Frontiers in Soil Science Research: Report of a

Workshop
Steering Committee for Frontiers in Soil Science
Research; National Research Council
ISBN: 0-309-13892-2, 80 pages, 6 x 9, (2009)
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Frontiers in Soil Science Research: Report of a Workshop
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FRONTIERS IN
SOIL SCIENCE
RESEARCH
REPORT OF A WORKSHOP

Steering Committee for Frontiers in Soil Science Research

Board on International Scientific Organizations

Policy and Global Affairs

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils
of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the
Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were
chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

Support for this workshop was provided by the National Science Foundation under
Grant No. 0506228; the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service
under Agreement No. 59-0790-5-085; the Department of Energy under Grant No. DE-
FG02-05ER64014; and the Soil Science Society of America. Any opinions, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided
support for the project.

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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of

distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
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date that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters.
Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

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The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at
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Steering Committee for

Frontiers in Soil Science Research
CHARLES W. RICE, Chair, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
PAUL M. BERTSCH, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
JOHAN BOUMA, Wageningen University [Retired], Rhenen,
Netherlands
JENNIFER HARDEN, U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California
JERRY L. HATFIELD, U.S. Department of Agriculture–Agricultural
Research Service, Ames, Iowa
JULIE D. JASTROW, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois
WILLIAM A. JURY, University of California, Riverside, California
JOAQUIN RUIZ, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona

NRC Staff
LOIS E. PETERSON, Senior Program Officer
P. KOFI KPIKPITSE, Program Associate
MARIZA SILVA, Program Associate (until February 2006)

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Preface and Acknowledgments

A s stated in Science, “Soils are the most complicated biomaterials on

the planet” (Young and Crawford, 2004). Soils provide support for
both natural and human systems. A challenge for soil science is the need
for interdisciplinary research involving classical soil science subdisciplines,
namely, soil chemistry, soil physics, soil biology, soil mineralogy, and pe-
dology. While basic research provides an understanding of fundamental
soil processes, increasing trends in land transformations, environmental
challenges, and policy issues require interdisciplinary approaches. To suc-
cessfully address major research needs, soil scientists must collaborate with
each other and with scientists in related disciplines.
In December 2005 the National Academies convened a workshop,
Frontiers in Soil Science Research, of experts in soil science and associated
disciplines to identify emerging research opportunities and expected ad-
vances in soil science, particularly in the integration of biological, geologi-
cal, chemical, and information technology sciences. The three objectives of
the workshop were to

1. identify research priorities and potential breakthroughs within

soil science;
2. identify interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary research opportu-


Young, I. M., and Crawford, J.W. 2004. Interactions and self-organisation in the soil-
microbe complex. Science 304:1634-1637.

vii

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viii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

nities in which soil science is involved, particularly in the field of biogeosci-

ence; and
3. identify technological and computational needs to advance soil
science.

More than 120 people attended the workshop, with attendees from all
around the United States as well as from countries such as New Zealand, the
Netherlands, Canada, Italy, Philippines, Germany, and the United King-
dom. The attendees came from several fields, including not only academia
but also government and industry. The workshop agenda is included as Ap-
pendix A of this report. Funding for this workshop came from the National
Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service, and the Soil Science Society of
America.
The committee would like to thank the speakers and discussants who
gave enlightening presentations and comments, providing a basis for the
plenary discussions and breakout groups held during the workshop. The
speakers and discussants are listed in Appendix B of this report.
One of the exciting aspects of the workshop was the inclusion of a select
few graduate students, who not only served as rapporteurs of the breakout
sessions but also presented posters of their own research on the second
evening of the workshop. Those graduate students, with their affiliations at
the time of the workshop, were as follows:

Amy Brock, University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Daniel Clune, Cornell University
Josh Heitman, Iowa State University
DeAnn Ricks Presley, Kansas State University
Matt Ruark, Purdue University

As chair, I would also like to thank the members of the workshop steer-
ing committee (listed in Appendix C) and the National Research Council
staff who organized the workshop and assisted with the writing of this
summary: P. Kofi Kpikpitse, Lois Peterson, and Mariza Silva. We would
also like to express thanks to Ester Sztein for her assistance in the comple-
tion of this report.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for
their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with pro-
cedures approved by the National Academies’ Report Review Committee.

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix

The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical

comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as
sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards
for quality and objectivity. The review comments and draft manuscript
remain confidential to protect the integrity of the process.
We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this
report: Sally Brown, University of Washington; Martin Carter, Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada; Oliver Chadwick, University of California, Santa
Barbara; Jon Chorover, University of Arizona; Brent Clothier, Horticultural
and Food Research Institute, New Zealand; and Wayne Hudnall, Texas
Tech University.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the content of
the report, nor did they see the final draft before its release. Responsibility
for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authors and the
institution.

Charles W. Rice
Chair, Steering Committee for
Frontiers in Soil Science Research

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Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Placing a Value on Soil Science Research 8

3 Summary of Presentations 13
Session 1: Using Tracers to Understand Soil Processes, 13
Session 2: Using Microscopic and Spectroscopic Techniques to
Elucidate Chemical Processes, 16
Session 3: Nature’s Greatest Biological Frontier—the Soil
Community, 18
Session 4: Effect of In Situ Soil Architecture on Soil Physical,
Chemical, and Biological Processes, 21
Summary of the First Day’s Discussion, 22
Session 5: Upscaling to a Regional Level, 23
Session 6: New Tools for In Situ and Laboratory Measurements, 25
Session 7: Key Indicators for Detecting the Resilience and Stability of
the Soil System, 26

4 The Frontiers in Soil Science Research 31

Overarching Challenges, 31
Research Needs and Opportunities, 33
Tools, Techniques, and Current Opportunities, 38

xi

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xii CONTENTS

Interdisciplinary Collaborations and Emerging Research

  Opportunities, 40
Student and Training Issues, 43

Epilogue 45

Appendixes

A Workshop Agenda 49
B Speakers and Discussants 54
C Steering Committee Members 66

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Introduction

S oil is a biogeochemically dynamic natural resource that supports all

critical components that comprise terrestrial ecosystems. It has been
called Earth’s living skin. On its June 11, 2004, cover, Science declared soils
to be “the final frontier.” The growing awareness that soil provides a variety
of ecosystem services beyond food production has attracted interest in soil
from nonsoil scientists. Collectively, soil is known as the pedosphere, and
the processes occurring within soil are inextricably linked to ecosystem
services such as water quantity and quality, are important in the exchange
of atmospheric gases, and are central to the biogeochemical cycles of the
nutrients and carbon that sustain life (see Figure 1-1). Soil supports the
richest biodiversity on Earth and functions as a filter for, and a buffer of,
inorganic and organic contaminants as well as pathogenic microorganisms
and viruses. Despite the link between the quality of the soil resource and the
rise and fall of world civilizations that has been repeated throughout history,
soil remains an undervalued and underappreciated resource.
There has been renewed interest in soil and soil science in recent years
as the recognition that biogeochemical processes that occur at the Earth’s
surface influence global climate change, land degradation and remedia-
tion, the fate and transport of nutrients and contaminants, soil and water
conservation, soil and water quality, food sufficiency and safety, global
carrying capacity, wetlands function, and many other issues pertinent to
the stewardship and conservation of land and water resources (special issue
of Science, 2004). Population���������������������������������������������
pressure and associated changes in land use

