Unit 3

Derivation of Equations of Motion

Systems of Axes and Notation

Before commencing the main task of developing mathematical models of the
aeroplane, it is first necessary to put in place an appropriate and secure foundation
on which to build the models. The foundation comprises a mathematical framework
in which the equations of motion can be developed in an orderly and consistent way.
Since aeroplanes have six degrees of freedom, the description of their motion can be
relatively complex. Therefore, motion is usually described by a number of variables
that are related to a suitably chosen system of axes. In the UK the scheme of
notation and nomenclature in common use is based on that developed by Hopkin
1970 and a simplified summary may be found in the appropriate ESDU 1987 data
item. The notation and nomenclature in this chapter is based on Hopkin 1970. By
making the appropriate choice of axis systems, order and consistency may be
introduced to the process of model building. The importance of order and
consistency in the definition of the mathematical framework cannot be
overemphasized.

Axes System

There are several system axes standards; earth axes, ground, local horizon,
reference body, body, axes and aerodynamic, wind, or stability axes.

Earth axes: The accepted convention for defining earth axes determines that a
reference point
O 0 on the surface of the earth as the origin of a right-handed
O x y z O x O y
orthogonal system of axes ( o o o o ), where o o points to the north, o o points
O z
to the east and O o points vertically down along the gravity vector. Clearly, the
O x y
plane ( o o o ) defines the local horizontal plane which is tangential to the surface of
the earth. Thus, the flight path of aeroplane flying in the atmosphere in the vicinity of
O
reference point o may be completely described by its coordinates in the axis
system. This therefore assumes a flat earth, where the vertical is tied to the gravity
vector. This model is quite adequate for localized flight although is best suited to
navigation and performance applications where flight path trajectories are of primary
interest.
For investigations involving trans-global navigation, the axis system described is
inappropriate, a spherical coordinating system being preferred. Similarly, for trans-
atmospheric flight involving the launch and re-entry of space vehicles a spherical
coordinates system would be more appropriate. However since in such an
application the angular velocity of the earth becomes important it is necessary to
define a fixed spatial axis system to which the spherical earth axis system may be
referred.

For flight dynamics applications, a simpler definition of earth axes is preferred. Since
short term motion only is of interest, it is perfectly adequate to assume flight above a
flat earth. The most common consideration is that of motion about straight and level
flight. Straight and level flight assumes flight in a horizontal plane at a constant
altitude and, whatever the subsequent motion of the aeroplane might be, the attitude
is determined with respect to the horizontal. Referring to figure 1 the horizontal plane
O x y
is defined by (O E x E y E ) and is parallel to the plane ( o o o ) at the surface of the
earth. The only difference is that O E x E axis points in the arbitrary direction of flight of
the aeroplane rather than to the north. The O E z E axis points vertically down as
before. Therefore, it is only necessary to place the origin O E in the atmosphere at the
most convenient point, which is frequently coincident with the origin of the aeroplane
body fixed axis. Earth axes (O E x E y E z E ) defined in this way are called datum-path
earth axes, are tied to the earth by means of the gravity vector and provide the
inertial reference frame for short term aeroplane motion.

Figure 1: conventional earth axes.

Body Axes System
Body axes is usual define as a right-handed orthogonal axis system fixed in the
aeroplane with the origin at the centre of gravity and constrained to move with the
plane.
The xb axis is in the airplane line of symmetry and points out the nose of the airplane.
The zb axis is in the plane of symmetry and points downward. The y b axis is
perpendicular to the xb and zb axis and points out the right wing as shown in Figure
2a.

Figure 2a: Body Axes System

When the aeroplane is disturbed from its initial flight condition the axes move with
the airframe and the motion is quantified in terms of perturbation variables referred to
the moving axes. The way in which the axes may be fixed in the airframe is arbitrary,
although it is preferable to use an accepted standard orientation.
The most general axis system is known as a body axis system
Ox b y b z b which is

fixed in the aeroplane as shown in figure 2. The

Ox b z b plane defines the plane of

symmetry of the aeroplane and it is convenient to arrange the

Ox b axis such that it is
parallel to the geometrical horizontal fuselage datum. Thus, in normal flight
attitudes, the
Oy b axis is directed to starboard and the Ozb axis is directed

downwards. The origin O of the axes is fixed at a convenient reference point in the
airframe which is usually, but not necessarily, coincident with the centre gravity.
Body axes tend to be used with missile and rocket configurations. It is often
convenient to choose these coordinates in such a way that they are aligned with a
set of reference coordinates defining the aircraft geometry: z is perpendicular to the
fuselage reference plane and y to the symmetry plane. Sometimes we choose the
body axes to be aligned with the vehicle principle axes. The origin is generally taken
at the aeroplane center of gravity or at a fixed reference location relative to the
geometry. .

