answer a series of
questions about the item being coded. Continuing in the same manner till a termination branch of the tree
and recording each choice of the answer, one can obtain the appropriate code number. Now using the
above procedure, and referring Figure, the hierarchical code for the spur gear is 'A11B2”. From Figure, it
may also be noted that for a bevel gear, the hierarchical code would be 'A11B1'.
Merits and demerits of monocode system:
(i) Monocode provides a large amount of information in a relatively small number of digits.
(ii) This tree structure works well for designing an existing ordered structure but is more difficult to
use in classifying things that have no apparent order.
(iii) Defining the meanings for each digit in a hierarchical system (and hence the construction) is
difficult.
(iv) Monocodes are frequently used in design departments for part retrieval. But theirutility is limited
in manufacturing departments, because it is difficult to retrieve and analyse process-related
information when it is in a hierarchical structure.
2. Attribute Code (or Polycode):
In this structure, the interpretation of each symbol in the sequence does not dependon the value of
preceding symbols. That is, each digit in this code represents information in its own right and does not
directly qualify the information provided by the other digits.Attribute code is also known by other names
'polycode', 'chain code', 'discrete code' and 'fixed-digit code'.
Illustration: Figure shows an example attribute code. For the spur gear shown in Figure, using
Figure attribute code, we can obtain the polycode as "22213”.
From Figure, it may be noted that a “3” in position 5 means that the part is a spur gear regardless of
the values of the digits in any other positions.
Merits and demerits of polycodes:
(i) The major advantages of polycodes are that they are compact and easy to use and develop. This
attribute code system is popular with manufacturing departments because it makes it easy to
identify parts that have similar features that require similar processing.
(ii) Because a polycode represents a class of items as a string of features, it is also particularly
suitable for computer analysis.
(iii) The primary disadvantage is that, for comparable code size, a polycode lacks thedetail present in a
monocode structure. Also polycodes tend to be longer than monocodes.

Class of Possible value of digits

Digit
feature 1 2 3 4
Cylindrical Cylindrical
External
1 without with Boxlike ---
shape
deviations deviations
Brind center
2 Internal shape None Center hole ---
hole
Number of
3 0 1-2 3-5 ----
holes
Types of
4 Axial Cross Axial cross ----
holes
External
5 Gear teeth Worm Internal spur ----
spur
---

---

---

---

---

Attribute code example

3. Decision-Tree (or Hybrid) Code:
A hybrid code captures the best features of the hierarchical and polycode structures. This system is
also known as decision-tree coding and it combines both design and manufacturing attributes.
In practice, most coding systems use a hybrid construction to combine the best features of
monocodes and polycodes. To reduce the length of a strict polycode, the firstdigit of such a system may
split the population into appropriate subgroups, as in a monocode structure. Then each subgroup can have
its own polycode structure.
For example, the first digit might be used to denote the type of part, such as gear. The next four
positions might be reserved for a short attribute that would describe the attributes of the gear. The next
digit, position 6, might be used to designate another subgroup, such as material, followed by another
attribute code that would describe the attributes. In this way, a hybrid code can be generated. Figure
illustrates the decision-tree coding system for a sheet-metal bracket.
Hybrid code is relatively more compact than a pure attribute code while retaining the ability to
easily identify parts with specific characteristics.

Decision-tree classification for a sheet metal bracket

Reasons for Using a Coding Scheme
Three important reasons for using a classification and coding systein are given below:
1. Design retrieval:
Coding system often helps to minimize unnecessary variety of components in a manufacturing plant
by making designers aware of existing similar components. Thus thedesigner can develop a new part by
using a design retrieval system. This type of design (i.e., by simply modifying the existing similar part)
takes lesser time than the conventionaldesign (i.e., designing a whole new part from scratch).
2. Automated process planning:
With the part code for a new part, process plans can be searched and obtained for existing parts
with identical or similar parts.
3. Machine cell design:
Using the part codes, one can design machine cells which are capable of producingall members of a
particular part family.
Selection of a Coding System
While selecting a suitable coding system, the following factors should beconsidered:
1. Objective of the classification system.
2. Robustness - capability of handling all parts now being sold or planned to be soldby the firm.
3. Expandability - ability to cope up with future demands.
4. Differentiation - ability to distinguish between different part families.
5. Automation - for computer use.
6. Efficiency - the code efficiency, the number of digits required to code a typicalpart, should be
evaluated.
7. Cost - including initial, modifying, interfacing and operational costs.
8. Simplicity - ease of use and training.
 CODING SYSTEMS
1. Opitz classification system,
2. MICLASS system,
3. DCLASS system,
4. KK-3 system,
5. CODE system,
6. CUTPLAN system,
7. RNC system,
8. Part Analog system,
9. Brisch system,
10. COFORM.
The Opitz system was developed by H.Opitz of the University of Aachen in Germany. In fact, it was
the most popular and one of the first published classification and coding schemes for mechanical parts.
This system uses alpha-numeric symbols to represent the various attributes of a part.
The Opitz coding scheme uses the following digit sequence: 12345
6789 ABCD
The first five digits (12345) code the major design attributes of a part and are calledthe "form code":
The next four digits (6789) are for coding manufacturing-related attributes and are called the
"supplementary code".
The letters (ABCD) code the production operation and sequence and are referred to as the
“secondary code”. The secondary code can be designated by the firm to serve its own particular needs.
The basic structure of the Opitz system has been shown in Figure 5.9. Figure 5.10 is a chart used for
assigning an Opitz code to rotational parts.
 ≤ 0.5.
Solved problems on Optiz classification
system
Problem 1
Develop the form code (five digits)
in the Opitz system for the part
illustrated in Figure 5.11. All dimensions
are in mm.
Solution:

For the given part, the five-digit

code isdeveloped as follows:
Step 1: Calculate = 4.2 = 0.12. So, here
 35

Digit 1 = 0
Step 2: External shape: Smooth, no shape elements.
Digit 2 = 0
Step 3: Internal shape: Though-hole, smooth, no shape elements.
Digit 3 = 1
Step 4: Plane surface machining: None.
Digit 4 = 0
Step 5: Auxiliary holes and gear teeth: None.
Digit 5 = 0
Thus, the form code in the Opitz system for the part is 00100

Problem 2

Develop the form code (first five digits) in the Opitz system for the part illustratedin
Figure. All dimensions are in mm.

Solution:

Step 2: External shape: Stepped to one end with functional groove.

Digit 2 = 3
Step 3: Internal shape: Part contains a through-hole.
Digit 3 = 1
Step 4: Plane surface machining: None.
Digit 4 = 0
Step 5: Auxiliary holes and gear teeth: None.
Digit 5 = 0
Thus, the form code in the Opitz system for the part is 13100
 Problem 3
Develop a form code (first five digits) using the Opitz system for a part design shownin Figure. All
dimensions are in mm.

Solution:

Digit 1 = 1
Step 2: External shape: Stepped to one end with functional groove.
Digit 2 = 3
Step 3: Internal shape: Part contains a through-hole.
Digit 3 = 1
Step 4: Plane surface machining: None.
Digit 4 = 0
Step 5: Auxiliary holes and gear teeth: There are spur gear teeth on the part.
Digit 5 = 6
Thus, the form code in the Opitz system for the part is 13106

The MICLASS System

MICLASS stands for Metal Institute Classification System. This system was developed by
Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific research. MICLASSsystem is also referred as Multiclass
system.
The MICLASS classification number can range from 12 to 30 digits. The first 12 digits are
universal codes that can be applied to any part. The next 18 digits are called supplementary digits.
The first 12-digits are mandatory and are used to classify the engineering and manufacturing
characteristics of a part. The component attributes coded in the first 12 digits of the MICLASS system are
shown in Table.
 MICLASS codes
Digits Attributes
1st digit Main shape
2nd and 3rd digits Shape elements
4 Position of shape elements
5&6 Main dimensions
7 Dimension ratio
8 Auxiliary dimension
9 & 10 Tolerance codes
11 & 12 Material codes

As could be seen from Table, the first four digits deal with the form: main shape,shape elements, and
the position of these elements; the next four digits provide dimensional information: the main dimension,
the ratio of the various dimensions, and the auxiliary dimension; digits 9 and 10 give tolerance
information; and the final two digits provide a machinability index of the material. The next 18 digits,
called supplementary digits, are optional. These 18 additional digits can be used to code data that are
specific to the particular company or industry.
For example, information such as lot size, piece time, cost data, and operation sequence might be
included in the 18 supplementary digits.
One of the unique features of MICLASS system is that parts can be coded using a computer
interactively. To classify a given part design, the user responds to a series of questions asked by the
computer. On the basis of response to its questions, the computerassigns a code number to the part.
In this system, it is difficult to make modifications, especially when the code does not provide the
necessary information in the first 12 digits.
DCLASS Coding System
DCLASS stands for Design and Classification Information System. It was developed at Brigham
Young University. The DCLASS part family code is comprised of eight digits partitioned into five code
segments, as shown in Figure.
As could be seen from Figure, the first segment (consisting three digits) is used to denote the basic
shape; the second segment (i.e., fourth digit) is used to specify the complexity of the part (which includes
holes, slots, heat treatments, and special surface finishes); the third segment (i.e, fifth digit) is used to
specify the overall size of the codedpart; the fourth segment (i.e, sixth digit) represents precision; and the
final segment (consisting two digits) is used to denote the material type.
The advantage of this system is that it can be easily computerised and hence can be used as
commercial coding system.