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 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

tion Atmosphere pre

c ip
ira ita
sp t io
re sis eva n
e
nth po
sy ra

emissions

exchange
gaseous
to tio

energy
o
ph

n
elemental soil
cycling water

Biosphere Pedosphere Hydrosphere

soil flora evaporation
& fauna

formation
leaching

soil
ro

we ag
ck

e
el a the e ep
em rin &s ar
ge
en g off ch
tal r un re
up
tak ter
e Lithosphere gr ou nd
wa

FIGURE 1-1 Interactive processes linking pedosphere with atmosphere, biosphere,

hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
SOURCE: Lal, Kimble, and Follett, 1997, 4. Reproduced with permission of Taylor &
Francis Group LLC.
Figure 1
completely redrawn
based on Lal Rattan’s original
broadside (landscape)
place an increasingly vector,
high burden on editable
the global soil
resource. In some areas
of the Earth we have approached irreversible soil conditions that threaten
the existence of future generations. Understanding the long-term implica-
tions of decreased soil quality and addressing the aforementioned challenges
will require new information based on advances and breakthroughs in soil
science research that need to be effectively communicated to stakeholders,
policy makers, and the general public.
Soil science is an intrinsically interdisciplinary science that inte-
grates knowledge of physical,
��������������������������������������������������
chemical, and biological processes that
interact across a large range of spatial and temporal scales. Soil scientists
employ a multiscale approach—from the molecular to the landscape
levels—to address issues related to biogeochemical reactions and pro-
cesses in the environment, land use and degradation, regional and global
climate change, food security, and water quality. There have been several
National Research Council studies that identify areas in which opportu-
nities for basic research in soil science are especially compelling. A report
on the bioavailability of contaminants in soils and sediments noted the
need for further research on how physical, chemical, and biological

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INTRODUCTION 

processes in soil influence the bioavailability of chemicals (National Re-

search Council, 2003). The report also noted the uncertainty related to
variations in soil at various spatial scales, something that was discussed
at this workshop. A Board on Agriculture report described the inherent
link between soil and water quality, noting that soil productivity is not
the only reason to protect soil resources (National Research Council,
1993). This report stated the need for research leading to the develop-
ment of new technologies that protect soil and water quality. A report on
metagenomics noted that this new science will draw on expertise from
several disciplines, including soil science (National Research Council,
2007).
Another report discussed the integrative studies of the “Critical
Zone,” which encompasses the soil, rock, air, water, and ice at the Earth’s
surface (National Research Council, 2001). The soil, or pedosphere, is
the interface among the other components of the Critical Zone—the bio-
sphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, cryosphere, and lithosphere. As such,
it is a major determinant of the global water, carbon, and geochemical
cycles. Since soil represents a natural body covering essentially the entire
nonaqueous surface of planet Earth, it is intimately involved in absorp-
tion, storage, transfer, and release of heat, water, gases, and chemical
constituents; serves as a reservoir for biological and microbial diversity;
and, as such, has a profound influence on all living organisms.
A report emanating from a National Science Foundation-sponsored
workshop on the Critical Zone (Brantley et al., 2006) reiterated the im-
portance of applying fundamental knowledge of soils to understanding
the complex coupled hydrobiogeochemical processes occurring in the
Critical Zone. Because of the central role of the pedosphere, it is clear
that progress in understanding key processes in the Critical Zone is
predicated on breakthroughs in soil science research. An understanding
of critical soil processes and the ability to measure them is also central
to other emerging research initiatives, such as the National Ecological
Observatory Network. Soil science is at a critical threshold in identify-
ing new areas for research. Emerging topics—such as climate change,
carbon sequestration, water quality, vadose zone transport of nutrients
and contaminants, biofuels, and food security—need strategic research
on soil processes. New and emerging technologies and sensors are pro-
viding unprecedented opportunities for revolutionary advances and
breakthroughs in fundamental soil science research. These opportunities
enhance problem-solving abilities and integrate knowledge from associ-

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 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

ated disciplines (i.e., microbiology, hydrology, ecology, environmental

science, geochemistry, geology, atmospheric sciences) to further unravel
the mystery of soils and soil processes. As was noted in Science, “Inter-
est in soil is booming, spurred in part by technical advances of the past
decade” (Sugden, Stone, and Ash, 2004, 1613).
On December 12-14, 2005, the National Academies convened the
Frontiers in Soil Science Research Workshop to identify emerging areas
for research in soil science by addressing the interaction of soil science
subdisciplines, collaborative research with other disciplines, and the use of
new technologies in research. The organizing committee for the workshop
identified seven key questions that addressed research frontiers for the in-
dividual soil science disciplines, but also addressed the need for integration
across soil science and with other disciplines.
The seven questions addressed by the speakers and discussants were
as follows:

1. How well do we understand the physical, chemical, and bio-

logical processes in soils that impact the atmosphere, vegetation, and the
hydrogeosphere?
2. What are the chemical interactions at the molecular level that define
the fate of ions, chemicals, and microbes as they are transported through
soil systems?
3. What controls biodiversity belowground? How does this biodiver-
sity affect the function of the soil system?
4. What is the effect of in situ soil architecture on soil physical,
chemical, and biological processes? How does it vary from one soil system
to another? What are the controlling factors?
5. How does landscape architecture (topography, vegetation, land use)
affect the upscaling of soil processes to a regional level?
6. What are the new tools for making in situ and laboratory measure-
ments of soil biological and physicochemical properties and processes?
7. From a systems analysis standpoint, what are the key indicators for
detecting the resilience and stability of the soil system? What are the critical
factors that control its resilience and stability?