Figure 2b: Moving axes systems

Stability, wind and aerodynamic Axes: It is often convenient to define a set of

V
aeroplane fixed axes such that the Ox axis is parallel to the total velocity vector o as
shown in Figure 2b. Such axes are called aerodynamic, wind or stability axes. In
steady symmetric flight, wind axes (
Ox w y w z w ) are just a perpendicular version of

body axes which are rotated about the

Oy b axis through the steady body incidence
α
angle e until the
Ox w axis aligns with the velocity vector. Thus, the plane Ox w z w
Oy w and the Oy b are coincident.
remains the plane of symmetry of the aeroplane and
Now there is a unique value of body incidence
α e for every flight condition.
However, for any given flight condition the wind axes orientation is defined and fixed
in the aeroplane at the outset and is constrained to move with it in subsequent
0 0
disturbed flight. Typically the body incidence might vary in the range −10 ≤α e ≤20
over a normal flight envelop. Stability axes is like body axes except that they are
rotated by an angle of attack, as shown in the Figure 3. The y-axis is still
perpendicular to the plane of symmetry.

Wind Axes: It is often used to express wind tunnel data. The axes are further rotated
by a sideslip angle, the x-axis is parallel to the free stream flow.

Figure 3: aircraft axes notation

The wind axes are also a body axes system in which the axis OX w is tangent to the
flight path in the undisturbed state and positive in forward direction. OZw is
perpendicular to the OXw and contained in plane of symmetry and positive
downwards for normal flight attitude of the airplane. OY w is perpendicular to both
OXw and OZw and is directed in such a way that, OXwYwZw is a right-handed system.

Choice of Axes

The obvious question is when is appropriate to use wind or body axes? The choice
of axes depends on the use of equations of motion. The best choice of axes simply
facilitates the analysis of the equations of motion. When starting from first principles
it is preferable to use generalized body axes since the resulting equations can cater
for most applications. It is reasonable straightforward to simplify the equations to
wind axis form if the application warrants it. On the other hand, to extend wind axis
based equations to carter for the more general case is not as easy.
When dealing with numerical data for an existing aeroplane, it is not always obvious
which axis has been used in the derivation of the model. When it is necessary to
make experimental measurements in an actual aeroplane, or in a model, which are
to be used subsequently in the equations of motion, it is preferable to use a
generalized body axis system. Since the measuring equipment is installed in the
aeroplane its location precisely known in terms of body axis coordinates which,
therefore, determines the best choice of axis system. In a similar way, most
aerodynamic measurements and computations are referenced to the free stream
velocity vector. For example, in wind tunnel work the obvious reference is the tunnel
axis, which is coincident with the velocity vector. Thus, for aerodynamic
investigations involving the equations of motion, a wind axis reference is to be
preferred. Traditionally, all aerodynamic data for use in the equations of motion are
referred to wind axes.

In summary, it is not particularly important which axis system is chosen provided it

models the flight condition too be investigated; the end result does not depend on
the choice of axis system. However, when compiling data for use in the equations of
motion of an aeroplane it is quite common for some data to be referred to wind axes
and for some data to be referred body axes. It therefore becomes necessary to have
available the mathematical tools for transforming data between different reference
axes.

Basic notation

Before describing the equations of motion that we will solve to determine vehicle
response, we establish some conventions and notation that will be used in these
notes. There exist a number of different ways of expressing vehicle position, velocity,
orientation, and the forces and moments that act on the vehicle. The conventions
adopted will be discussed.
Figure 4:

In summary, the nomenclature associated with rotational and translational motion is

as follows:

Axis Perturbation Mean Perturbation Rotation Angular Moment

Force velocity velocity angle velocity

x X U u φ p L

y Y V v θ q M

z Z W w ψ r N

The equations of motion

The first formal derivation of the equations of motion of motion for a rigid symmetric
aeroplane is usually attributed to Bryan 1911. His treatment, with very few changes,
remains in use today and provides the basis for the following development. The
object is to realize Newton’s second law of motion for each of the six degrees of
freedom which simply states that,
 ¿
Mass acceleration = disturbing force. 1

For the rotary degrees of freedom, the mass and acceleration becomes moment of
inertia and angular acceleration respectively, whilst the disturbing force becomes the
disturbing moment or torque. Thus, the derivation of equations of motion requires
that equation 1 be expressed in terms of the motion variables. The derivation is
classical in the sense that the equations of motion are differential equations which
are derived from first principles. However, a number of equally valid alternative
means for deriving the equations of motion are frequently used, for example vector
methods. The classical approach is retained here since, in the author’s opinion,
maximum physical visibility is maintained throughout.