DCLASS part code segments

 The KK-3 System
The KK-3 system is a general purpose classification and coding system for parts that are to be
machined or ground. It is developed by the Japan Society for the Promotionof Machine Industry in the late
1970s. It uses a 21-digit decimal system. The structure of a KK-3 system for rotational components is
shown in Figur

Digit Items (Rotational component)

1 General classification
Parts name
2 Detail classification
3 General classification
Materials
4 Detail classification
5 Length
Major dimensions
6 Diameter
7 Primary shapes and ratio of major dimensions
External surface and outer primary
8
shape
9 Concentric screw threaded parts
10 External Surface Functional cut-off parts
11 Extraordinary shaped parts
12 Forming
13 Shape details Cylindrical surface
14 and kinds of Internal primary shape
15 process Internal curved surface
Internal surface
Internal flat surface and cylindrical
16
surface
17 End surface
18 Nonconcentric Regularly located holes
19 holes Special holes
20 Noncutting process
21 Accuracy

The structure of a KK-3 system for rotational components

This code is much greater in length than the Opitz and MICLASS coding systems,but it classifies
dimensions and such dimensional ratios as length-to-diameter of the part.
The CODE System
The CODE system was developed by Manufacturing Data System, Inc (MDSI), of Ann Arbor,
Michigan. The code number has eight digits. For each digit there are 16 possible values (0 to 9 and A to F)
which are used to describe the parts design and manufacturing characteristics. The initial digit position
indicates the basic geometry of the part and is called the major division of the code system. This digit
would be used to specify whether the shape was cylinder, flat, block, or other. The interpretation of the
remaining digits form a chain type structure. Hence the CODE systems possess a hybridstructure.
 PRODUCTION FLOW ANALYSIS (PFA)
In PFA, workparts with identical or similar routings are classified into part families.It may be noted
that PFA neither uses a classification and coding systemin nor part drawings to identify families. Instead,
it uses the information such as part number, operation sequence, lot size, etc., contained on the route sheet.
Since this method is based on the route sheet information, it is sometimes referred as the route sheet
inspection method.
Steps Involved in PFA
The following four steps are followed to carryout PFA:
(1) Data collection,
(2) Sortation of process routings,
(3) Preparation of PFA chart, and
(4) Cluster analysis.
Step 1: Data collection
The step in the PFA procedure is to collect the necessary data. The route sheets of all the
components to be manufactured in the shop are prepared. The route sheet should contain the part number
and operation sequence. Other data that can be collected/obtainedfrom route sheet/operation sheet include
lot size, time standards, and annual demand.
Step 2: Sortation of process routes
The second step in the PFA is to arrange the parts into groups according to the similarity of their
process routings. A typical card format is required for organising the data such as the part number,
sequence of code, and lot size. Then a sortation procedure is used to arrange the parts into 'packs'. A pack
is nothing but a group of parts with identical process routings. Some pack may even contain only one part
number. A pack identification or letter is provided for each pack.
Step 3: PFA chart
A PFA chart is a graphical representation of the process used for each pack. In other words, it is a
tabulation of the process or machine code numbers for all of the part packs. The PFA chart is also known
as ‘part-machine incidence matrix' or 'component- machine incidence matrix'.
illustrates a typical PFA chart having 7 machines (M1 to M7) and 9 parts(P1 to P9).
PFA chart (i.e., part-machine incidence matrix)
Parts
Machines
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9
M1 1 1 1 1
M2 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
M5 1 1
M6 1 1
M7 1 1 1

In this matrix, the entries have a value xij = 1 or 0: a value of xij = 1 indicates that the corresponding
part i requires processing on machine j, and xij = 0 indicates that no processing of component i is
accomplished on machine j. However, in Table 5.4, the 0's are indicated as blank (entry) entries for better
clarity of the matrix.
Step 4: Cluster analysis
From the PFA chart, related grouping are identified and rearranged into a new pattern that brings
together packs with similar machine sequences. Table shows one possible rearrangement of the original
PFA chart.
From Table, it is clear that for the PFA chart considered we have three part families and three
machine cells, as shown below.

Rearranged PFA chart, indicating possible machine grouping

Exceptional Parts and Bottleneck Machines
Though it is desired to create the mutually independent cells with no intercell movement, it may not
always be practical to achieve this. In practice, some parts needs to be processed in more than one cell.
These are known as "exceptional” parts and the machines processing them are known as “bottleneck"
machines.
In Table, the matrix elements P2M1, and P4M1 (i.e., parts P2 and P4 processed on machine M1) are
known exceptional elements. In this case, parts P2 and P4 are knownas exceptional parts and the machine
M1 is known as bottleneck machine.
The exceptional parts increase the intercellular moves and the total cost and hence they should be
eliminated/reduced.
The problem of exceptional elements can be eliminated/reduced by:
(1) Duplication of machines,
(2) Generating alternative process plans, and
(3) Subcontracting these operations.
As pointed out, one way of eliminating the exceptional elements is to duplicate themachine that is
used by more than one part family. In our case, we shall use two machinesof type M1 (namely M1A and M1B)
in the two cells. The result of this duplication is shown in the matrix of Table where there are no
exceptional elements present.
 Modified PFA chart having no exceptional elements
Advantages of PFA
We know that parts classification and coding uses design data and the PFA uses manufacturing
data (i.e., route sheet) to identify part families. Due to this fact, as pointed out by Groover, PFA can
overcome two possible anomalies that can occur in parts classification and coding
(i) First, parts whose basic geometries are quite different may nevertheless require similar or identical
process routings.
(ii) Second, parts whose geometries are similar may nevertheless require process routings that are
quite different.
Also PFA requires less time than a complete parts classification and coding procedure.
Disadvantages of PFA
1. PFA does not provide any mechanism for rationalizing the manufacturing routings.
2. There is no consideration being given to routing sheet whether the routings are optimal or
consistent or logical.
3. Since the process sequences from route sheets are prepared by different process planners, therefore
the routings may contain processing steps that are non-optimal,illogical, and unnecessary. Thus, the
resulting final part and machine grouping may be suboptimal.

FACILITY DESIGN USING GROUP TECHNOLOGY

Once parts have been grouped into part families by parts classification and coding or production
flow analysis, the next problem would be determining how to arrange the machines in the shop.
Facility layout, also known as plant layout, refers to the physical arrangement of production
facilities. It is the configuration of departments, work centres, and equipmentin the conversion process.
The objective oj facility layout is to design a physical arrangement that most economically meets
the required output quantity and quality.
There are three basic ways to arrange machines in a shop. They are:
1. Line (or product) layout,
2. Functional (or process) layout, and
 3. Group (or combination) layout.
Line (or Product) Layout

Product or line layout

In a line layout, the machines are arranged in the sequence as required by the product.
If volume of production of one or more products is large, the facilities can be arranged to achieve
efficient flow of materials and lower cost per unit. Figure 5.16 depictsa typical line layout.
Suitability:
This form of layout is suitable for the continuous mass production of goods as it makes it possible
for the raw material to be fed into the plant and taken out finished product on the other end.
Merits and demerits:
Advantages and disadvantages of line layout.
Advantages Disadvantages
(i) Smooth and continuous work flow. (i) Lack of flexibility. That is, product
(ii) Less space requirements for the changes require major changes in
same production volume. layout
(iii) Automatic materials handling (ii) Large capital investment.
possible. (iii) Dedicated or special purpose
(iv) Lesser work-in-process inventory. machines.
(v) Reduced product movement and (iv) Dependence of the whole activity
processing time. on each part. Breakdown of any one
machine in the sequence may result
(vi) Simple production planning and
in stoppage of production
control, better co-ordination.
(vii) Less skilled workers can serve the
purpose.

Functional (or Process) Layout

The functional layout is characterized by keeping similar machines operations atone location. i.e.,
all lathes at one place, all milling machines at another place Thus in process layout machines are arranged
according to their functions. Figure depicts a typical functional layout.
 Functional Layout
Suitability:
This type of layout is suitable for job order/non-repetitive type production.
Merits and demerits:
Table 5.8 Advantages and disadvantages of the functional layout.
Advantages Disadvantages
(i) Flexibility in assigning work to (i) Automatic material handling is
equipment and workers. extremely difficult.
(ii) Better equipment utilisation. (ii) Difficult production planning and
(iii) Comparatively less number of control.
equipment needed. (iii) More space is required.
(iv) Better product quality because of (iv) Large work-in-process inventory.
specialisation. (v) Higher grades of skill required.
(v) Variety of job makes the job (vi) Lower productivity due to number
challenging and interesting. of setups.