The committee then proceeded to identify potential speakers and dis-

cussants for each of these seven questions, which addressed chemical, bio-
logical, and physical processes, and their interactions. In choosing speakers
and discussants, the committee looked for individuals who would be able

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INTRODUCTION 

to address the questions from both a disciplinary and an interdisciplinary

viewpoint. A particular strength of the workshop, as described by many
attendees, was that the presentations cut across and integrated traditional
subdisciplinary areas of soil science. The organizing committee purposely
selected speakers for their abilities to cut across these lines and examine
coupled hydrobiogeochemical processes. The workshop was not designed
to identify specific issues within a subdiscipline.
As part of the overall goal of the workshop to identify frontiers in
soil science research, speakers, discussants, and attendees (the workshop
was open to all interested individuals) were asked to consider overarching
issues:

• Main challenges and priorities within basic soil science research

• Opportunities for inter- and cross-disciplinary research
• Technological and computational opportunities to advance soil
science research
• Student and early career training issues

At first glance, it may appear that the workshop did not explore par-
ticularly “new frontiers” in soil science research. However, several attendees
at the workshop commented that they were learning new ways to approach
their own research. In many cases, the “frontier” may not be a specific tech-
nology or technique new to the field, but expanded use of existing technolo-
gies (i.e., tracers, spectroscopy, “omics”) within the soil science community.
Many readers may find a new approach or technique with which they are
not familiar or which they have yet to explore themselves.
Although the original intent had been to also address the role of federal
funding for research in soil science, the committee decided to not specifi-
cally address funding issues to avoid discussion that would devolve into a
plea for more funding from sponsors present at the workshop. However,
there were discussions during the workshop that identified a lack of an ef-
fective primary sponsor or steward of the soil science discipline and how
this is problematic for maintaining strength in the discipline that could
be leveraged in the interdisciplinary activities and opportunities in other
funding agencies. To many people, including many in the federal funding
agencies, soil science is still identified as a part of agricultural science only.
Soil science is much more than this, integrating and drawing on many basic
sciences as well as addressing societal issues beyond agriculture. Much of the
discussion on the value of soil science research described in Chapter 2 arose

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 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

because of the perceived lack of funding that many attendees believed was
caused by a misunderstanding of how soil science research can contribute to
other research areas, for example, environmental science, ecosystem services,
and climate change science.
The workshop consisted of an opening session with a keynote speaker,
seven sessions focusing on the above questions with a presenter and discus-
sants followed by general discussion, five breakout group discussions, and
a final plenary discussion. Another key element of the workshop was the
involvement of five graduate students who served as breakout rapporteurs
and also presented posters on their own research. More than 120 people
from various disciplines and from around the world attended the workshop.
The president of the National Academy of Sciences, Ralph Cicerone, wel-
comed the participants, noting the complexity of soils and the challenges
facing soil science research. He noted that soil science was important to
atmospheric scientists and other Earth scientists. This volume is a summary
of the presentations and discussions at the workshop.
The second chapter of this report addresses the need to place an
economic value on soil science research. Although this was not one of the
specific questions asked by the steering committee, it became clear dur-
ing the workshop that this was a critical element to obtaining funding for
soil science research, as noted above. The third chapter is a synopsis of the
presentations, in the order they were made at the workshop. The fourth
chapter details the research frontiers discussed at the workshop in the fol-
lowing categories: (1) Overarching Challenges, (2) Research Needs and
Opportunities (divided into six subcategories), (3) Tools, Techniques, and
Current Opportunities, (4) Interdisciplinary Collaborations and Emerging
Research Opportunities, and (5) Student and Training Issues. The report
concludes with a brief epilogue, followed by three appendixes: the work-
shop agenda, brief biographies of the speakers, and brief biographies of the
steering committee.

REFERENCES
Brantley, S. L., T. S. White, A. F. White, D. Sparks, K. Pregitzer, L. Derry, J. Chorover, O.
Chadwick, R. April, S. Anderson, R. Amundson. 2006. Frontiers in Exploration of the
Critical Zone: Report of a workshop sponsored by the National Science Foundation
(NSF), October 24-26, 2005, Newark, DE, 30 pp.
Lal, R., J. M. Kimble, and R. F. Follett. 1997. Pedospheric processes and the carbon cycle.
Pp. 1-8 in Soil Processes and the Carbon Cycle, R. Lal, J. M. Kimble, R. F. Follett, and B.
A. Stewart, eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

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INTRODUCTION 

National Research Council. 1993. Soil and Water Quality: An Agenda for Agriculture. Wash-
ington, DC: National Academy Press.
National Research Council. 2001. Basic Research Opportunities in Earth Science. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.
National Research Council. 2003. Bioavailability of Contaminants in Soils and Sediments:
Processes, Tools, and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Research Council. 2007. The New Science of Metagenomics: Revealing the Secrets of
Our Microbial Planet. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Soils—The Final Frontier, special issue of Science, vol. 304, June 11, 2004.
Sugden, A., R. Stone, and C. Ash. 2004. Ecology in the underworld. Science 304: 1613.

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Placing a Value on Soil Science Research

A n underlying starting point for discussion of the directions that soil

science research should take is the need to place a value on soil and its
contribution to ecosystem services. Soils play an important role in ecosys-
tem services and environmental quality, but in comparison to water and
air, they receive neither the same attention nor funding. More is known
about water and air where effects of certain actions are directly visible, but
relatively little is known about soil, where the actions may be invisible to
the layman’s eye and in which processes occur at a much slower rate. The
need for funding for soil science research was mentioned throughout the
workshop in both plenary discussions and breakout periods. Brent Clothier,
HortResearch, New Zealand, in his opening presentation, gave workshop
participants an example from New Zealand of how soil science researchers
might work with those for whom the research is intended (the end users) to
define the research that is needed and thereby secure funding for research of
important aspects of both basic and applied soil science.
Clothier described how the New Zealand soil science research com-
munity regrouped after almost disappearing in 2003 to become a sustained
research program funded by the central government. The media called for
support of soil science, noting that research into soil was one of the most
productive uses of science for the country and that constant requirements
for fertilizer and soil erosion were reasons enough to continue research for
improving soil quality and stability. The soil science community responded
by identifying the “why” and the “for whom” the research is being con-

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PLACING A VALUE ON SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 

ducted, and in turn identifying “what” research needed to be done. Clothier

defined four steps to a healthy research climate in New Zealand:

1. Participation–identifying end users and clarifying their needs and

expectations
2. Policy­–developing a framework for delivering research and develop-
ment needed to meet those expectations
3. Purchase–an institutional framework for investing in that research
4. Progress–the enhanced development of soil science research in New
Zealand

How do we apply the lessons learned in New Zealand to a broader ap-

proach for expanding the frontiers of soil science research?
One aspect that was drawn out by workshop participants during the
discussion that followed Clothier’s presentation was the importance of
placing economic and environmental values on the soils’ natural capital
stocks and the ecosystem services associated with soils. The imperatives are
to ensure that the inventory value of the soils’ stocks does not decline, and
that their ecosystem services are sustained. Our ultimate goal is sustainable
development that encompasses not only environmental concerns but also
economic and social concerns. Indeed, Clothier noted that New Zealand
has seen new land uses develop in the last 20 years, even as agricultural
productivity has increased. Greater emphasis has focused on the need to
address the impact of land use on managed ecosystems—both agricultural
and nonagricultural. Clothier mentioned the greater appreciation in New
Zealand for the value of ecosystem services such as maintenance and regen-
eration of habitat, provision of shade and shelter, pest control, maintenance
of soil health, maintenance of healthy waterways, water filtration by soil and
control of soil erosion, sustaining the productive capacity of soil, regulation
of greenhouse gas emissions, and moderation of climate change. The role of
soil and soil function in these ecosystem services is beginning to be recog-
nized, and new knowledge is needed to support these services.
The value of soil as an ecosystem service was a theme that echoed
throughout the workshop. A later speaker, Iain Young, Scottish Informat-
ics, Mathematics, Biology, and Statistics (SIMBIOS) Centre, University of
Abertay, Scotland, quoted the following values (in trillions of dollars) of the
following ecosystem services: soil 20, clean water 2.3, food 0.8, and genetic
resources 0.8 (Boumans et al., 2002). He stated that the total of ecosystem
services (approximately 24 trillion pounds sterling) is twice the global gross