The components of inertial acceleration

The first task in realizing equation 1 is to define the inertial acceleration components
resulting from the application of disturbing force components to the aeroplane.
oxyz )
Consider the motion referred to an orthogonal axis set ( with the origin o
coincident with the cg of the arbitrary, in the first instance, not necessarily rigid body
shown in figure 5. The body, and hence the axes, are assumed to be in motion with
respect to an external reference frame such as earth (or inertial) axes. The
components of velocity and force along the ox, oy, and oz are denoted by (U, V, W)
and (X, Y, Z) respectively. The components of angular velocity and moment about
the same axes are denoted (p, q, r) and (L, M, N) respectively. The point P is an
arbitrary chosen point within the body with coordinates (x, y, z). The local
components of velocity and acceleration at P relative to the body axes are denoted
ax , a y , az )
(u, v, w) and ( respectively.
Figure 5:

The velocity components at p(x ,y, z) relative to o are given by;

u=ẋ−ry+qz¿}v=ẏ−pz+rx ¿}¿ ¿
2

Using vector method

The definition of the cross product or vector product can be represented by the
determinant of a formal matrix.

Velocity= angular velocity x position vector

| |
i j k
T x W= p q r
x y z

Where T=(x,y,z) and W=(p,q,r)

This determinant can be computed using Sarrus’ rule or Cofactor expansion.

Hence using the cofactor expansion we have,

= |qy rz|i−|px rz| j+|px qy|k

=[ qz−ry ] i−[ pz−rx ] j+ [ py −qx ] k *

Rearranging equation * we have

u=qzi−ryi

v=− pzj+rxj

w= pyk−qxk

It will be seen that the velocity components each comprise a linear term and two
additional terms due to rotary motion. The origin of the terms due to rotary motion in
the component u , for example, illustrated in figure 6 and 7. Both –ry and qz
(x , y , z)
represent tangential velocity components acting along a line through p
parallel to the ox axis. The rotary terms in the remaining two components of velocity
are determined in a similar way. Now, since the generalized body shown in figure 5
represents the aeroplane which is assumed to be rigid then,

ẋ= ẏ = ż=0
3

Equation 2 reduce to

u=qz−ry¿}v=rx−pz¿}¿ ¿
4
Figure 6: velocity terms due to rotary motion

The corresponding components of acceleration at p(x, y, z) relative to o are given by

ax=u̇−rv+qw¿}ay=v̇−pw+ru¿}¿ ¿
5

Again, it will be seen that the acceleration components each comprise a linear term
and two additional terms due to rotary motion. The origin of the terms due to rotary
ax −ry qw
motion in the component , example is illustrated in figure 7. Both and
represent tangential acceleration components acceleration components acting along
a line through p(x, y, z) parallel to the ox axis. The accelerations arise from the
mutual interaction of the linear components of velocity with the components of
angular velocity. The acceleration terms due to rotary motion in the remaining two
components of acceleration are determined in a similar way.
Looking in to axes looking in to axes
System along y-axis system along z-axis

Figure 7: Acceleration terms due to rotary motion.

By superimposing the velocity components o the cg (U, V, W) on the local velocity
( u' , v ' , w ' )
components (u, v, w) the absolute, or inertial, velocity components ( ) of the
point p(x, y, z) are obtained. Thus

u =U+u=U−ry+qz¿}v =V+v=V−pz−rx ¿}¿ ¿

' '
6

Where the expressions for (u, v, w) are substituted from equations 4, similarly, the
( a'x , a'y , a'z )
components of inertial acceleration at the point p(x, y, z) are obtained
( u , v , w' )
' '

simply by substituting the expressions for ( ), equation 6, in place of (u, v, w)

in equation 5. Whence,

ax=u̇ −rv +qw ¿}ay=v̇ −pw +ru ¿}¿ ¿

' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

Differentiate equation 6 with respect to time and note that since a rigid body is
assumed equation 3 applies, then

u̇=U̇−ṙ y+q̇z¿}v̇ =V̇−ṗz−ṙ x¿}¿ ¿

' '
8
Thus, by substituting from equations 6 and 8 into equations 7, the inertial
acceleration components of the point p(x, y, z) in rigid body are obtained which, after
some rearrangement, may be written

ax=U̇−rV +qW−x q +r +y ( pq−ṙ)+z( pr+q̇)¿} ay=V̇−pW+rU+x (pq+ṙ)−y p +r )+z (qr−ṗ)¿}¿ ¿

( ) (
' 22 ' 22

Generalized Force Equation

δm
Consider now an incremental mass at point p(x, y, z) in the rigid body. Applying
Newton’s second law, equation 1, to the incremental mass, the incremental
 ' ' '
δm a x , δm a y , δm a z
components of force acting on the mass are given by ( ). Thus the
total force components (X, Y, Z) acting on the body are given by summing the force
increments over the whole body, whence

∑δmax=X¿}∑δmay=Y¿}¿ ¿
' '

10

( a'x , a'y , a'z )

Substitute the expressions for the components of inertial acceleration
from equations 9 into equations 10 and note the origin of axes coincides with the
centre of gravity.

