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A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic 2nd
Edition Christopher C. Leary Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Christopher C. Leary, Lars Kristiansen
ISBN(s): 9781942341321, 1942341326
Edition: 2nd
File Details: PDF, 1.69 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
In troduction
y
dl t
o
i en
Mathematical
A Fr
Logic
2nd Edition
Christopher C. Leary
Lars Kristiansen
A Friendly Introduction
to Mathematical Logic
A Friendly Introduction
to Mathematical Logic
2nd Edition
Christopher C. Leary
State University of New York
College at Geneseo
Lars Kristiansen
The University of Oslo
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
Attribution—You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and
indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in
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your contributions under the same license as the original.
Milne Library
SUNY Geneseo
One College Circle
Geneseo, NY 14454
Lars Kristiansen has received financial support from the Norwegian Non-fiction
Literature Fund
Contents
Preface ix
2 Deductions 41
2.1 Naı̈vely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Deductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 The Logical Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.1 Equality Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.2 Quantifier Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.3 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4 Rules of Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.1 Propositional Consequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.2 Quantifier Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
v
vi CONTENTS
2.4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5 Soundness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6 Two Technical Lemmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.7 Properties of Our Deductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.8 Nonlogical Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.8.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.9 Summing Up, Looking Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Bibliography 359
Preface
ix
x Preface
To the Student
Welcome! I am really thrilled that you are interested in mathematical logic
and that we will be looking at it together! I hope that my book will serve
you well and will help to introduce you to an area of mathematics that I
have found fascinating and rewarding.
Mathematical logic is absolutely central to mathematics, philosophy,
and advanced computer science. The concepts that we discuss in this
book—models and structures, completeness and incompleteness—are used
by mathematicians in every branch of the subject. Furthermore, logic pro-
vides a link between mathematics and philosophy, and between mathe-
matics and theoretical computer science. It is a subject with increasing
applications and of great intrinsic interest.
One of the tasks that I set for myself as I wrote this book was to be
mindful of the audience, so let me tell you the audience that I am trying to
reach with this book: third- or fourth-year undergraduate students, most
likely mathematics students. The student I have in mind may not have
taken very many upper-division mathematics courses. He or she may have
had a course in linear algebra, or perhaps a course in discrete mathematics.
Neither of these courses is a prerequisite for understanding the material in
this book, but some familiarity with proving things will be required.
In fact, you don’t need to know very much mathematics at all to follow
this text. So if you are a philosopher or a computer scientist, you should
not find any of the core arguments beyond your grasp. You do, however,
have to work abstractly on occasion. But that is hard for all of us. My
suggestion is that when you are lost in a sea of abstraction, write down
three examples and see if they can tell you what is going on.
At several points in the text there are asides that are indented and start
with the word Chaff. I hope you will find these comments helpful. They
are designed to restate difficult points or emphasize important things that
may get lost along the way. Sometimes they are there just to break up the
exposition. But these asides really are chaff, in the sense that if they were
blown away in the wind, the mathematics that is left would be correct and
secure. But do look at them—they are supposed to make your life easier.
Just like every other math text, there are exercises and problems for you
to work out. Please try to at least think about the problems. Mathematics
is a contact sport, and until you are writing things down and trying to use
and apply the material you have been studying, you don’t really know the
subject. I have tried to include problems of different levels of difficulty, so
some will be almost trivial and others will give you a chance to show off.
This is an elementary textbook, but elementary does not mean easy. It
was not easy when we learned to add, or read, or write. You will find the
going tough at times as we work our way through some very difficult and
technical results. But the major theorems of the course—Gödel’s Com-
Preface xi
Thanks
Writing a book like this is a daunting process, and this particular book
would never have been produced without the help of many people. Among
my many teachers and colleagues I would like to express my heartfelt thanks
to Andreas Blass and Claude Laflamme for their careful readings of early
versions of the book, for the many helpful suggestions they made, and for
the many errors they caught.