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10 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

national product. Kate Scow, University of California, Davis, also noted

the need to place a value on soil and the ecosystem services it provides. She
stated a need to bring in and engage stakeholders, as well as the need to
inspire the public.
Another key point made by Clothier was that the understanding of
soil function, that is, the knowledge and understanding of basic soil science
processes, is of utmost importance. Clothier noted that it underpinned
the other research areas in which their end users and stakeholders were
interested. The example he gave was that improvements in our ability to
measure and model the flow and transport of water and solutes through soil
are required to enable developments in better managing contemporary land
use, in the understanding of the resilience of soils under land-use change or
global change, as well as in providing measures of the value of the ecosystem
services provided by soil as a filter.
Throughout the workshop, many participants identified issues of
funding and the undervaluation of soil both as a resource and as a topic
of scientific study as problems facing the discipline. The rapporteur’s sum-
mary of one of the breakout groups, in discussing soil science as part of
the public conscience, noted: “Soil science is an undervalued science and
soil is an undervalued resource. It is important to raise public awareness of
what we do and how soil science can solve regional and world problems.”
The examples provided by the New Zealand revitalization of soil science
can serve as a model. The summary of the breakout group went on to say,
“We need to demonstrate the interaction of soil science with socioeconomic
problems facing the world. In America, soil is seen as part of agriculture, and
as long as we maintain crop yields, there will be little concern. Soil functions
beyond crop production need to be related to the public, especially how soil
functions in water quality and availability.”
This last comment was echoed in Kate Scow’s presentation at the end
of the workshop. She quoted Tilman et al. (2002) on soil valuation and the
lack of information on why soils are important to society beyond agricultur-
al needs. Scow stated that a “fundamental institutional shift [is] required to
quantify and derive societal value from remaining natural soils and ecosys-
tems and to provide the scientific basis to argue for their preservation.” As
a framework for valuing ecosystem goods and services, Scow noted a 2004
National Research Council report on Valuing Ecosystem Services, which gives
a conceptual framework for understanding, shown in Figure 2-1. This total
economic value framework for ecosystem services includes not only value
derived from using a service or resource, but also “nonuse” values that may

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PLACING A VALUE ON SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 11

ECOSYSTEM

Structure

Functions
e.g., regulatory,
HUMAN ACTIONS habitat/production
(PRIVATE/PUBLIC)

ECOSYSTEM GOODS
& SERVICES

VALUES
Use values Nonuse values
e.g., existence, species preservation,
biodiversity, cultural heritage

Consumptive use Nonconsumptive use

e.g., harvesting, water supply (irrigation,
drinking), genetic and medicinal resource

Direct Indirect
e.g., recreation (boat/swim), e.g., UVB protection, habitat
transportation, aesthetics, support, flood control, pollution
birdwatching control, erosion prevention

FIGURE 2-1 Connections between ecosystem structure and function, services, policies,
and values.
SOURCE: National Research Council, 2004, 241.

Figure 2
be derived from a service’s existence.R01519
A social value, as well as environmental
copied
and economic, determines thefrom figure
value of an7-1 in R0415
ecosystem service. “The funda-
vector, editable
mental challenge of valuing ecosystem services lies in providing an explicit
description and adequate assessment of the links between the structures and
functions of natural systems, the benefits (i.e., goods and services) derived
by humanity, and their subsequent values” (National Research Council,
2004, 2). Another method of identifying the value of ecosystem services,
also mentioned by Scow in her presentation, is the approach adopted by
the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), which is based on function:
provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting. Scow noted that the soil
resource fits into all of these functions.
One of the research gaps in soil science that was noted in the workshop
is the understanding of soil functions in relation to these ecosystem services,
and how these functions are affected by such factors as degraded conditions,

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12 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

management techniques, and inherent soil properties. New monitoring and

measurement methods, as well as dynamic simulation models that reflect
real field conditions, are needed to better place a value on soil functions as
they relate to ecosystem services.
Perhaps the broader soil science research community can learn from the
New Zealand experience. We need to find ways to work with the funding
community to raise awareness of the value of the ecosystem services that
soils in both managed and natural settings provide, as did the scientific
community in New Zealand.

REFERENCES
Boumans, R. M. J., R. Costanza, J. Farley, M. A. Wilson, R. Portela, J. Rotmans, F. Villa,
and M. Grasso. 2002. Modeling the dynamics of the integrated earth system and the
value of global ecosystem services using the GUMBO model. Ecological Economics
41:529-560.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity
Synthesis. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
National Research Council. 2004. Valuing Ecosystem Services: Toward Better Environmental
Decision-Making. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Tilman, D., J. Knops, D. Wedin, and P. Reich. 2002. Experimental and observational studies
of diversity, productivity, and stability. Pp. 42-70 in Functional Consequences of Biodiver-
sity: Empirical Progress and Theoretical Extensions, A. Kinzig, S. Pacala, and D. Tilman,
eds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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Summary of Presentations

E ach of the seven presentations focused on various questions specifically,

and also addressed the overarching questions raised at the workshop.
Except for Session 6, each session consisted of a presentation of a key
speaker followed by two discussants. Session 6 consisted of two speakers.
The seven sessions are briefly summarized below. Chapter 4 summarizes the
key points that were made during the workshop.

Session 1: Using Tracers to

Understand Soil Processes
Susan Trumbore, University of California, Irvine, discussed the use
of transient isotopic tracers on land to quantify and better understand soil
processes and how they interact. Soils are a complex of physical, chemical,
and biological processes that interact across a range of spatial and temporal
scales. It is critical to have tools that quantify and serve as indicators of (1)
physical rates, (2) isotopic or elemental “fingerprints,” and (3) time involved
in the transformations. Trumbore’s paper and presentation described the
intersection of geochemistry and soil science through the increasing use of
isotopes and tracers as tools for separating physical, chemical, and biological
processes that operate simultaneously in soils. She noted that tracers are in
the “toolbox of soil science,” but they are not always used to their maximum
advantage.
The tools are available to quantify indicators that address the state fac-