∑ δm a'x=∑ δm a'y =∑ δm a'z=0

11

Therefore, the resultant components of total force acting on the rigid body are given
by

m(U̇−rV +qW)=X¿}m(V̇−pW+rU)=Y ¿} ¿
12

Where m is the total mass of the body

Equations 12 represents the force equations of a generalized rigid body and

describe the motion of its cg since the origin of the axis system is co-located with the
cg in the body. In some applications, for example the airship, it is often convenient to
locate the origin of axis system at some point other than the cg. In such cases the
condition described by equation 11 does not apply and equations 12 would include
rather more terms.

Generalized Moment Equations

Consider now the moments produced by the forces acting on the incremental mass
δm
at point p(x, y, z) in the rigid body. The incremental force components create an
incremental moment component about each of the three body axes and by summing
these over the whole body the moment equations are obtained. The moment
equations are, of course, the realization of the rotational form of Newton’s second
law of motion.

Using vector method

Moment() = position vector x force

We have ,

| |
i j k
O=δm x y z
' ' '
ax a y az

Using the cofactor approach and assuming a small mass δm

o=δm
[| | | | | | ]
y z
'
ay az
x z
' i− '
x y
' j+ '
ax az a x a 'y
k

[
¿ δm [ y az −z a y ] i−[ x az −z ax ] j+ [ x a y − y ax ] k
' ' ' ' ' '
]
For example, the total moment L about ox axis is given by summing the incremental
moments over the

whole body,

∑ δm( y a'z −za 'y )=L

13

'
ay a 'z
Substituting in equation 13 for and for obtained from equations 9 and noting
that equation 11 applies then, after some rearrangement, equation 13 may be written

( ṗ ∑ δm ( y 2+z 2) +qr ∑ δm ( y 2−z 2) +( r 2−q 2) ∑ δ myz−( pq +ṙ ) ∑ δ mxz + ( pr −q̇ ) ∑ δ mxy )

¿L 14

∑
Terms under the summation sign in equation 14 have the units of moment inertial;
thus, it is convenient to define the moments and products of inertial as set out in
table 1.
Equation 14 may therefore be rewritten

I x ṗ−( I y −I z ) qr + I xy ( pr−q̇ )−I xz ( pq+ ṙ ) + I yz ( r 2 −q 2 ) =L

15

In a similar way the total moments M and N about the oy and oz axes respectively
are given by summing the incremental moment components over the whole body.

∑ δm (z ax−xaz )=M ¿ ¿ ¿¿
' '
}
16

' ' '

ax a y az
Substituting , and obtained from equations 9, in equations 16 noting again
that equation 11 applies and making use of the inertial definitions given in table 1,
then the moment M about the oy axis is given by

I y ṗ+ ( I x−I z ) qr + I yz ( pr −ṙ )−I xz ( p 2−r 2 ) −I xy ( qr + ṗ )=M

17

And the moment N about the oz axis is given by

I z ṙ−( I x−I y ) pq−I yz ( pr + q̇ )+ I xz ( qr − ṗ ) + I xy ( q 2 + p2 )=N

18

Table 1 Moments and products of inertia

I x =∑ δm ( y 2 + z 2 )
Moment of inertia about ox axis

I y =∑ δm ( x 2 + z 2 )
Moment of inertial about oy axis
 I z =∑ δm ( x2 + y 2 )
Moment of inertial about oz axis

I x =∑ δ mxy
y

Product of inertial about ox axis

I x =∑ δ mxz
z

Product of inertial about oy axis

I yz =∑ δ myz
Product of inertial about oz axis

Equations 15, 17 and 18 represent the moment equation of generalized rigid body
and describe the rotational motion about the orthogonal axes through its cg since the
origin of the axis system is co-located with the cg in the body. When the generalized
body represents an aeroplane the moment equations may be simplified since it is
assumed that the aeroplane is symmetric about the oxz plane and that the mass is
uniformly distributed. As a result the products of inertia
I xy =I yz=0 . Thus, the
moment equations simplify to the following

Ix ṗ−( Iy−Iz) qr−Ixz( pq+ṙ)=L¿}I yq̇+( Ix−I y) pr+Ixz p −r )=M ¿}¿ ¿

( 22
19

The equations 19 describe rolling motion, pitching motion, and yawing motion
respectively. A further simplification can be made if it is assumed that the aeroplane
body axes are aligned to be principal inertial axes. In this special case the remaining
I
product of inertial xz is also zero. The simplification is not often used owing to the
difficulty of precisely determining the principal inertia axes. However, the symmetry
of the aeroplane determines that
I xz is generally very much smaller than I x , I y , and I y
and can often be neglected.