Group (or Combination) Layout

A group layout is a combination of the product layout and process layout. It combines the
advantages of both layout systems. In a group layout, machines are arrangedinto cells. Each cell is capable
of performing manufacturing operations on one or more families of part.
If there are m machines and n components, in a group layout, the m-machines andcomponents will
be divided into distinct number of machine-component cells (groups) such that all the components
assigned to a cell are almost processed within that cell itself.Here, the objective is to minimize the intercell
movements. Figure depicts a typicalgroup technology layout.
Suitability:
A group layout is preferred for batch type production, where the products aremade in small
batches and in large variety.
Merits and demerits:

Advantages Disadvantages
(i) Group technology layout can increase: (i) This type of layout may not be
(a) component standardization and feasible for all situations. If the
rationalisation product mix is completely
dissimilar, then we may not have
(b) reliability of estimates
meaningful cell formation.
(c) effective machine operation.
(ii) Comparatively high investment in
(d) productivity equipments is required.
(e) costing accuracy (iii) Higher grades of skill are
(f) customer service required.
(g) order potential (iv) Groupings of machines may lead
(ii) Group technology layout can reduce: to poor utilization of some
(a) planning effort machines in the group.
(b) paper work
(c) setting time
(d) down time
(e) work in process
(f) work movement
(g) overall production times
(h) finished part stock
(i) overall cost
 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
1. Benefits in product design: -
The main advantages of GT for product design come in cost and time savings, because design
engineers can quickly and easily search the database for parts that either presently exist or can be used
with slight modifications, rather than issuing new part numbers.
A similar cost savings can be realised in the elimination of two or more identical parts with
different part numbers. Another advantage is the standardisation of designs. Design features such as
corner radii, tolerances, chamfers, counterbores, and surface finishes can be standardized with GT.
2. Benefits in tooling and setups:
In the area of tooling, group jigs and fixtures are designed to accommodate everymember of a part
family. Also work holding devices are designed to use special adapters in such a way that this general
fixture can accept each part family member. Since setup times are very short between different parts in a
family, a group layout can also result indramatic reductions in setup times.
3. Benefits in materials handling:
GT facilitates a group layout of the shop. Since machines are arranged as cells, ina group layout,
the materials handling cost can be reduced by reducing travel and facilitating increased automation.
4. Benefits in production and inventory control:
GT simplifies production and planning control. The complexity of the problem has been reduced
from a large portion of the shop to smaller groups of machines. The production scheduling is simplified
to a small number of parts through the machines in that cell. In addition, reduced setup times and effective
materials handling result in shortermanufacturing lead times and smaller work-in-process inventories.
5. Benefits in process planning:
The concept of parts classification and coding leads to an automated process planning system.
Grouping parts allows an examination of the various planning/route sheets for all members of a particular
family. Once this has been accomplished, the samebasic plans can be applied to other members, thereby
optimizing the shop flow for the group.
6. Benefits to management and employees:
It is understood that GT simplifies the environment of the manufacturing firm, which provides
significant benefit to management.
(i) Simplification reduces the cumbersome paper work.
(ii) Simplification also improves the work environment.
(iii) In the GT work environment, the supervisor has in-depth knowledge of the work performed and
better control.
The GT environment provides greater job satisfaction because it leads to more employee
involvement in decision making, personalized work relationships, and variety in tasks. In the GT work
environment, the workers are able to realise their contributions to the cell more clearly. This realisation
leads to better performance, higher morale, and better work quality.
Economics of GT
Users' experience shows that the following savings of GT are common:
(1) 52% reduction in new part design
(2) 60% reduction in industrial engineering time
(3) 70% reduction in setup times
 (4) 70% reduction in production time
(5) 62% reduction in work-in-process inventory
(6) 10% reduction in new shop drawings
(7) 20% reduction in production floor space utilized
(8) 40% reduction in raw-material stocks
(9) 82% reduction in overdue orders.
Advantages of Group Technology
As discussed earlier, GT applications have many advantages. Table summarises important
advantages of implementing GT in a manufacturing industry.
Advantages of GT
GT facilitates (a) efficient retrieval of similar parts, (b) development of a
1 database containing effective product design data, and (c) avoidance of
design duplication.
2 GT encourages standardization of designs, tooling, fixturing, and setups.
GT facilitates (a) development of a computer-aided process planning
3 (CAPP) system, (b) retrieval of process plans for part families, and (c)
development of standard routings for part families.
4 Times and costs for material handling and waiting between stages are
reduced.
5 Production planning and control is simplified.
6 Setup time and setup cost for each job are reduced, because several jobs
are grouped and processed in sequence.
7 Machining cells can reduce work-in-process inventory, resulting in shorter
queues and shorter manufacturing throughput times.
8 Part and product quality are improved.
9 GT facilitates better employee involvement and increases workers
satisfaction.

Limitations of GT
(i) Implementing GT is expensive. Because large costs may be incurred inrearranging the plant
into machine cells or groups.
(ii) Installing a coding and classification system is very time-consuming.
(iii) As there is no common implementation approach, the implementation of GT isoften difficult.
 CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
Cellular manufacturing (CM) is an application of group technology in which dissimilar machines
have been aggregated into cells, each of which is dedicated to the production of a part family.
The primary advantage of CM implementation is that a large manufacturing system can be
decomposed into smaller subsystems of machines called cells. These cells are dedicated to process part
families based on similarities in manufacturingrequirements.
Parts having similar manufacturing requirements can be processed entirely in thatcell. In addition,
cells represent sociological units conducive to team work which lead to higher levels of motivation for
process improvements.
The potential benefits associated with the application of CM include improved market response,
more reliable delivery promises, reduced tooling and fixtures, and simplified scheduling.
Reasons for Establishing Manufacturing Cells (Benefits of Cellular Manufacturing)
The literature surveys confirm substantial benefits from implementing cellular manufacturing in
manufacturing industries. Table 5.11 lists the result of a survey conducted by Wemmerlov and Johnson,
on why firms decide to apply the cellular conceptto their organisational design.
Benefits of cellular manufacturing
Reasons for implementing manufacturing
Rank Average improvement
cells
1 Reduce manufacturing lead time 61
2 Reduce work-in-process 48
3 Improve part and/or product quality 28
4 Reduce response time for customer orders 50
5 Reduce more distances/more times 61
6 Increase manufacturing flexibility -
7 Reduce unit costs 16
8 Simplify production planning and control -
9 Facilitate employee involvement -
10 Reduce set-up times 44
11 Reduce finished goods inventory 39

Design Considerations Guiding the Cell Formation

We know that cell formation is the early activity in the cell design process wherepart families and
associated machine groups are identified. Cell formation is influenced by a variety of objectives and
concerns. Table ists the important design considerations that should be taken into account during cell
formation.
Table Design considerations guiding cell formation
Rank Design considerations
1 Parts/products to be fully completed in the cell
2 Higher operator utilization
3 Fewer operators than equipment
 4 Balanced equipment utilization in the cell
5 The number of part/product assigned to the cell
6 Unidirectional (linear) material flows
7 The number of cell operators
8 High utilization on expensive equipment
9 The number of workstations/machines in the cell
10 High equipment flexibility to ease new product introduction over time
11 High flexibility in selecting alternative routes through the cell

COMPOSITE PART CONCEPT

Mitrofanov and Edwards have proposed composite part approach to implement the concept of
cellular manufacturing.
A composite part is a hypothetical part which includes all of the design and manufacturing
attributes of a family. The composite is a single hypothetical part that can be completely processed in a
manufacturing cell.
Illustration:
Let us consider that there are four number of parts as shown in Figure 5.19 (a), allof whom have
similar machining operations to be done. Then it is possible to construct anew composite part as shown in
Figure that has all the features identified in the four parts from Figure 5.19 (a) (Source: A.K. Chitale and
R.C. Guptha).
Figure illustrates another typical composite part that encompasses all the operations required to
manufacture various parts of a part family. (Source: Astin and Strandridge).
It is possible to develop the optimized process plan for the composite part, whichcan be tailored
for the individual parts by removing the processes that are not present in the particular part.

Concept of composite part

 Composite GT PartUses of composite part
concept:
 The definition of composite parts simplifies the identification of groups,
 It provides a basis for the design of group tooling.
 It helps to develop the optimized process plan for the parts.
 Standard machine setups are often possible with little or no changeover requiredbetween parts
within the composite family.
 Fixtures can be designed for the composite part that are capable of supporting allthe parts of the
part family.
In a nutshell, the composite part concept is useful for the design of GT machine ells, since it
facilitates the identification of the manufacturing operations required and also their sequence.
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
In today's competitive global market, rapid response and production flexibility in manufacturing
are identified as very important order-winning criterion. Both of these criteria, necessary to maintain or
increase market share, are affected by the design of the production area. Group technology on the design
of production cells to handle a family of parts with common production characteristics. Also it is realised
that integrated production cells are critical elements of CIM. Realising the benefits of CIM and the
integrated enterprise in many product areas requires implementation of flexible manufacturing systems
(FMSs) on the shop floor.
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is nothing but a highly automate GT machine cell. A
FMS is an individual machine or group of machines served by an automated materials handling system
that is computer controlled and has a tool handlingcapability. FMS is the result of integrating CNC, DNC,
GT and automated materials handling systems into one system,
Now, we shall discuss the concept, components, types, application and benefits of FMS, in the
following sections.
Definition:
"A flexible manufacturing system is one manufacturing machine, or multiple machines that are
integrated by an automated material handling system, whose operation is managed by a computerized
control system. An FMS can be reconfigured by computercontrol to manufacture various products.”
According to Mikell P. Groover, a FMS may be defined as “a highly automated GT machine cell,
consisting of a group of processing workstations (usually CNC machine tools), interconnected by an
automated material handling and storage system, and controlled by a distributed computer system.”
A review of the above two definitions indicates some common elements of FMS,such as:
(i) NC, CNC, or smart production machine tools
(ii) Automatic material handling,
(iii) Central computer control, and
(iv) Data integration.