13

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14 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

tors at work in soil, that is, climate, vegetation, parent material, and time.
These state factors interact with human activity to provide quantitative
understanding of additional soil responses that can be used to determine
the potential long-term impact of soil management decisions (intentional
and unintentional) on the soil resource.
Tracers are available from natural and human-made (i.e., from atomic
weapons testing) isotopes; however, the number of these tracers is decreas-
ing because of the elapsed time since those tracers were introduced into
the atmosphere. The analytical tools exist to use these tracers as reliable
measures of the indicators. Some of the reasons that tracers are not more
widely used include a lack of understanding in the scientific community
of the potential use of tracers to address soil science questions, a perceived
expense of isotope measurements, and the need for geochemists familiar
with tracer methods to work with soil scientists in defining questions that
the use of tracers can answer. Trumbore suggested that a combination of
recent methodological advances and framing of critical questions makes this
an appropriate time for a more systematic application of a suite of tracers to
study problems in soil science.
Trumbore presented three examples of how tracers can be applied to
soil science research: (1) use of inert or biologically unreactive tracers to
separate physical from biological and chemical processes, (2) the use of
time-sensitive tracers to determine the rates of soil processes on several
timescales, and (3) the use of isotopic or elemental fingerprints to determine
the relative importance of different processes or sources of elements in soil
and soil solution. She discussed these in the context of important soil geo-
chemistry research topics.
Tracers can be applied to identify nutrient supply to plants through
separation of weathering, recycling, and dust inputs into soil nutrient pools.
These applications provide insights into the dynamics of nutrients in dif-
ferent soils. Tracers can also be used to evaluate trace gas emission from
soils. Soils serve as sinks and sources of greenhouse gases; however, tracers
can serve as indicators of the interacting processes occurring within the soil
volume. Quantification of erosion rates, deposition within the landscape,
and restoring soil is a complex set of processes. Tracers have been applied
to the question of soil restoration, addressing the question of time required
for restoration. Tracers have been used as tools to fingerprint sources of soil-
derived materials that move from the landscape into nearby water bodies,
providing quantification of the source and movement of soil materials for
environmental quality assessments.

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 15

Although applying tracers to soil science research will require some in-
novative approaches to develop the appropriate questions and techniques,
there are several areas of soil science research that can benefit from the use of
tracers. These include (1) the global carbon cycle integrated across multiple
timescales and the associated fundamental processes of carbon cycling in soil
and (2) separating soil formation and degradation processes across spatial
and temporal scales.
Some of the more powerful tracers, such as radiocarbon and cesium-
137 that entered the atmosphere upon aboveground weapons testing, are
decreasing in atmospheric and soil signals owing to both environmental
processes and radiogenic decay. Therefore, there is an urgency for some of
these studies to be conducted in the near future.
Janet Herman, University of Virginia, in discussing Trumbore’s presen-
tation, noted that scientists could benefit from interdisciplinary interactions
and that soil science would benefit by moving from descriptive surveys of
soil formation and degradation to more mechanistic-driven studies to elu-
cidate rates of soil formation and degradation. Herman proposed the use of
gradients to derive rates of reactions. She noted that the heterogeneity that
is inherent in soils would require new methods and mathematical tools to
quantify spatial and temporal dynamics. She proposed establishing com-
mon research platforms by identifying specific hydrogeologic questions in
specific locations to effectively apply these tools. In discussing the strategy,
she highlighted an issue that Trumbore had briefly mentioned—the use
of purposeful tracers in a carefully sampled experimental site. Common
research platforms would also result in a move toward intense instrumenta-
tion and sampling; increased cooperation among physical, chemical, and
biological scientists; and a move from description of outcome as dictated
by state factors toward elucidation of mechanisms that link state factors to
the outcome.
John Norman, University of Wisconsin, Madison, commented on
the proposal of a grand experiment using tracers. He first discussed why
soil scientists, such as he, do not use tracers now and noted that it is often
because of a lack of understanding of the ways tracers can be used in their
own research. For an idea such as this to catch on in a scientific community,
the gap between the specialist (the geoscientist who works with tracers) and
the user (the average soil scientist) needs to be bridged. Researchers need
to be convinced that they can use this tool to answer their questions, and
tracers need to be placed into a context for soil science.

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16 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Session 2: Using Microscopic and Spectroscopic

Techniques to Elucidate Chemical Processes
Scott Fendorf, Stanford University, presented a talk on the molecular-
level understanding of processes governing the fate and transport of ions
and chemicals within soils, and discussed the challenges we face in upscal-
ing our molecular understanding to the practical field scale. He outlined
four necessary steps in moving to the field scale: (1) define the biochemical
reactions at the molecular scale under field scale variability, (2) obtain the
relevant kinetic parameters driving reactions, (3) capture the effect of het-
erogeneity on biogeochemical processes in soil, and (4) place the reaction
description within an appropriate transport framework. He continued on
a theme from the first session—that processes are integrated, even at a mo-
lecular level. His presentation covered the complexity of reactive transport
processes in soils, illustrating how coupled physical, chemical, and biologi-
cal processes control the fate and transport of ions and chemicals in soil
systems (see Figure 3-1). A major emphasis was placed on molecular-level
processes governing sorption and the processes governing the release of ions
and chemicals as well as their rates of adsorption and desorption.
Fendorf presented examples of how physical, chemical, and biological
processes are coupled in complex ways to control sorption, requiring an un-
derstanding of these processes at the molecular level. He discussed concepts
on how and when molecular-level processes at the nano- and micrometer
scales operate over a range of temporal scales. These nanoscale processes
can be manifested as phenomenological observations at the field and land-
scape scales; however, there are challenges to linking observations at these
various scales. Fendorf illustrated that advances during the past decade in
microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, particularly those allowing for
the interrogation of soil materials in situ, have greatly advanced our ability
to elucidate complex coupled hydrobiogeochemical processes leading to the
sorption or release of ions and chemicals. He also suggested that we are at
the leading edge of efforts to develop conceptual and mathematical models
based on these molecular-level data that will ultimately facilitate the ability
to generalize processes from individual studies.
The presentation was discussed by Gary Pierzynski, Kansas State Uni-
versity, and Donald Sparks, University of Delaware. Pierzynski emphasized
the difficulties in scaling from single mineral systems or simple mixtures to
the complexity of soils. He identified the need to develop a mechanistic,
versus an empirical, approach while acknowledging that a fully mechanistic

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 17

Solid-Water Interface
Mineralogical transformation

biomineralization

dissolution precipitation
Mn+
Oxidation Reduction
Mn+x

release
Bacteria

deposition

Organic
Matter
Mineral

adsorption
Organic ligand
desorption

complexation
Soil Profile
Aqueous Metal Ion

degradation

Metal-Organic Complex Surface complex

FIGURE 3-1 Fate and transport of ions and chemicals.