Disturbance Forces and Moments

Equations 12 and 19 comprise the generalized six degrees of freedom equations of

motion of a rigid symmetric airframe having a uniform mass distribution. Further
development of the equations adequately describes the disturbing forces and
moments. The traditional approach, after Bryan 1911, is to assume that the
disturbing forces and moments are due to aerodynamic effects, gravitational effects,
movement of aerodynamic controls, power effects of atmospheric disturbances.
Thus, bringing together equations 12 and 19 they may be written to include these
contributions as follows,

Now equations 20 describe the generalized motion of the aeroplane without regard
2
}
m(U̇−rV+qW)=Xa+gXc+pXd¿}m(V̇−pW+rU)=Ya+gYc+pYd¿}m(Ẇ−qU+pV)Za+gZc+pZd¿}Ixṗ−(y Ix)qr−xz(pq+ṙ)=La+gLc+pLd¿}Iyq̇+(x−Iz)pr+xz(p−r)=Ma+ gMc+ pMd¿Izṙ−(xIy)pq+xz(r−ṗ)=Na+gNc+ pNd}¿
20

for the magnitude of the motion and subject to the assumptions applying. The
equations are non-linear and their solution by analytical means is not generally
practicable. Further, the terms on the right-hand side of the equations must be
replaced with suitable expressions, which are particularly difficult to determine for the
most general motion. Typically, the continued development of the non-linear
equations of motion and their solution is most easily accomplished using computer
Modelling or simulation techniques, which are beyond the scope of this course.

Linearized equations of motion

Initially, the aeroplane is assumed to be flying in steady trimmed rectilinear flight with
zero roll, sideslip and yaw angles. Thus, the plane of symmetry of the aeroplane oxz
is vertical with respect to the earth reference frame. At this flight condition the
velocity of the aeroplane is
V o , the components of linear velocity are (U e , V e , W e ) and

the angular velocity components are all zero. Since there is no sideslip
V e =0 . A
stable undisturbed atmosphere is also assumed such that
X d =Y d =Z d =L d =M d =N d =0 21

If the aeroplane experiences a small perturbation about trim, the components of the
disturbance velocities (p, q, r) with respect to the undisturbed aeroplane axes (o x y
z). Thus the total velocity components of the cg in the disturbed motion are given by
U=Ue+u¿}V=Ve+v=v¿}¿ ¿
22

Now by definition (u, v, w) and (p, q, r) are small quantities such that, terms involving
products and squares of these terms are insignificantly small terms, the Linearized
equations of motion are obtained

m(u̇+qWe)=Xa+gXc+d¿}m(v̇−pWe+rU)=Ya+gYc+p¿}m(ẇ−qUe)Za+g cZp¿}Ixṗ−xzṙ=La+g cLp¿}Iyq̇=Ma+ gMc+ p¿}Izṙ−xzṗ=Na+gNc+p}¿

23

The development of expressions to replace the terms on the right-hand side o

equations 23 is now much simpler since it is only necessary to consider small
disturbances about trim.

Gravitational Terms

The weight force mg acting on the aeroplane may be resolved into components
acting in each of the three aeroplane axes. When the aeroplane is disturbed these
components will vary according to the perturbations in attitude, thereby making a
contribution to the disturbed motion. Thus, the gravitational contribution to equations
23 is obtained by resolving the aeroplane weight into the disturbed body axes. Since
the origin of the aeroplane body axes is coincident with the cg there is no weight
moment about any o the axes, therefore
Lg =M g =N g =0 24
Figure 7: Steady state weight components in the plane of symmetry

Since the aeroplane is flying wings level inn the initial symmetric flight condition, the
components of weight only appear in the plane of symmetry as shown in figure 7.
Thus, in the steady state the components of weight resolved into aeroplane axes are

[Xge¿][Yge¿]¿¿ [−mgsin θe ¿][0 ¿]¿¿¿

¿ = ¿ 25

During the disturbance the aeroplane attitude perturbation is ( φ , θ , ψ ) and the

components of weight in the disturb aeroplane axes may be derived with the aid of
the transformation equation 11. By definition, the angular perturbations are small,
small angles approximations may be used may be used in the direction cosine matrix
to give the relationship

[ X g ¿ ] [ Y g ¿] ¿ ¿ ¿
¿ 26

Again, the products of small quantities have been neglected on the grounds that they
are insignificant small. Thus, the gravitational force components in the small
perturbation are given by
Xg=−mgsinθe−mgcosθe¿}Yg=mgψsinθe+mgcosθe¿}¿ ¿
27

Aerodynamic Terms

Whenever the aerodynamic aeroplane is disturbed from its equilibrium the

aerodynamic balance is obviously upset. To describe explicitly the aerodynamic
changes occurring during a disturbance provides a considerable challenge in view of
the subtle interactions present in the motion. However, although limited in scope, the
method first described by Bryan 1911 works extremely well for classical aeroplane
when the motion interest limited to relatively small perturbations. Although, the
approach is unchanged the rather more modern notation of Hopkin 1970 is adopted.