Schematic view of a flexible manufacturing system/cell

Volume Vs Variety in manufacture

 At the top of the production scale are dedicated machines, also transferred to transfer lines. The
transfer lines are capable of producing large volumes of parts at a high production rates but have low
flexibility.
At the other end of the scale are standard, conventional machines that are used for small-lot
production. But conventional machines in job shop production (such as NC and CNC machines) are
capable of producing large variety of parts, i.e., they have high flexibility.
FMS can bridge the gap existing between the high-production transfer line and the highly flexible
stand-alone NC machines. That means, FMS can produce medium volume of parts at medium production
rates, with medium flexibility. Thus FMS is mostsuited for the mid-variety, mid-volume production range.

FLEXIBILITY AND ITS TYPES

Definition:
Flexibility is an attribute that allows a manufacturing system to cope up with a certain level of
variations in part or product type, without having any interruption in production due to changeovers
between models.
Flexibility measures the ability to adopt 'to a wide range of possible environment'.
Tests of Flexibility
To be considered flexible, there are four reasonable tests that can be applied to themanufacturing
system to determine its level of flexibility.
The four tests of flexibility are:
1. Part variety test,
2. Schedule change test,
3. Error recovery test, and
4. New part test.
Types of flexibility tests
S.No. Test Description
Part variety It tests the ability of the system to process
1
test different part types in a non-batch mode.
It tests the ability of the system to readily accept
Schedule
2 changes in the production schedule, either in the
change test
product mix or the expected production volume.
It tests the ability of the system to recover
Error swiftly from equipment malfunctions and
3
recovery test breakdowns, so that production is not completely
disrupted.
It tests the ability of the system to introduce new
4 New part test part designed into the existing product mix with
relative ease.

A manufacturing system is considered flexible, if the system passes all these fourtests of flexibility.

Types of Flexibility
The different types of flexibility that are exhibited by manufacturing systems are:
1. Machine flexibility,
2. Production flexibility,
3. Mix (or process) flexibility,
4. Product flexibility,
5. Routing flexibility,
6. Volume (or capacity) flexibility, and
7. Expansion flexibility.
Types of flexibility
S. Flexibility Type Description
No.
Definition: Machine flexibility is the capability to adapt a
given machine in the system to a wide range of production
operations and part types.
The greater the range of operations and part types, the
greater will be the machine flexibility.
Machine Influencing factors: The various factors on which
1 machine flexibility depends are:
flexibility
(i) Setup or changeover time
(ii) Ease with which part-programs can be downloaded to
machines
(iii) Tool storage capacity of machines
(iv) Skill and versatility of workers in the systems.
Definition: Production flexibility is the range of part types
that can be produced by a manufacturing system.
The range of part types that can be produced by a
manufacturing system of moderate cost and time is
Production determined by the process envelope.
2
flexibility Influencing factors: The production flexibility depends
on the following factors:
(i) Machine flexibility of individual stations
(ii) Range of machine flexibilities of all stations in the
system.
 Definition: Mix flexibility, also known as process
flexibility, is the ability to change the product mix while
maintaining the same production quantity. i.e., producing
the same parts only in different proportions.
It provides protection against market variability by
3 accommodating changes in product mix due to the use of
Mix flexibility shared resources.
(or process) High mix variations may result in requirements for a
flexibility greater number of tools, fixtures and other resources.
Influencing factors: Process flexibility depends on
factors such as
(i) Similarity of parts in the mixt
(ii) Machine flexibility
(iii) Relative work content times of parts produced.
Definition: Product flexibility is the ability to change over
to a new set of products economically and quickly in
response to the changing market requirements.
Product The changeover time includes the time for designing,
4
flexibility planning, tooling, and fixturing of new products
introduced in the manufacturing line-up.
Influencing factors: Product flexibility depends on the
following factors:
(i) Relatedness of new part design with the existing part
family
(ii) Off-line part program preparation
(iii) Machine flexibility.
Definition: Routing flexibility is the capacity to produce
parts on alternative workstation in case of equipment
breakdowns, tool failure, and other interruptions at any
particular station.
It helps in increasing throughput, in the presence of
Routing external changes such as product mix, engineering
5 changes, or new product introductions.
flexibility
Influencing factors: Routing flexibility depends on the
following factors:
(i) Similarity of parts in the mix
(ii) Similarity of workstations
(iii) Common testing.
Definition: Volume flexibility, also known as capacity
flexibility, is the ability of the system to vary the
Volume (or production volumes of different products to accommodate
6 capacity) changes in demand while remaining profitable.
flexibility Influencing factors: The volume capacity depends on
(i) Level of manual labour performing production
(ii) Amount invested in capital equipment.
 Definition: Expansion flexibility is the ease with which
the system can be expanded to foster total production
volume.
Influencing factors: Expansion flexibility depends on the
Expansion following factors:
7
flexibility
(i) Cost incurred in adding new workstations and trained
workers
(ii) Easiness in expansion of layout
(iii) Type of part handling system used.

Comparison of Four Tests of Flexibility in a Manufacturing System Seven Types of

Flexibility types
Tests of flexibility Vs Types of flexibility
Flexibility Test or
S.No. Type of Flexibility
Criteria
Machine flexibility
1 Part variety test
Production flexibility
Mix (or process) flexibility
2 Schedule change test Volume (or capacity) flexibility
Expansion flexibility
3 Error recovery test Routing flexibility
4 New part test Product flexibility

TYPES OF FMS
Though there are various ways of FMS classification, the following three ways ofFMS
classification are widely recognized.
I. Classification based on the kinds of operations they perform:
1. Processing operation, and
2. Assembly operation.
II. Classification based on the number of machines in the system:
1. Single machine cell (SMC),
2. Flexible machine cell (FMC), and
3. Flexible manufacturing system (FMS).
III. Classification based on the level of flexibility associated with the system:
1. Dedicated FMS, and
2. Random-order FMS.
 Classification of FMS Based on the kinds of Operations They Perform
Flexible manufacturing system can be classified depending upon the kinds of operation they
perform as (1) processing operation, and (2) assembly operation.
1. Processing operation:
Processing operation transforms a work material from one state to another movingtowards the final
desired part or product. It adds value by changing the geometry, properties or appearance of the starting
materials.
2. Assembly operation:
Assembly operation involves joining of two or more components to create a new entity which is
called an assembly/subassembly. Permanent joining processes include welding, brazing, soldering,
adhesive banding, rivets , press fitting, and expansion fits.
Classification of FMS Based on the Number of Machines in the System
The FMS can be classified based on the number of machines in the system, as givenbelow.
1. Single Machine Cell (SMC):
Single machine cell (SMC) consists of a fully automated machine tool capable of unattended
operations for a time period longer than one machine cycle. Figure 5.23 illustrates a typical single
machine cell consisting of one machining centre serviced by apallet loading/unloading robot.

Single machine cell (SMC)

The single machine cell is capable of: (i) processing different part types, (ii) responding to
changes in production schedule, and (iii) accepting new part introductions. Thus the single machine cell
satisfies the three flexibility tests (except the error recovery test). In SMC, processing is sequential not
simultaneous.
2. Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC):
A flexible manufacturing cell (FMC) consists of two or three processing workstations (usually CNC
machining centres or turning centres), a load/unload station, and a part handling system.
The part handling system that is used in a FMC shall have a limited parts storage capacity. Figure
illustrates a typical flexible manufacturing cell with two machiningcentres, a pallet loading and unloading
robot, buffer stores, and a cell input/output station.
The FMC is capable of simultaneous production of different parts. It may be noted the FMC satisfies
all the four tests of flexibility.
 A flexible manufacturing cell (FMC)
3. Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS):
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) consists of four or more processing workstations (typically
CNC machining centres or turning centres) connected mechanically by a common part handling system
and controlled automatically by a distributed computer system.
FMC Vs. FMS:
FMC Vs FMS
S.No. Criteria FMC FMS
Number of
1 Two or three machines Four or more machines
machines used
FMS includes non-
processing workstations
FMC does not include any
Non-processing (such as part cleaning,
2 non-processing
workstations deburring stations,
workstations
coordinate measuring
machines, and so on)
The computer control system
The computer control
of FMS is larger and more
Computer system of FMC is simpler
sophisticated than that of a
3 control and no more sophisticated
FMC. Also additional
system and additional functions
functions are included in
are not included.
FMS.