SOURCE: Scott Fendorf presentation.
Figure 3
R01519
drawn from Fendorf ppt slide
transport and fate model would bebroadside (landscape)
enormously complex and have a prohibi-
vector, editable
tive number of input parameters. The goal of a mechanistic approach is,
in itself, worthwhile, but equally so is the knowledge that would be gained
from working toward that goal. He also noted that techniques need to be
found to solve the problems, not problems to solve with the techniques
that are available.
Donald Sparks commented that the Critical Zone should be a focus in
many geosciences leading to a better understanding of physical, chemical,
and biological processes over many scales. He emphasized the importance of
reactions at the interfaces, especially the microbe-mineral interface and the
root-soil interface. Concerning the issue of scale, he noted that the temporal
scale should be considered in all studies. There needs to be a focus on how
to measure the more rapid processes, where a large part of the reaction is
over before measurements can be made. He suggested that environmental
science combine with genomic technologies to understand important
processes at the plant-soil interface. He also stressed the need to interact
with people from other disciplines, using various tools, to look at these

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18 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

processes, noting that the recently established Critical Zone Exploration

Network (www.czen.org), sponsored by the National Science Foundation,
is attempting to do just that. He concluded by identifying five frontiers of
soil science at the molecular scale:

1. Effect of coupling on transport

2. Nanoparticle kinetics
3. Interfacial analysis
4. Effect of biofilms on transport and reaction processes
5. The plant-soil interface

Session 3: Nature’s Greatest Biological

Frontier—the Soil Community
James Tiedje, Michigan State University, discussed controls on biodi-
versity belowground. He emphasized the scope of the soil biological frontier
with the following statements: (1) The biggest challenge in biology is to
understand the soil community. (2) The human genome project was a pilot
project compared to the soil microbial genome.
Future understanding of microbial biology in the natural environ-
ment belowground will require knowledge of three types—depth, breadth,
and environment—that together can define the microbial world. Depth
focuses on the details of how a cell functions. However, studies of this type
generally use model organisms, so we need to learn how to relate informa-
tion obtained from these studies back to the functioning of the entire soil
community in its natural environment. Breadth is concerned with learning
about the diversity of the soil microbial community residing in the soil en-
vironment. Environment relates to understanding how organisms interact
with their environment—including physical space, chemical conditions,
and interactions with other biological entities and their effects.
Tiedje discussed a series of four questions regarding our understanding
of the soil biological frontier, with examples given or research needs identi-
fied, or both, for each question. First, he discussed the five factors control-
ling soil biodiversity: (1) the amount and heterogeneity of food resources;
(2) the spatial isolation of microbes within the soil environment, which
reduces direct competitive interactions; (3) time—for example, prokaryotes
have developed and adapted over 3.8 billion years; (4) that microbes have
faced and adapted to a wide range of selective conditions, with the resulting
capabilities stored in their genome; and (5) the biological mechanisms used

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 19

by microbes in their ongoing responses to their environment. He noted that

the first two factors are key determinants of bacterial diversity. The availabil-
ity of resources and the relative isolation of microbes, and therefore the level
of competitive interactions, can determine whether a poor competitor will
survive alongside a stronger competitor. In sum, to manage the soil biologi-
cal community, the forces controlling its structure must be understood.
Second, Tiedje explored the extent of microbial diversity in soil. He
noted that everyone knows that the diversity is high, but the question is how
the level of biodiversity affects the soil’s ecosystem services. There are two
types of diversity: (1) genetic diversity, the variations in type and composi-
tion; and (2) spatial diversity, variations in space or biogeography. Tiedje
used various studies to illustrate the high genetic diversity in soil as well as
the diversity in microbes across continents and even within a corn row.
Third, Tiedje addressed how knowledge gained through omics—the
comprehensive analysis of biological systems—can be used to advance soil
science. This is generally still a potential, but it can be done, particularly for
targeted, applied goals. If a function of interest is targeted, “molecular bio-
logical tools” can potentially be defined at any degree of desired resolution.
Two types of resolution are needed: (1) at the “species” level, identifying
genetic sequences, and (2) at the specific function level, relating a gene to
function. Multilocus sequence typing is likely to be the next species-track-
ing tool. A functional gene repository has also been developed for genes that
have a function of environmental importance. Tiedje used biofilms as an
example of applying omics to investigating the soil environment.
Fourth, Tiedje discussed the interaction between biodiversity and cou-
pled chemical, physical, and biological processes and how biodiversity influ-
ences the processes. These processes define the microbial niche—including
niche chemistry and niche scale (small)—and make the niche dynamic (or
not). Methods and tools for characterizing the niche are becoming available,
but developing nondestructive techniques that can be used at very small
scales will be a challenge.
Tiedje also noted that the soil community is more than bacteria; it also
includes a diversity of animals, fungi, protozoa, archaea, and viruses. These
organisms interact in soil food webs to regulate soil microbial activity and
diversity.
Finally, Tiedje made a plea to take advantage of opportunities at in-
terfaces by building bridges across disciplines—in particular, soil scientists
must work together with the scientists developing the rapidly expanding
worldwide sequencing and metagenomics capabilities to better identify the

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20 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

questions and strategies that will help minimize complexity issues in the soil
and to enhance interpretive capabilities.
Cindy Nakatsu, Purdue University, commented on Tiedje’s presenta-
tion by addressing spatial and functional heterogeneity. Heterogeneity in
situ is caused by variability in carbon source, physical location, environ-
mental conditions, and different founder communities. Yet even when these
sources of heterogeneity are controlled, there can still be a large functional
redundancy of organisms. Therefore, spatial and functional diversity are
valuable because such diversity provides functional redundancy.
Ken Nealson, University of Southern California, challenged some of
the assumptions that need to be addressed when working with genomics.
First, he stated that the assumption of homology is wrong: The same 16S
ribosomal RNA sequence does not necessarily mean that the organisms are
the same. The second assumption he challenged is that once the genetic
code of an organism is identified we know what that organism can do.
For example, 4,000 genes have been identified in Shewanella, an aquatic
microorganism, but the function is only known for 2,000. Genomics is a
fantastic, powerful tool, but it must be recognized that not everything is
known. He also noted that to understand function, we need to relate genetic
data to physiological and biological data; this requires two different types
of datasets and expertise. Also, the time it takes to acquire the combined
information occurs at different rates (1,000 genes can be sequenced in the
time it takes to identify the function of a single gene).
Nealson discussed other aspects of microbial studies. As an example,
biofilms have high heterogeneity represented by high activity in localized
environments. In nature, biofilms grow on active substrates that serve ei-
ther as electron acceptors or donors, and this needs to be incorporated into
research on function in the soil environment. Microbes never live alone;
members of the microbial community interact with each other and evolve
together within each environment. Thus, only with unusual substrates
such as methane will taxonomic and functional convergence be possible.
Microbes in the environment have different strategies and abilities than
those that evolved with eukaryotic hosts, which must deal with host im-
mune systems. Better indicators of total biomass are needed to couple with
molecular method to understand how much microbial biomass is present in
a given soil environment and what it is doing. He suggested that nitrogen
or carbon-nitrogen bonds would be a better proxy for biomass than carbon
alone.