The usual procedure is to assume that the aerodynamic force and moment terms in
equation 20 are dependent on the disturbed motion variables and their derivatives
only. Mathematically this is conveniently expressed as a function comprising the sum
of a number of Taylor series, each series involving one motion variable or derivative
of a motion variable. Since the motion variables are (u, v, w) and (p, q, r), the
aerodynamic term
X a in the axial force equation, for example, may be expressed

X a= X ac +
( ∂ X ∂ 2 X u2 ∂ 3 X u 3 ∂ 4 X u 4
∂u
u+ 2 + 3 + 4 +. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .
∂u 2! ∂ u 3 ! ∂u 4 ! )
+
(
∂ X ∂2 X v 2 ∂3 X v 3 ∂4 X v 4
v+ + +
∂ v ∂ v2 2 ! ∂ v3 3 ! ∂ v4 4 !
+. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. ..
)
+
( ∂ X ∂ 2 X w2 ∂ 3 X w 3 ∂ 4 X w 4
∂w
w+ 2 + 3 + 4 +. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .
∂w 2 ! ∂ w 3 ! ∂w 4 ! )
+
(
∂ X ∂2 X p 2 ∂3 X p 3 ∂ 4 X p4
∂p
p+ 2 + 3 + 4 +.. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .
∂ p 2! ∂ p 3! ∂ p 4 ! )
 +
(
∂ X ∂2 X q 2 ∂3 X q 3 ∂4 X q 4
∂q
q+ 2 + 3 + 4 +. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .
∂ q 2 ! ∂ q 3! ∂ q 4 ! )
+
(
∂ X ∂2 X r 2 ∂3 X r 3 ∂4 X r 4
r+ + +
∂r ∂ r 2 2! ∂r 3 3 ! ∂ r 4 4 !
+. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .
)
+
(
∂ X ∂2 X u̇ 2 ∂3 X u̇3
u̇+ +
∂ u̇ ∂ u̇ 2 2! ∂ u̇3 3!
+...........................................................
)
+
(
∂ X ∂2 X v̇ 2 ∂3 X v̇ 3
v̇+ +
∂ v̇ ∂ v̇ 2 2! ∂ v̇ 3 3!
+............................................................
) 28

+ Series terms in ẇ , ṗ, q̇, and { ṙ ¿

+ Series terms in higher order derivatives

X
Where ac is the only constant term. Since the motion variables are small, for all
practical aeroplane only the first term in each of the series functions is significant.
Further, the only significant higher order derivative terms commonly encountered are
those involving

∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
X a= X ac + u+ v+ p+ q+ r+ ẇ
∂u ∂v ∂p ∂q ∂r ∂ ẇ 29

Using alternative shorthand for the derivatives, equation 29 may be written

0 0 0 0 0 0
X a= X ac + X u u+ X v v+ X p p+ X q q+ X r r + X W ẇ 30
0
0 0

The coefficients X u , X v , X w , etc. are called the aerodynamic stability derivatives and

the symbol
() 0

denotes the derivatives to be dimensional. Since equation 30 has the

units of force, the units of each of the aerodynamic stability derivatives are self-
evident. In a similar way, the force and the moment terms in the remaining equations
20 are determined. For example, the aerodynamic term in the rolling moment
equation is given
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
La =Lac + Lu u+ Lv v+ Lw w + L p p+ Lq q+ Lr r + Lẇ ẇ 31

Aerodynamic Control Terms

The primary aerodynamic controls are the elevator, ailerons and rudder. Since the
forces and moments created by control deflections arise from the changes in
aerodynamic conditions, it is usual to quantify their effect in terms of aerodynamic
control derivatives. The assumptions applied to the aerodynamic terms are also
applied to the control terms, thus, for example, the pitching moment due to
aerodynamic controls may be expressed

∂ M ∂ M ∂M
Mc= ξ+ η+ ζ
∂ξ ∂η ζ 32
Where

ξ is ailerons angle
η is elevator angle

ζ is rudder angle

Since equation 32 describes the effect of the aerodynamic controls with respect to
the prevailing trim condition it is important to realize that the control angles
ξ ,η , and ζ are measured relative to the trim settings ξ e , ηe , and ζ e respectively.
Again, the shorthand notation may be used and equation 32 may be written

0 0 0
M c =M ξ ξ+ M η η+ M ζ ζ 33

The aerodynamic control terms in the remaining equations of motion are assembled
in a similar way. If it is required to study the response of an aeroplane to other
aerodynamic controls, for example flaps, spoilers, leading edge devices, etc, then
additional terms may be appended to equation 33 and the remaining equations of
motion as required.
Power Terms

Power, and thrust τ is usually controlled by the throttle lever angle ε and the
relationship between the two variables is given, for a simple turbo-jet, by equation
34.