Features of the three categories of flexible cells and systems

 Types of FMS Vs. Types of tests of flexibility
System
type
Flexible Flexible
Single Machine
Types of Manufacturing Manufacturing
Cell (SMC)
Cell (FMC) System (FMS)
flexibility
Test
Yes, but not
simultaneous Yes, simultaneous Yes, simultaneous
Part variety test production of production of production of
different part different part types different part types
types
Schedule change
Yes Yes Yes
test
No. If single
Error recovery machine breaks
Yes Yes
test down, production
stops
New part test Yes Yes Yes

Classification of FMS Based on Level of Flexibility

Two types of FMS based on the level of flexibility associated with the system are:
1. Dedicated FMS, and
2. Random-order FMS.
1. Dedicated FMS:
A dedicated FMS is designed to produce a limited variety of part configurations.
In this, the part family is generally based on product commonality (such as identical machine
sequence and processing steps) rather than geometric similarity. Since the machine sequence is usually
identical, this flow fine configuration (i.e., a transfer line) ismore appropriate for this dedicated FMS. Due
to this reason, the dedicated FMS is also referred as 'flexible transfer line', and 'special manufacturing
system'. Thus, the rather than dedicated FMS usually consists of special purpose machines general-
purpose machines.
2. Random-Order FMS:
A random-order FMS is preferred when:
(i) the part family is large,
(ii) there are considerable variations in part configuration,
(iii) there will be new part designs produced on the system and engineering changesin parts currently
made on the system, and
(iv) the production schedule is subject to change from day-to-day. Obviously, the
random-order FMS is more flexible than the dedicated FMS.
Unlike in dedicated FMS, the random-order FMS is equipped with general- purpose machines so
as to meet the product variations. Also, this FMS type requires a more sophisticated computer control
system. The random order FMS is so named becauseit is capable of processing parts in various sequences
(i.e., in random-order).
Figure 5.26 compares the features of these two types.

Dedicated FMS Vs Random-order FMS

Summary:
Table presents the comparison of dedicated FMS and random-order FMS interms of the four tests
of flexibility.
System
type
Types of Dedicated FMS Random – order FMS
flexibility
Test
Part variety test Limited Yes
Schedule change test Limited Yes
Error recovery test Limited Yes
New part test No Yes

COMPONENTS/ELEMENTS OF FMS
The four basic components/elements of a FMS are:
1. Workstations,
2. Material handling and storage system,
3. Computer control system, and
4. Human resources.
Now, we shall discuss these four components, in detail, in the following sections.

FMS WORKSTATIONS
The workstations/processing stations used in FMS depend upon the type of product manufactured by
the system. In metal cutting/machining systems, the principle processingstations are usually CNC machine
tools. In addition, a FMS requires other several machines for completing the manufacturing.
The types of workstations that are usually found in a FMS are:
 1. Load/unload stations,
2. Machining stations,
3. Assembly workstations,
4. Inspection stations, and
5. Other processing stations.
1. Load/Unload stations:
The load/unload station is the physical interface between the FMS and the factory. At loading stations,
raw work parts enter the system. At unloading stations, finished parts exit the system. Both loading and
unloading can be accomplished either manually or by automated handling systems. The load/unload
station should include a data entry unit and monitor for communication between the worker and the
computer system. Also the load/unload station should be designed ergonomically to permit convenient
and safe movement of work parts.
2. Machining Stations/Centres:
A machining centre is a multipurpose CNC machine tool that has an automatic tool changing
capability. Predominantly CNC machine tools are used as FMS machining centres.
CNC machining centres possess the features such as
(i) automatic tool changing, and tool storage,
(ii) use of palletized work parts,
(iii) use of CNC, and
(iv) capacity for distributed numerical control (DNC).
The above features of CNC machining centre make it very compatible with the FMS approach to
production. That's why CNC machining centres are widely used in FMS.
Turning modules:
(i) For machining rotational parts, turning centres are used.
(ii) For turning operations, special turning modules (in which the single-point tool rotates around the
work) can be designed for the FMS.
(iii) The special turning modules are required in FMS because many of the workpartsin FMS are held
in a pallet fixture throughout processing, and hence these workparts cannot be rotated like in
conventional turning.
Milling modules:
(i) Special milling machine modules are used for milling in FMS for achieving higherproduction levels.
(ii) Various types of milling modules such as vertical spindle, horizontal spindle, andmultiple spindle
can be employed depending upon the work requirement.
Head changers:
(i) For specialised machining applications involving multiple tool cuts on the workpart, head
changers can be used as processing stations in an FMS.
(ii) A head changer is a special machine tool with the capability to change tool heads.The tool heads,
usually multiple-spindle tool modules, tool heads. The tool heads, usually multiple-spindle tool
modules, are used to perform more than one machining operations simultaneously.
Head indexers:
(i) Head indexers are mounted semi permanently to an indexing mechanism on the machine tool.
 (ii) Unlike head changers, head indexers can be rotated into position to perform the simultaneous
machining operations on the part.
3. Assembly workstations:
(i) Assembly operations are also performed by some FMSs. In such FMSs, flexible automated
assembly workstations are developed to replace manual labour in the assembly of products.
(ii) Flexible automated assembly workstations are used in FMS for products made inbatches. For this
purpose, industrial robots are considered as the most appropriateautomated assembly workstations.
4. Inspection stations:
(i) Obviously FMSs include inspection operations. The inspection operations can be done either at
machining workstations itself, or at specific inspection stations.
(ii) In FMS, the following three inspection methods/equipment are used:
1. Coordinate measuring machines (CMM),
2. Special inspection probes, and
3. Machine vision.
A Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) consists of a contact probe and a means of
positioning the probe in three-dimensional space relative to the surfaces andfeatures of a workpart.
Inspection probes are contact inspection methods that use tactile probes as inspection systems for
machine tool applications. These probes are mounted in holders, inserted into the machine tool spindle,
stored in the tool drum, and handled bythe automatic tool changer.
Machine vision is the acquisition of image data, followed by the processing andinterpretation of
this data by computer for industrial inspection.
5. Other Processing Stations:
In addition to machining centres, a FMS often has sheet metal processingmachines and forging
stations.
(i) Sheet metal processing workstations consists of press working operations such aspunching,
shearing, bending and forming processes.
(ii) The forging processing stations consists of the heating furnace, the forging press,and a trimming
station.
In addition to the above workstations, FMS also include other workstations to accomplishgeneral other
operations and functions. The other stations include:
(i) stations for cleaning part and/or pallet fixtures,
(ii) central coolant delivery systems for the entire FMS, and
(iii) centralised chip removal systems.

MATERIAL HANDLING AND STORAGE SYSTEM

Material handling and storage system is the second main component of an FMS. Generally,
requirements set against the FMS material handling and storage system include part transportation,
raw material and final product transportation, and storage of workpieces, empty pallets, auxiliary
materials, wastes, fixtures and tools.
Now we shall discuss this second component of FMS under the following three headings:
1. Functions of the material handling system,
2. Types of FMS layout, and
 3. Types of handling equipment used in FMS.
Functions of the Material handling System
Material handling may be defined as the functions and systems associated with the transportation,
storage, and physical control to work-in-process material in manufacturing. The general purpose of
material handling in a factory is to move raw materials, work-in process, finished parts, tools, and supplies
from one location to another to facilitate the overall operations of manufacturing. However, from FMS
point of view,the material handling and storage system should perform the five functions given below.
(i) Random, independent movement of workparts between stations:
This means that the material handling system should be capable of moving workparts from one
workstation to any other station. This provides various routing alternatives for the different parts.
(ii) Handle a variety of workpart configurations:
The material handling system should be capable of handling any workpart configurations.
(prismatic or rotational parts).
(iii) Temporary storage:
The material handling should be capable of storing the workparts temporarily, so as to wait in a
small queue at workstations. This helps to increase machine utilisation.
(iv) Convenient access for loading and unloading
The material handling system should provide a means to load and unload parts from the FMS.
This can be achieved by locating one or more loading and/or unloading stations in the system.
(v) Compatible with computer control:
Last but not the least, the material handling system should be capable of being controlled by the
computer to direct it to the various workstations, load/unload stations, and storage areas.
FMS Layout Configurations
The material handling system establishes the FMS layout. The types of layoutconfigurations
commonly found in today's FMSs are:
1. In-line layout,
2. Loop layout,
3. Ladder layout,
4. Open-field layout, and
5. Robot-centered cell.
1. In-line Layout:
As the name suggests, the materials and handling systems are arranged in a straight line in the in-line
layout The two possible in-line configurations presented by Groover, are depicted in Figure.
Figure shows the basic in-line configuration with one direction work flow. This configuration is very
much similar to a transfer line, in which the parts move from one workstation to another in a well-defined
sequence with no backflow.
Figure shows the in-line configuration with workflow in two directions. In this, linear transfer system
with secondary part handling system at each workstation facilitates the workflow in two directions. Thus
this configuration provides greaterrouting flexibility.
 In-line FMS Layouts
2. Loop Layout:
In the loop layout, the workstations are arranged in a loop, as shown in Figure.
In this, workparts usually move from one workstation to another in the loop, with thecapability to stop
at any station. As shown in Figure, the secondary handling system at each workstation allows the
workparts to move around the loop without any obstruction. Also, this configuration has manual
loading and unloading station at one endof the loop.