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 21

Session 4: Effect of In Situ Soil Architecture on

Soil Physical, Chemical, and Biological Processes
This session focused on the integration of the soil matrix and its archi-
tecture as affecting soil system processes. Iain Young, Scottish Informatics,
Mathematics, Biology, and Statistics (SIMBIOS) Centre, University of
Abertay, Scotland, noted in his presentation that their center was designed
specifically to encourage interdisciplinary research to examine how a hetero-
geneous architecture affects biological function and whether that biological
function influences architecture.
In situ soil architecture has a determining effect on soil physical, chemi-
cal, and biological processes. New visualization techniques are available
to dynamically and reproducibly characterize soil structure using X-ray
computer-aided tomography systems and geostatistical and fractal analysis
of data obtained to derive three-dimensional pore continuity patterns.
Gaming techniques can be used to visualize three-dimensional pore pat-
terns and allow “travel” through the soil pore system, which is effective for
communicating soil information to nonsoil scientists and the public. He
pointed out that a case could be made that the water characteristic curve
ψ(θ) controls all life on Earth, because the complexity of pore-scale soil
architecture allows water and air to coexist in soil, a vital fact for sustaining
life. Moreover, relative water contents determine the rate of key processes.
On average, less than 0.01 percent of the surface area of soil is occupied by
microbes. Their effect on the soil environment will therefore be determined
by niche-effects and by the manner in which such niches are connected
with soil-pore patterns and the associated flow patterns of water and air.
Microorganisms may change water properties such as the viscosity, which
affects water availability, and soil properties such as hydrophobicity, which
changes flow patterns of water into and through soil. This is hypothesized
to be part of a self-organizational mechanism in which microorganisms
create microenvironments that are particularly favorable to their survival
and illustrate a close relation between physical and biological soil processes
at the microscale.
Young also discussed the value of ecosystem services and cited a study
(Boumans et al., 2002) where the value of soil was estimated at $20 trillion.
A strong plea was made for more analyses on the financial value of ecosys-


The committee recognizes that there are several different typologies for valuing ecosys-
tem services, which result in different values. Estimates from the World Resources Institute
(1998, based on Costanza et al., 1997) place soil formation at 17.1 trillion U.S. dollars, the

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22 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

tem services and sustainable management of soils. Sustainable management

of soils—the most complex biosystems on Earth—is the key to the survival
of humankind.
The discussion by Brenda Buck, University of Nevada, Las Vegas,
noted that at the macrolevel, that is, both field- and landscape-scale, soil
architecture can be strongly affected by regional climate, as for example by
salts in dry or semiarid climates causing heaving of the soil and patterned
grounds. Frost effects in cold soils may result in comparable features. Geo-
morphology always strongly affects these processes by mass movement or
preferential, topography-related flow processes. Vesicular horizons have
large pores that are not interconnected and therefore hinder flow through
the soil matrix.
Larry Wilding, Texas A&M University, began his discussion by point-
ing out that shrink-swell soils are as costly as hurricanes in the United
States in terms of damage to property. He stressed the need for more in situ
observation of soil processes, an increase in multidisciplinary research, and
more progress in working across spatial scales. He demonstrated how soil
classification and soil profile descriptions provide comprehensive informa-
tion on soil architecture for a wide range of soils and their horizons from
the global to the local level. Qualitative descriptions of soil pores that have
been quantified by thin sectioning and staining allow estimates of water
fluxes in soil. In addition, soil features, such as clay coatings and iron mot-
tling, provide permanent signatures in the soil that can be “read” by trained
pedologists, again indicating water flow patterns and estimates of the associ-
ated biochemical processes, such as oxidation and reduction.
During the discussion, it was brought out that boundary conditions
of the soil system, particularly conditions at the soil surface, have a major
effect on soil processes. Microfabrics in the soil should not be studied in
isolation. Hydrophobicity at the surface can drastically change infiltration
patterns and may lead to serious runoff and erosion as a function of land-
scape morphology.

Summary of the First Day’s Discussions

At the start of the second day, the rapporteurs reported on the breakout
sessions, and the first day was summarized briefly. Four gaps in understand-
ing were identified:

highest of all ecosystem services. The point is that, although estimates may vary, the value of
soil as an ecosystem service is extremely high.

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 23

1. There is a need for simple indicators of soil health.

2. Soil scientists must link ecosystem services to soil health.
3. In situ measurements of biota interacting with the environment are
needed.
4. There are problems in scaling chemical and biological processes.

In addition, two limitations on soil science research were recognized:

1. Soil scientists often limit themselves by staying within their disci-

plines and scientific societies.
2. Soil scientists often make it difficult to collaborate with scientists
of other disciplines.

In the field of education, two needs were noted:

1. The focus of soil science education should be broadened.

2. Soils are critical to the world’s population and the linkage to global
problems should be emphasized in teaching programs as well as ways in
which innovative soil management can help to alleviate these problems.

Session 5: Upscaling to a Regional Level

César Izaurralde, Joint Global Change Research Institute of the Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory and the University of Maryland, explored
how landscape architecture affects upscaling of soil processes to a regional
level. Landscape modifications affect many soil processes. His presentation
focused on water cycling (hydrological processes), carbon cycling, and trace
gas fluxes as examples of the inherent complexity of upscaling soil processes
to regional scales. He also discussed the need to integrate disciplines, scales,
and data.
Water is a critical resource used for more than just consumption and
food production; it is also used for energy production, transportation, tour-
ism, and functioning of natural ecosystems. In soils, water is the medium,
support, and regulator of all chemical, biological, and physical reactions.
Landscape architecture affects size and spatiotemporal dynamics of water
fluxes, and has a dominant effect on water storage. There is a relatively good
quantitative understanding of how to describe water fluxes at the pedon
scale, and equations exist to upscale predictions made at the pedon scale
to fields and watersheds based on a uniform spatial distribution of hydro-

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24 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

logic properties. However, hydrologic properties may exhibit large spatial

variations. In addition, models are developed based on static soils. Since
landscape architecture evolves with time and changes in spatial scales, the
study of water fluxes can provide the necessary information to understand
many features of landscape architecture and how it influences the upscaling
of hydrologic and other soil processes.
The adoption of soil carbon sequestration as a technology to mitigate
climate change requires estimates of carbon changes at different scales under
different land use and management practices to make regional, national,
and global projections. Currently, there are direct methods (field and labora-
tory measurements, minimum detectable differences, eddy covariance) and
indirect methods (stratified accounting, remote sensing, models) to detect
soil carbon changes. However, it has been difficult to estimate changes
over short periods of time. Izaurralde noted three emerging technologies
for rapid and accurate monitoring of soil carbon at different scales and
over time: (1) laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, (2) mid- and near-
infrared spectroscopy, and (3) inelastic neutron scattering. He noted that
geostatistical methods can be used to predict the spatial distribution of soil
attributes. Breakthroughs and innovations in research will come from the
need to connect the carbon cycle across scales. Great insight is being ob-
tained about soil carbon processes as regulated by physical, chemical, and
biological mechanisms. Because these processes are affected by landscape
conditions (e.g., vegetation cover, topography, and manipulations), there is
a need to study how to connect or preserve this information during upscal-
ing procedures.
Soil is an immense global reactor for the production and consumption
of trace gases. Trace gases can be measured at field scale combining diode
laser absorption spectroscopy and micrometeorological techniques. Instru-
mentation offers rapid sampling rates to be used with eddy correlation and
flux gradient techniques. In the estimation of trace gas fluxes, there is an
exciting opportunity for collaboration among soil scientists, meteorologists,
and atmospheric chemists to improve the understanding of the upscaling of
nitrous oxide production from the microbial to the regional scale.
Izaurralde noted that temporal scaling, not just spatial scaling, needs to
be considered when aggregating data across scales. We can consider time-
scales by looking at the biogeochemical cycles that exist in nature. There is
also a disconnect when going to regional scales. Do the bottom-up estimates
converge with the top-down estimates done with inverse modeling?
In his discussion of the presentation, Henry Lin, Pennsylvania State