I am also indebted to Paul Bankston of Marquette University, William
G. Farris of the University of Arizona at Tucson, and Jiping Liu of the Uni-
versity of Lethbridge for their efforts in reviewing the text. Their thoughtful
comments and suggestions have made me look smarter and made my book
much better.
TheDepartment of Mathematics at SUNY Geneseo has been very sup-
portive of my efforts, and I would also like to thank the many students at
Oberlin and at Geneseo who have listened to me lecture about logic, who
have challenged me and rewarded me as I have tried to bring this field alive
for them. The chance to work with undergraduates was what brought me
into this field, and they have never (well, hardly ever) disappointed me.
Much of the writing of this book took place when I was on sabbatical
during the fall semester of 1998. The Department of Mathematics and
Statistics at the University of Calgary graciously hosted me during that
time so I could concentrate on my writing.
I would also like to thank Michael and Jim Henle. On September 10,
1975, Michael told a story in Math 13 about a barber who shaves every
man in his town that doesn’t shave himself, and that story planted the
seed of my interest in logic. Twenty-two years later, when I was speaking
with Jim about my interest in possibly writing a textbook, he told me that
he thought that I should approach my writing as a creative activity, and if
the book was in me, it would come out well. His comment helped give me
the confidence to dive into this project.
The typesetting of this book depended upon the existence of Leslie
Lamport’s LATEX. I thank everyone who has worked on this typesetting
system over the years, and I owe a special debt to David M. Jones for his
Index package, and to Piet von Oostrum for Fancyheadings.
Many people at Prentice Hall have worked very hard to make this book
a reality. In particular, George Lobell, Gale Epps, and Lynn Savino have
xii Preface
been very helpful and caring. You would not be holding this book without
their efforts.
But most of all, I would like to thank my wife, Sharon, and my children,
Heather and Eric. Writing this book has been like raising another child.
But the real family and the real children mean so much more.
you are still my most important offspring. And Sharon, thanks to you for
all of your support and love. Also thanks for taking one for the team and
accompanying me to Oslo when I had to work with Lars. I know what a
sacrifice that was.
This edition of the book is much longer than the original, and I am
confident that it is a whole lot better. But the focus of the book has
not changed: Lars and I believe that we have outlined an introduction to
important areas of mathematical logic, culminating in the Incompleteness
Theorems, that can reasonably be covered in a one-semester upper division
undergraduate course. We hope that you agree!
From Lars:
First of all, I will say thank you to Chris for letting me in on this project. We
have worked very well together and complemented each other in a number
of respects.
I should also express my thanks to those who through the years have
shaped my academic taste and pursuits. They have in some sense con-
tributed to this book. Among them you find my teachers, colleagues and
students at the University of Oslo. I cannot mention them all – I can prob-
ably not even remember them all – but a few names that immediately come
to my mind are Stål Aanderaa, Herman Ruge Jervell (my PhD supervisor),
Dag Normann, and Mathias Barra.
Finally, I will like to thank Dag Normann and Amir Ben-Amram for
discussions and helpful comments on early versions of Chapter 7.
Our target group is undergraduate students that have reached a certain
level of mathematical maturity but do not know much formal logic – maybe
just some propositional logic – maybe nothing. It is the needs of the readers
in this group that we want to meet, and we have made our efforts to do so:
We have provided exercises of all degrees of difficulty, and we have provided
detailed solutions to quite a few of them. We have provided discussions and
explanations that might prevent unnecessary misunderstandings. We have
stuck to topics that should be of interest to the majority of our target group.
We have tried to motivate our definitions and theorems . . . and we have done
a number of other things that hopefully will help an undergraduate student
that wants to learn mathematical logic.
This book conveys some of the main insights from what we today call
classic mathematical logic. We tend to associate the word “classic” with
something old. But the theorems in this book are not old. Not if we think
about the pyramids. Neither if we think about Pythagoras, Euclid, and
Diophantus – or even Newton and Leibniz. All the theorems in this book
were conceived after my grandparents were born, some of them even after
I was born. They are insights won by the past few generations. Many
things that seem very important to us today will be more or less forgotten
in a hundred years or so. The essence of classic mathematical logic will be
xiv Preface
1
2 Chapter 1. Structures and Languages
1.1 Naı̈vely
Let us begin by talking informally about mathematical structures and
mathematical languages.