FMS loop layout

3. Ladder Layout:
The ladder layout, an adaptation of the loop layout, consists of a whichworkstations are located.
 FMS ladder layout
A typical ladder FMS configuration is shown in Figure 5.29. The rungs in ladderlayout increases
routing flexibility other advantages of this configuration are:
(i) Reduced average travel distance,
(ii) Minimised congestion in the handling system, and
(iii) Reduced transport time between workstations.
4. Open-Field Layout:
The open field layout, also an adaptation of the loop configuration, consists of multiple loops,
ladders, and slidings organized to achieve the desired processing requirements.
Figure 5.30 illustrates a typical open-field layout as outlined by Groover. This open-field
configuration is generally preferred for processing a large family of parts. In this, the number of different
workstation types is usually limited. Also parts can be routedto different workstations depending on which
one becomes available first.
Figure 5.30 Open field FMS layout
5. Robot-Centered Cell:
In the robot-centered cell, one or more robots are used as the material handling system. A typical
robot-centered cell layout is illustrated in Figure 5.31. In this layout, the work is organised so that
workparts are presented to the robots by the transport system,and each robot performs some processing or
assembly operation on each part.
 Robot centered workcell layout
Now-a-days industrial robots are designed with special grippers that make them well suited for the
handling of rotational parts. In fact, robot-centered FMS layouts are often used to process cylindrical or
disk-shaped parts.
Material Handling Equipment
The material handling function in a FMS is shared between two systems: a
1. Primary handling system, and
2. Secondary handling system.
1. Primary Handling System;
The primary handling system establishes the basic layout of the FMS and is responsible for moving
workparts between workstations in the system.
Table 5.19 summarizes the type of material handling equipment typically used as theprimary handling
system for the five FMS layouts.
Types of material handling systems for different FMS layout
S.No. Layout configuration Typical material handling system
(i) Conveyor system
1 In-line layout (ii) Shuttle system
(iii) Rail guided vehicle system.
(i) Conveyor system
2 Loop layout
(ii) In-floor towline carts.
(i) Conveyor system
3 Ladder layout (ii) Rail guided vehicle system
(iii) Automated guided vehicle system.
(i) In-floor towline carts
4 Open-field layout
(ii) Automated guided vehicle system
5 Robot-centered layout Industrial robot
2. Secondary Handling System:
The secondary handling system consists of transfer devices, automatic pallet changers, and similar
mechanisms located at the workstations in the FMS. The functionsof the secondary handling systems are:
(i) To transfer workparts from the primary system to the machine tool or otherprocessing
station
(ii) To position the workparts with sufficient accuracy and repeatability at theworkstation for
 processing;
(iii) To provide buffer storage of workparts at each workstation, if required; and
(iv) To reorient the workparts, if necessary, to present the surface that is to beprocessed.
Types of Material Handling Equipment
The material handling equipment commonly used to move parts between stations canbe grouped under
five categories, as listed below:
1. Conveyors,
2. Cranes and hoists,
3. Industrial trucks,
4. Monorails and other rail guided vehicles,
5. Automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and
6. Industrial robots.
1. Conveyors:
Conveyors primarily perform the movement of uniform loads between fixedpoints.
Conveyors are useful when:
(i) Loads are uniform.
(ii) Materials move continuously.
(iii) Routes do not vary.
(iv) Movement rate is relatively fixed.
(v) Movement is from one point to another point.
Types of conveyors commercially available are:
1. Belt conveyors,
2. Roller conveyors,
3. Skate wheel conveyors,
4. Chain conveyors,
5. Slat conveyors,
6. In-floor towline conveyors,
7. Overhead trolley conveyors,
8. Car-on-track conveyors,
9. Screw conveyors,
10. Other conveyor types such as chutes, ramps, and tubes.
2. Cranes and Hoists:
Cranes are overhead devices capable of moving materials vertically and laterallyin area of limited
length and width and height. Cranes are employed for lifting and lowering heavy objects and moving
them from one point to another.
Types of cranes commonly found in factories are:
1. Overhead traveling cranes,
2. Jib cranes, and
3. Gantry cranes.
 Hoists are used for loading and unloading of heavy objects and they are also usedfor raising and
lowering heavy and long objects.
Types of hoists are:
1. Chain hoists,
2. Pneumatic hoists, and
3. Electric hoists.
The cranes and hoists are most commonly used when:
(i) Movement is within fixed area.
(ii) Moves are intermittent.
(iii) Loads vary in size and weight.
(iv) Loads handled are not uniform.
3. Industrial Trucks:
Hand or powered vehicles are used for movement of mixed or uniform loads intermittently
over varying paths which have suitable running surfaces and clearances andwhere the primary function is
transporting.
Types of industrial trucks commonly used in a factory are:
1. Forklift truck,
2. Platform truck, and
3. Tractor truck.
Industrial trucks are generally used when:
(i) Materials are moved intermittently,
(ii) Movement is through changing routes and distances.
(iii) Loads are uniform, mixed in size and weight.
(iv) Materials can be put into unit load.
4. Monorails and other Rail Guided Vehicles:
Rail guided equipment consists of motorized vehicles that are guided by a fixed railsystem. The rail
system may have cither one rail (called a monorail) or two parallel rails. Monorails that are used in
factories and warehouses are usually suspended overhead fromthe ceiling.
In rail guided vehicle system using fixed rails, the tracks generally protrude up fromthe floor. Routing
variations can be done in rail guided vehicle systems through the use of switches, turntables, and other
specialised track systems.
Rail guided vehicles are generally used:
(i) For moving single assemblies, products, or pallet loads along variable routes infactory or
warehouse.
(ii) For moving large quantities of items over fixed routes in a factory or warehouse.
5. Automated Guided Vehicle Systems:
Automated guided vehicles (AGVs) are modern material-handling and conveyingsystems that are
more appropriate for FMS applications and automation.
An AGV is a computer controlled, driverless vehicle used for transporting materialsfrom point-to-
point in a manufacturing setting.
AGVs are powered by means of on-board batteries that allow operation for severalhours between
recharging.
The various types of AGVs are:
1. Driverless trains,
2. AGVs pallet trucks, and
3. AGVs unit load carriers.AGVs are
generally used:
(i) For moving pallet loads in factory or warehouse.
(ii) For moving work-in-process along variable routes in low and medium production.
6. Industrial Robots:
A robot is basically an automated arm that can be programmed to carry out certain tasks of material
handling within its geometric and power constraints.
According to the Robotic Institute of America (RIA), a robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specializeddevices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
The ‘reprogrammable' feature offers the robot flexibility, making it a CIM-conducivematerial handling
device.
To accomplish the material handling function, the robots are equipped with a grippertype end effector.
Also the grippers are designed to handle the specific parts that are to bemoved in the application.
In material transfer applications, the robot picks up parts at one location and places them at a new
location.
(i) In palletizing function, the robot retrieves parts, cartons, or other objects from one location and
deposits them onto a pallet or other container with multiple positions.
(ii) In depalletizing function, the robot removes parts from an ordered arrangement in a pallet and
places them at one location.
(iii) In stacking operations, the robot places flat parts on top of each other.
(iv) In insertion operations, the robot inserts parts into the compartments of a dividedcarton.
In machine loading and/or unloading applications, the robot transfers parts intoand/or from a
production machine.

COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEM

The third major component of FMS is the computer control system. In flexible manufacturing
systems, computers are required to control the automated and semi- automated equipment and to
participate in the overall coordination and management of the manufacturing system.
A typical FMS computer control system consists of a central computer and microcomputers
controlling the individual machines and other components. The central computer coordinates the
activities of the components to achieve smooth overall operation of the system.
 Functions of a FMS Computer Control System
The functions that are performed by the FMS computer control system are listed below.
1. Workstation processing station control:
Computer control system controls the operations of the individual processing or assembly stations in
the factory. For controlling the machining centres, CNC is used
2. Distribution of control instructions to workstations:
A direct numerical control (DNC) is used in a machining FMS to download the partprograms to the
machines. The DNC computer control system also stores the programs, allows entering and editing of
programs, and performs the other DNC functions.
3. Production control:
Computer control system, based on data entered into the computer, helps to take decisions on part
mix and rate of input of the various parts onto the system. As a part of the production control, computer
control system communicates instructions to the operators for performing different tasks on different
work units. Also certain production scheduling functions are accomplished at the manufacturing site by
the computer controlsystem.
4. Material handling system control:
Computer control system controls the material handling system and coordinates its activities with
those of the workstations. It has two components.
(i) Traffic control:
This control function is concerned with the management of the primary material handling system that
moves workparts between workstations.
(ii) Shuttle control:
This control function refers to the operation and control of the secondary handling system at each
workstation.
5. Workpiece monitoring:
The computer control system also monitors (i) the status of each cart and/or pallet inthe primary and
secondary handling systems, and (ii) the status of each of the various workpiece types.
6. Tool control:
The FMS computer system should monitor and control the status of the cutting tools.
Tool control is concerned with (i) tool location, and (ii) tool-life monitoring.
(i) Tool location:
The FMS control system should keep track of the cutting tools at each workstation and take
necessary steps to provide the required cutting tools.
ü) Tool-life monitoring:
Based on the tool life database for each cutting tool, and the record of the machining time usage,
FMS computer system should be able to notify the toolreplacement time to the operators.
7. Quality control:
This function of computer control system is to detect and possibly reject defective work units
produced by the system.
8. Failure diagnosis:
This function of computer control system involves diagnosing equipment malfunction, preparing
preventive maintenance schedules, and maintaining spare parts inventory.
9. Safety monitoring:
This function of computer control system is to protect both human workers in operating the system
and the equipment comprising the system.
10. Performance monitoring and reporting:
The FMS computer system can be programmed to generate various reports requiredby management
on system performance. These reports help the management to monitor the system performance and take
the corrective measures/control actions required.
Structure of FMS Application Software Systems
Figure 5.32 illustrates the modular structure of the FMS application software for system control,
presented by Mikell P. Groover.
FMS Data Files
From functions of a FMS control system, it is clear that the FMS computer control system relies on
various data that are stored in computer files. The lists of different typesof data files required for a FMS
shown below.

Structure of FMS application software system

Types of FMS data files:
1. Part program file:
This file maintains the part program for each workpart processed on the system.
2. Routing file:
This file contains (i) the list of workstations through which each workpart hasprocessed, and (ii)
alternate routings for the parts.
3. Part production file:
This file maintains various production parameters for each workpart.
4. Pallet reference file:
 This file maintains a record of the parts that each pallet can accept.
5. Station tool file:
This file contains the codes of the cutting tools stored at cach workstation.
6. Tool life file:
This file contains the tool-life value for each cutting tool in the system.
FMS Performance Reports
Table 5.20 presents some of the important reports that indicate FMS performance.
FMS performance reports

S.No. Type of report Purpose

To summarize the uptime proportion of the
1 Availability reports
workstations
(i) To summarize the utilization of individual
workstations
2 Utilization reports
(ii) To analyze the average utilization of the FMS for
specified periods
(i) To summarize data on daily and/or weekly
Production quantities of difficult parts produced by the FMS
3
performance reports (ii) To compare the actual quantities against the
production schedule
To provide an instantaneous 'snapshot' of the present
4 Status reports
condition of the FMS
To provide information on various aspects of tool
5 Tool reports control such as tool lists, estimated tool life, actual use
of tools, etc.

HUMAN RESOURCES
The fourth and final component in the FMS is human labour. Like in any other manufacturing
approaches, the operations of the FMS are also managed by human labours.
In FMS, human labours are needed to perform the following functions:
1. To load raw workparts into the system.
2. To unload finished workparts from the system.
3. For tool changing and tool setting.
4. For equipment maintenance and repair.
5. To furnish NC part programming in a machining system.
6. To program and operate the computer system.
7. To accomplish overall management of the system.

EXAMPLE OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

For better understanding of the whole FMS and its various components, a FMS installed at
Vought Aerospace in Dallas, Texas, by Cincinnati Milacron is illustrated in Figure.
The FMS shown in Figure is designed to produce a family of machined metal parts that can be
manufactured with three-axis vertical machining centers. Five machiningcenters are required to meet the
production demands (number 1 in the Figure). Raw material for the parts is delivered to the automatic
work changers (number 5 in the Figure) and is loaded onto pallets or fixtures that will hold the material
for one or more milling operations. Frequently, a partially finished part will be removed from one fixture
and placed on another in a different orientation for additional machining. The pallets or fixtures are
delivered to the correct machining center cell by the computer-controlled cartor automatic guided vehicle
(AGV).
The material handling AGVs are also used to deliver tools from the setup and calibration area (9
in the Figure) to the tool interchange stations. From the tool interchange stations, tools are changed
automatically on the machining centers to match the requirements of the parts to be produced. Finished
parts still mounted to the pallets are delivered by the AGV system to the parts washing station(8 in the
Figure) prior to inspection and shipping. To track the quality of finished parts, the AGV delivers
machined parts to the coordinate measuring machine (7 in the Figure) for the automatic inspection or to
the manual inspection stations (6 in the Figure).
A centralised chip and coolant recovery system collects metal removed in machining and filters
the cutting fluid used in these cells. The cells in the FMS are area computer control from a central
computer (10 in the Figure).

Example of flexible manufacturing system

FMS Applications
The applications of FMS are realised in the following areas:
1. Machining,
2. Assembly,
3. Sheet-metal press working,
4. Forging,
5. Plastic injection moulding,
6. Welding,
 7. Textile machinery manufacture, and
8. Semiconductor component manufacture.
Economics of FMS
The following savings of using FMS are typical:
1. 5-20% reduction in personnel,
2. 15-30% reduction in engineering design cost,
3. 30–60% reduction in overall lead time,
4. 30-60% reduction in work-in-process,
5. 40–70% gain in overall production,
6. 200–300% gain in capital equipment operating time,
7. 200-500% gain in product quality, and
8. 300–500% gain in engineering productivity.
Advantages of FMS (Benefits of FMS)
Successfully implemented FMS offer several advantages. Some of them are given below:
1. Increased machine utilization:
Due to several features of FMS (such as automatic tool/pallet changing, dynamic scheduling of
production, and so on), FMS achieves a higher average utilization of machines.
2. Reduced inventory:
Following the GT concept, FMS processes different parts together. This tends to reduce the work-in-
process inventory significantly.
3. Reduced manufacturing lead time:
Because of reduced setups and more efficient materials handling, manufacturing leadtimes are reduced.
4. Greater flexibility in production scheduling:
A FMS has a greater responsiveness to change. It means, FMS has the capability to make adjustments
in the production schedule on day-to-day basis to respond to immediate orders and special customer
requests.
5. Reduced direct labour cost:
Reduced (manual) material handling, and automation control of machines make it possible to operate
an FMS with less direct labour in many instances. Thus the direct labour cost is reduced considerably.
6. Increased labour productivity:
Due to higher production rates and reduced direct labour cost, FMS achieves greaterproductivity per
labour hour.
7. Shorter response time:
Setup time is relatively low with FMS as majority of the work is done automatically.
The lead time of production is hence very low and the response time will be shorter.
8. Consistent quality:
Human error is minimised, as there is maximum automation. In the absence of human interface, the
quality is consistent.
9. Other FMS benefits include:
(i) Reduced factory floor space,
 (ii) Reduced number of tools and machines required,
(iii) Improved product quality, and
(iv) Easy expandability for additional processes or added capacity.
Disadvantages of FMS
The major limitations of implementing a FMS are given below:
1. Very high capital investment is required to implement a FMS.
2. Acquiring, training, and maintaining the knowledgeable labour pool requiresheavy investment.
3. Fixtures can sometimes cost much more with FMS, and software developmentcosts could be as
much as 12-20% of the total expense.
4. Tool performance and condition monitoring can also be expensive since toolvariety could
undermine efficiency.
5. Complex design estimating methodology requires optimizing the degree offlexibility and finding
a trade-off between flexibility and specialization.

FMS PLANNING AND CONTROL (FMS PLANNING ANDIMPLEMENTATION

ISSUES)
The concept of FMS planning and control is presented under two headings:
1. FMS planning and design issues, and
2. FMS control (or operational) issues.
FMS Planning and Design Issues
A. FMS Planning issues:
The major issues of planning in the creation of FMS include:
1. Part family considerations,
2. Processing requirements,
3. Physical characteristics of the workparts, and
4. Production volume.
Table outlines the major planning issues that are to be considered during the initialphase of FMS
planning.
Planning issues of FMS

S.NO ISSUE DESCRIPTION

(i). Choice has to be made regarding group
technology, and the part family to be produced
on the FMS.
1. Part family (ii). A composite part, consisting of all possible
considerations physical attributes of the parts that can be
processed in the FMS, has to be created. This
composite part concept makes the FMS more
flexible.
 (i) Once the entire range of possible parts to be
processed are known, this information must be
Processing used to help choose associated processing
2. requirements requirements for each part.
(ii) The type of equipment that should be used to
process the parts can be selected accordingly.
Physical (i) Size and weight of workparts determine size
characteristics of the of the machines required to process the parts.
3.
work parts (ii) It also determines the size of the material
handling system needed
(i) Production quantities must be determined, as
these tell us how many machines of each type
will be required.
4. Production volume
(ii) Also production volume influence the
selection of appropriate material handling system
to be employed.

B. FMS Design issues:

Once planning issues have been finalized, then a number of design issues have to beconsidered.
Major issues of design for the creation of FMS include:
(i) Types of workstations,
(ii) Variations in process routings and FMS layout,
(iii) Material handling system,
(iv) Work-in-process and storage capacity,
(v) Tooling, and
(vi) Pallet fixtures.