τ (s ) kτ
=
ε ( s ) ( 1+ sT τ )
34

Movement of the throttle lever causes a thrust change which in turn gives rise to a
change in the components of force and moment acting on the aeroplane. It is
mathematically convenient to describe these effects in terms of engine thrust
derivatives. For example, normal force due to thrust may be expressed in the usual
shorthand notation

0
Z p =Z τ τ
35

The contributions to the remaining equations of motion are expressed in a similar

way. As for the aerodynamic controls, power changes are measured with respect to
the prevailing trim setting. Therefore, τ quantifies the thrust perturbation relative to
the trim setting
τ e.

Equations of motion for small perturbation

To complete the development of the Linearized equations of motion it only remains

to substitute the appropriate expressions for the aerodynamic, gravitational,
aerodynamic control and thrust terms into equation 23. The aerodynamic terms are
exemplified by expressions like 30 and 31, expressions for the gravitational terms
are given in equations 27, the aerodynamic control terms are exemplified by
expressions like equation 33 and the thrust terms are exemplified by expressions like
equation 34. Bringing all of these together the following equations are obtained
 o o o o o o
m ( u̇+qW e ) =X ac + X u u+ X v v + X w w + X p p + X q q + X r r + X ẇ ẇ
o 0 o o
−mg sin θe −mg θ cos θe + X ξ ξ + X η η+ X ζ ζ + X τ τ

o 0 o o o o o
m ( v̇ −pW e +rU e )=Y ac +Y u u+Y v v +Y w w +Y p p + Y q q +Y r r +Y ẇ ẇ
0 o o o
+mg sin ψ sinθ e +mg φ cos θ e +Y ξ ξ +Y η η +Y ζ ζ + Y τ τ

o o o o 0 o 0
m ( ẇ−qU e )=Z ac + Z u u + Z v v + Z w w + Z p p + Z q q +Z r r +Z ẇ ẇ
o o o o
+mg cos θ e−mg θ sin θe + Z ξ ξ + Z η η+ Z ζ ζ +Z τ τ
35

o o o o o o o o 0 0 o
I x ṗ−I xz ṙ=L ac + Lu u+ L v v + Lw w+ L p p + L q q + Lr r + Lẇ ẇ + Lξ ξ + Lη η+ Lζ ζ + Lτ τ

0 o o o 0 o o o o o o
I y q̇=M ac + M u u + M v v + M w w + M p p + M q q + M r r + M ẇ ẇ + M ξ ξ + M η η+ M ζ ζ + M τ τ

0 o o o 0 o o o o o o
I z ṙ=N ac + N u u + N v v + N w w + N p p + N q q + N r r + N ẇ ẇ + N ξ ξ+ N η η+ N ζ ζ + N τ τ

Now in the steady trimmed flight condition all the perturbation variables are their
derivatives are, by definition, zero. Thus in the steady state equation 35 reduce to
derivatives are, by definition, zero. Thus in the steady state equations 35 reduce to

Xac=mgsinθe¿}Yac=0¿}Zzc=−mgcosθe¿}Lac=0¿}Mac=0 }¿
36
Equation 36 therefore identify the constant trim terms which may be substituted into
equations 35 and, following rearrangement, they may be written

( )
o o o o o o o o o o
m u̇−X u u− X v v −X w w−X p p X q −mW e q−X r r +mg θ cosθe =X ξ ξ +X η η +X ζ ζ +X τ τ

w−( Y +mW ) p−Y q−( Y −mU ) r+mg φ cosθ −mgψ sin θ

o o o o o o o
−Y u u +m v̇−Y v v −Y ẇ ẇ−Y w p e q r e e e
=

( ) ( )
o o o o 0 0 o o o o o
Y ξ ξ +Y η η +Y ζ ζ +Y τ −Z u u+Z v v + m−Z ẇ ˙ w−Z w w −Z p p − Z q +mU e q−Z r r +mgθ sin θ e
τ
=
o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 o
Z ξ ξ + Z η η+ Z ζ ζ + Z τ τ −Lu u−Lv v−Lw w+ I x ˙ p−L p p −Lq q −I xz ˙ r−Lr r =Lξ ξ + Lη η+ Lζ ζ + Lτ τ
0 o o o o 0 o o o o o
−M u u −M v v −M ẇ ẇ −M w w−M p p + I y q̇−M q q −M r r =M ξ ξ + M η η+ M ζ ζ + M τ τ

0 o o o o 0 o o o o o
−N u u −N v v −N ẇ ẇ −N w w −I xz ṗ−N p p−N q q + I z ṙ −N r r =N ξ ξ + N η η+ N ζ ζ + N τ τ
37

Equations 37 are the small perturbation equations of motion, referred to body axes,
which describe the transient response of an aeroplane about the trimmed flight
condition following a small input disturbance. The equations comprise a set of six
simultaneous linear differential equations written in the traditional manner with the
forcing, or input terms on the right-hand side. As written, and subject to the
assumptions made in their derivation, the equations of motion are perfectly general
and describe motion in which longitudinal and lateral dynamics may be fully coupled.
However, for the vast majority of aircrafts when small perturbation transient motion is
considered, as is the case here, longitudinal- lateral coupling is usually negligible.
Consequently, it is convenient to simplify the equations by assuming that longitudinal
and lateral motion is in fact, fully decoupled.