There is no doubt that you have worked with mathematical models
in several previous mathematics courses, although in all likelihood it was
not pointed out to you at the time. For example, if you have taken a
course in linear algebra, you have some experience working with R2 , R3 ,
and Rn as examples of vector spaces. In high school geometry you learned
that the plane is a “model” of Euclid’s axioms for geometry. Perhaps you
have taken a class in abstract algebra, where you saw several examples of
groups: The integers under addition, permutation groups, and the group of
invertible n × n matrices with the operation of matrix multiplication are all
examples of groups—they are “models” of the group axioms. All of these
are mathematical models, or structures. Different structures are used for
different purposes.
Suppose we think about a particular mathematical structure, for exam-
ple R3 , the collection of ordered triples of real numbers. If we try to do
plane Euclidean geometry in R3 , we fail miserably, as (for example) the
parallel postulate is false in this structure. On the other hand, if we want
to do linear algebra in R3 , all is well and good, as we can think of the points
of R3 as vectors and let the scalars be real numbers. Then the axioms for a
real vector space are all true when interpreted in R3 . We will say that R3
4 Chapter 1. Structures and Languages
is a model of the axioms for a vector space, whereas it is not a model for
Euclid’s axioms for geometry.
As you have no doubt noticed, our discussion has introduced two sep-
arate types of things to worry about. First, there are the mathematical
models, which you can think of as the mathematical worlds, or constructs.
Examples of these include R3 , the collection of polynomials of degree 17,
the set of 3 × 2 matrices, and the real line. We have also been talking
about the axioms of geometry and vector spaces, and these are something
different. Let us discuss those axioms for a moment.
Just for the purposes of illustration, let us look at some of the axioms
which state that V is a real vector space. They are listed here both infor-
mally and in a more formal language:
Don’t worry if the formal language is not familiar to you at this point; it
suffices to notice that there is a formal language. But do let us point out a
few things that you probably accepted without question. The addition sign
that is in the first two axioms is not the same plus sign that you were using
when you learned to add in first grade. Or rather, it is the same sign, but
you interpret that sign differently. If the vector space under consideration
is R3 , you know that as far as the first two axioms up there are concerned,
addition is vector addition. Similarly, the 0 in the second axiom is not the
real number 0; rather, it is the zero vector. Also, the multiplication in the
third axiom that is indicated by the juxtaposition of the 1 and the v is
the scalar multiplication of the vector space, not the multiplication of third
grade.
So it seems that we have to be able to look at some symbols in a partic-
ular formal language and then take those symbols and relate them in some
way to a mathematical structure. Different interpretations of the symbols
will lead to different conclusions as regards the truth of the formal state-
ment. For example, if we take the commutivity axiom above and work with
the space V being R3 but interpret the sign + as standing for cross product
instead of vector addition, we see that the axiom is no longer true, as cross
product is not commutative.
These, then, are our next objectives: to introduce formal languages, to
give an official definition of a mathematical structure, and to discuss truth
in those structures. Beauty will come later.
1.2. Languages 5
1.2 Languages
We will be constructing a very restricted formal language, and our goal in
constructing that language will be to be able to form certain statements
about certain kinds of mathematical structures. For our work, it will be
necessary to be able to talk about constants, functions, and relations, and
so we will need symbols to represent them.
1. Parentheses: ( , ).
2. Connectives: ∨, ¬.
3. Quantifier: ∀.
4. Variables, one for each positive integer n: v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , . . . . The set
of variable symbols will be denoted Vars.
5. Equality symbol: =.
6. Constant symbols: Some set of zero or more symbols.
7. Function symbols: For each positive integer n, some set of zero or
more n-ary function symbols.
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