Design issues of FMS

S.NO. ISSUE DESCRIPTION
(i) Workstation choices have to be made, depending
Types of on part processing requirements.
1
workstations, (ii) Also position and use of load and unload stations
should be considered.
(i) If part processing variations are minimal, an inline
layout can be used,
Variations in process
(ii) If part processing variations are high, a loop
2 routings and FMS
layout can be used.
layout
(iii) If part processing variations are much higher,
then an open field layout can be used
 Material handling Primary and secondary material handling system
3
system, must be selected to suit the layout chosen.
(i) Determining an appropriate level of work-
inprocess allowed is important, as it affects the level
Work-in-process and of utilization and efficiency of the FMS.
4
storage capacity
(ii) Storage capacity must be compatible with the
level of work-in-process chosen.
(i) The number and type of tools required at each
workstation should be determined.
5 Tooling
(ii) Also the degree of duplication of tooling at
different stations should be considered.
(i) For non-rotational parts, selection of a few types
of pallet fixtures is important.
Pallet fixtures.
6 (ii) Factors that influence the decision include: levels
of work-in-process chosen, and differences in part
style and size.

FMS Operational Issues

Following FMS installation, there are a number of operational problems that must bemonitored on a
regular basis.
FMS operational problems include issues of:
(i) Scheduling and dispatching,
(ii) Machine loading,
(iii) Part routing,
(iv) Part grouping,
(v) Tool managentent, and
(vi) Pallet and fixture allocation.
Table outlines the major operational issues that are to be monitored regularly.
Operational issues of FMS
S.NO. ISSUE DESCRIPTION
(i) Scheduling must be considered for the FMS, based
Scheduling and upon the Master Production Schedule.
1
dispatching (ii) Dispatching is concerning with launching theparts
into the system at the appropriate times.
Machine loading is concerned with allocation of specific
parts to specific machines in the system, based upon
2 Machine loading
their tooling resources and routing considerations of the
FMS.
(i) Routing decisions involve the choice of a routethat
should be followed by a part in the system.
3 Part routing
(ii) Consideration should be given to other parts
travelling in the system, traffic management, etc.
 Part types must be grouped for simultaneous production,
4 Part grouping given limitations on available tooling andother resources
at workstations.
Tool management Tool management involves the
decision making on when best to change tools, how long
5 Tool managentent each tool can last before requiring maintenance,and how
to allocate tooling to workstations in the system.

(i) Pallet and fixture allocation is concerned with

6 allocation of specific pallets and fixtures to certain parts
Pallet and fixture to be launched into the system.
allocation (ii) Different parts require different pallet fixtures, and
before a given part style can be launched into thesystem,
a fixture for that part must be made available.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBLEMANUFACTURING SYSTEM

Flexible manufacturing system can be analysed using different models. The fourdifferent
categories of FMS analysis models are:
1. Deterministic models,
2. Queuing models,
3. Discrete event simulation, and
4. Other techniques.

BOTTLENECK MODEL
The bottleneck model is a simple and intuitive approach to determine the startingestimates of FMS
design parameters such as production rate, capacity, and utilization.
The term bottleneck refers to the fact that the output of the production system hasan upper limit,
given that the product mix flowing through the FMS is fixed.
Terminology and Symbols
In the bottleneck model, the following terminology and symbols are used.
(i) Part mix:
The part mix or the mix of the various parts or product types produced by the FMSis defined as
∑ = j =1
1
Where
Pj =The fraction of the total system output that is of type j; andР = The total
number different part types made in the FMS.
(ii) Workstations and servers:
In the bottleneck model, there are number of different workstations and eachworkstation may have more
than one server.
 Let

N = Number of different workstations,

Si = Number of servers at workstation i, where i = 1, 2,......., n.

(i) Process routing:

In bottleneck modelling, process routing defines the sequence of operations, theworkstations
where operations are performed, and associated process times.
Let
tijk = Processing (or operation) time of kth operation of jth part at ith workstation , i = Workstation
number, where i = 1, 2, n
j = Part or product number
k = Sequence of operations in the process routingfor example,
t3B2 = 6 min means the processing time of 2nd operation of part type B at the 3rd workstation is 6
minutes.
(ii) Work handling system:
For work handling, the material handling system is considered as special-case workstation in the
bottleneck model. It is designated as n+1, with the number of carriersin the system (i.e., conveyor, AGV,
robot, etc.,) is considered as equivalent to the numberof servers in a workstation.
Let
n = Number of workstation in the system
Sn+1 = Number of carriers in the FMS handling system
tn+1 = Mean transport time required to move a part from one workstation to the nextstation in process
routing
(iii) Operation frequency:
The operation frequency is the expected number of times a given operation in theprocess routing is
performed for each work unit.
Let
Fijk = Operation frequency for kth operation of jth part at įth workstation.

FMS Operational Parameters

Using the terms defined above, the FMS operational parameters of the bottleneckmodel can be
represented as below.
1. Average workload:
Average workload for a given workstation is defined as the mean total time spent atthe station per
part.
Formula:

Where, WLi = Average workload for station i (min)

tijk = Processing time for kth operation of jth part at ith workstation (min) fijk = Operation
 frequency for kth operation of jth part at ith workstation, andPj = Part mix fraction for part j.
2. Workload of the handling system:
The work handling system is a special case and is treated as an extra station. Theaverage number
of transports (nt) is given by Thus, the workload of the handling system is given byWLn+1 = nt.tn+1
Where,

WLn+1 = Workload of the handling system (min)

nt = Average number of transports, and
tn+1 = Mean transport time per move (min)

1. Maximum production rate (�∗ ):

The maximum production rate is nothing but the capacity of the bottleneck station.
Thus the maximum production rate is given by
�∗
�∗ =
��∗
Where,
�∗ = Maximum production rate of all part types produced by the system
(pc/min),
S* = Number of servers at the bottleneck station, andWL* = Workload
at the bottleneck station (min/pc)
2. Individual part production rate (R*pj)
R*pj = pj. R*p
Where,
R*pj = Maximum production rate of part type j (pc/min), and
pj = Part mix fraction for part type j.
3. Utilization of each workstation:
The mean utilization of each workstation is the proportion of time that the servers atthe station are
working (and not idle).
Formula:
The utilization of each workstation is given by

= �∗ × 100

Where,
Ui = Utilization of workstation i (percentage)WLi =
Workload of workstation i (min/pc)
Si = Number of servers at workstation i, and
�∗ = Overall production rate (pc/min)
4. Average station utilization:
Based on the above, the average workstation utilization is given by

Where, = An unweighted average of the workstation utilizations

5. Overall FMS utilization:
The overall FMS utilization is calculated as
Where,

= Overall FMS utilization

Si = Number of servers at workstation i, and

Ui = Utilization of workstation I

6. Number of busy servers at each station:

Finally, the number of busy servers at each station is given asBSi = WLi R*p
Where, BSi = Number of busy servers on average at workstation i
 Problems on System Performance Measures
A flexible manufacturing cell consists of a load/unload station and two machining workstations.
The load/unload station is station 1. Station 2 performs milling operations and consists of one server (one
CNC milling machine). Station 3 has one server that performs drilling (one CNC drill press).
The three stations are connected by a part handling system that has one work carrier. The mean
transport time is 4 min. The FMC produces three parts A, B and C. The part mix fractions and process
routings for the three parts are presented in table. The operation frequency fijk=1.0 for all operations.
Determine (a) Maximum production rate of the FMC, (b) Corresponding production rates of each product,
(c) Utilization of each machine in the system, and (d) Number of busy servers at each station.
Process time,
Part, i Part mix, pi Operation, k Description Station, i
tijk (min)
1 Load 1 3
2 Mill 2 20
A 0.4
3 Drill 3 12
4 Unload 1 2
1 Load 1 3
2 Mill 2 15
B 0.4
3 Drill 3 30
4 Unload 1 2
1 Load 1 3
2 Drill 3 14
C 0.5
3 Mill 2 22
4 Unload 1 2

Given data
Number of stations, n = 3. Mean transport time,
tn+1 =4 min
Number of part types = 3 (A, B and C) Operation frequency,
fijk= 1, for all operations
Solution:
(i) To find maximum production rate of the FMS (R*p):Step 1: To find
average workload at each station:
First let us calculate the average workload at each station using the relation
For station 1:
WL1 = (3+2) (0.4) (1.0) + (3+2) (0.4) (1.0) + (3+2) (0.2) (1.0) = 5.0 min
For station 2:
WL2 = (20) (0.4) (1.0) + (15) (0.4) (1.0) + (22) (0.2) (1.0) = 18.4 min
For station 3:
WL3 = (12) (0.4) (1.0) + (30) (0.4) (1.0) + (14) (0.2) (1.0) = 19.6 min
Average number of transports, nt, = Mean number of operations in the processrouting minus
one
nt = 4-1 =3
For handling system (4):
WL4= nt tn+1 = 3 × 4 = 12 min