Decoupled equations of motion

Longitudinal equations of motion

Decoupled longitudinal motion is motion in response to a disturbance that is

constrained to the longitudinal plane of symmetry, the oxy plane, only. The motion is
therefore described by the axial force X, the normal force Z and the pitching moment
M equations only. Since no lateral motion is involved the lateral motion variables
v, p and r and their derivatives are all zero. Also, decoupled longitudinal-lateral
motion means that the aerodynamic coupling derivatives are all zero. Also,
decoupled longitudinal-lateral motion means that the aerodynamic coupling
derivatives are negligible small and may be taken as zero, hence
o o o o o o o o o
X v= X p =X r =Z v =Z p =Z r =M v=M p =M r =0 38

Similarly, since the aileron or rudder deflections do not usually cause motion in the
longitudinal plane of symmetry the coupling aerodynamic control derivatives may
also be taken as zero, thus

o o o o o o
X ξ = X ζ =Z ξ =Z ζ =M ξ =M ζ =0 39

The longitudinal symmetric motion are therefore obtained by extracting the axial
force, normal force and pitching moment equations from 37 and substituting
equations 38 and 39 as appropriate. Hence

( ) }() ( ) }
o o o o o o o o o o o o
mu̇−Xuu−Xẇẇ−Xww− Xqq−mWe q+mgθcosθe=Xηη+Xτ τ ¿ −Zuu+ m−Zẇ ẇ−Zw w− Zq+mUe q=Zηη+Zτ τ ¿ ¿ ¿
40
Equations 40 are the most general form of the dimensional decoupled equations of
longitudinal symmetric motion referred to aeroplane body axes. I f it is assumed that
the aeroplane is level flight and the reference axes are wind or stability axes then

θ e=W e =0 41
And the equations simplify further to
 }() () }
o o o o o o o o o o o o
mu̇−Xuu−Xẇẇ−Xww−Xqq+mgθ=Xηη+Xττ ¿ −Zuu+ m−Zẇ ẇ−Zww− Zq+mUe q=Zηη+Zττ ¿ ¿¿
42

Equations 42 represent the simplest possible form of the decoupled longitudinal

equations of motion. Further simplification is only generally possible when the
numerical values of the coefficients in the equations are known since some
coefficients are often negligibly small.

Lateral-directional equations of motion

Decoupled lateral-directional motion involves roll, yaw and sideslip only. The motion
is therefore described by the side force Y, the rolling moment and the yawing
moment N equations only. Since no longitudinal motion is involved, the longitudinal
motion variables u, w, q and their derivatives are all zero. Also, decoupled
longitudinal lateral motion means that the aerodynamic derivatives are negligibly
small and may be taken as zero, hence
o o o o o o o o o o o o
Y u =Y ẇ =Y w =Y q = Lu =Lẇ =L w=L q =N u =N ẇ =N w =N q =0 43

Similarly, since the airframe is symmetric, elevator deflection and thrust variation do
not usually cause lateral-directional motion and the coupling aerodynamic control
derivatives may also be taken as zero, thus
o o o o o o
Y η =Y τ = Lη =Lτ =N η =N τ =0 44

The equations of lateral asymmetric motion are therefore obtained by extracting the
side force, rolling moment and yawing moment equations 37 and substituting
equations 43 and 44 as appropriate. Hence
(mv̇−Y v−(Y +mW )p−(Y −mU )r−mgφcosθ −mgψsinθ )=Y ξ+Y ζ¿}−L v+I ṗ−L p−I ṙ−L r=L ξ+L ζ¿}¿¿¿
o o o o o o o o o o

v p e r e e e ξ ζ v x p xz r ξ ζ
45
Equations 45 are the most general form of the dimensional decoupled equations of
lateral-directional asymmetric motion referred to aeroplane body axes. If it is
assumed that the aeroplane is in level flight and the reference axes are wind or
stability axes then, as before,
θ e=W e =0
And the equations simplify further to

() } }
o o o o o o o o o o
mv̇−Yvv−pY p− Yr−mUe r−mgφ=Yξξ+Y ζζ ¿ −Lvv+Ix ṗ−Lp p−Ixzṙ−Lrr=Lξξ+Lζζ ¿ ¿ ¿
47
Equations 42 represent the simplest possible form of the decoupled lateral-
directional equations of motion. As for the longitudinal equations of motion, further
simplification is only generally possible when the numerical values of the coefficients
in the equations are known since some coefficients are often negligibly small.