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 25

University, illustrated how to understand landscape architecture, soil pro-

cesses, and upscaling. He noted that processes have to be considered in situ
and in context, and reiterated the challenges that spatial variability poses
to delineating processes. He highlighted the geophysical tools that can be
used for upscaling, and suggested that pattern recognition may assist in
characterizing spatial variability and its effects. Lin emphasized the inter-
relationship of soil and water and the need to integrate soil science and
hydrology.
Susan Moran, U.S. Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research
Service Southwest Watershed Research Center, discussed the role of remote
sensing in the upscaling of soil processes. She highlighted a quote from
Izaurralde’s paper: “Data acquisition and availability has been a key impedi-
ment for applying models across spatial scales.” She noted that the use of
satellite imaging for soil processes is a known tool, but using it for upscal-
ing is a new technique. Using remote sensing for data at a larger scale may
be less accurate, but it is better than no data at all. In quoting Izaurralde’s
comment on the inherent complexity of upscaling soil processes to regional
scales, she questioned whether there is an optimal scale for remote sensing.
The data are available; they just need to be used, which can lead to break-
throughs in soil modeling. She stated that the biggest breakthrough in up-
scaling of soil models to a regional level will be made when satellite-derived
model parameters become available to everyone at no cost.

Session 6: New Tools for

In Situ and Laboratory Measurements
Kenneth Kemner, a physicist from Argonne National Laboratory,
discussed how X-ray imaging and spectroscopy are being used to make in
situ measurements of soil biological and physicochemical properties and
processes. He began with an introduction to synchrotrons and X-ray phys-
ics, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and X-ray microscopy, giving examples
of the use of X-ray micro(spectro)scopy to investigate soil bio(geo)chemical
processes. He provided an overview of some techniques that soil scientists
could incorporate into their research. He noted how his research has been
an integrated multidisciplinary process, working with several scientists from
other fields. The goal of his presentation was to spur some interest in how
this type of research could be applied to soils.
He provided several points to explain why hard X-rays could be used
to investigate soil biogeochemical processes: Hard X-rays (i.e., greater than

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26 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

~2 keV) interact “weakly” with matter (relative to charge particle probes)

and enable the investigation of hydrated and buried samples; hard X-rays
enable highly sensitive elemental analysis on extremely small objects; high
sensitivity of X-rays enables X-ray absorption spectroscopy (i.e., interroga-
tion of chemistry); high intensity and brilliance at synchrotrons enables
X-ray microscopy investigations.
Kemner proposed that the integration of new techniques and tools
such as third-generation light sources with multiple scientific disciplines
provides new and exciting opportunities for addressing a variety of highly
relevant soil science issues. The integration of the strengths of both X-ray
and electron microscopies to investigate geomicrobiological systems is
especially promising. Hard X-ray micro(spectro)scopy offers many excit-
ing possibilities for future environmental and biogeochemical soil science
investigations.
Kenneth Klabunde, Kansas State University, gave an overview of nano-
technology, the use of nanoparticles in environmental remediation, and
examples of tools used. He pointed out that we have difficulty describing
things at the 1-to-10 nanometer scale, where nanoparticles reside. He men-
tioned some of the ways in which nanotechnology may be relevant to soil
science research: environmental remediation; the building of sensors from
nanomaterials (at low cost); and the use of tools such as X-ray diffraction,
electron diffraction, atomic force microscopy, electron microscopy, and
standardized chemical reactivity tests.

Session 7: Key Indicators for Detecting the

Resilience and Stability of the Soil System
The multitude of ecosystem services that soils provide is increasingly
recognized in the context of sustainable agriculture, climate change, deserti-
fication, and other global phenomena. The resilience of terrestrial, and some
aquatic, ecosystems in the face of intensifying human disturbance relies, in
part, on structural and functional attributes of soil. This growing recogni-
tion is important because soils are not renewable within the timescales in
which human societies make decisions and plan ahead. However, soils do
recover from disturbance and destruction faster than once thought, but it
is not known how fast or under what circumstances.
Kate Scow, University of California, Davis, introduced the topic by
discussing the essential services that soils provide and describing the ma-
jor threats that soils are facing worldwide. She categorized the important

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 27

functions of soil to be sustaining biology; regulating water and solute flow;

filtering, buffering, and reclamation functions; storing and cycling of water
and nutrients; and physical support and protection. She noted that some
functions are “ecosystem services,” defined as conditions and processes
through which natural ecosystems, and the species that are part of them,
help sustain and fulfill human life. She emphasized the need to include
humans as part of the landscape. Then, borrowing from the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (2005), she noted how soils fit into all four aspects
of ecosystem services:

1. Provisioning (food, water, timber, fiber, genetic resources)

2. Regulating (climate, floods, disease, water quality)
3. Cultural (recreation, aesthetic, spiritual)
4. Supporting (nutrient cycling, soil formation)

Over the next 50 years, soils will be severely affected by population

growth and changing land use. Soil, already in a state of degradation, will
suffer further from various threats: erosion, a decline in organic matter,
contamination, compaction, a loss of biodiversity and pedodiversity, salini-
zation, and floods and landslides. The resulting changes will in turn affect
other systems—hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, as well as human
beings.
Scow’s presentation focused on the challenges of defining soil indicators
that diagnose problems before they manifest into real damage that seri-
ously impairs soil function. She described the attributes of resistance and
resilience and categorized soils by how they respond to threats. Resilience,
resistance, and inertia are all aspects of soil stability. Resistance is difficult
to study because it is an absence of change and therefore not observable.
Many systems also have an appreciable lag time before deteriorating under
stress. Others may respond slowly over long timescales. She used Figure 3-2
to illustrate the possibilities where soil A (solid line) has high resistance and
high resilience, soil B (dashed line) has low resistance and low resilience, and
soil C (dotted line) has low resistance and high resilience.
She noted that there should probably also be a fourth curve that slowly
descends after disturbance and a fifth that descends only after a long lag
time. Several stresses are difficult to reverse: desertification, sediment load-
ing of waterway, wind erosion with dust migration, salinization, soil and
groundwater contamination, wetlands destruction, coastal erosion, and
unsustainable crop production.

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28 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Stress or disturbance

Index
of Soil A
Function
C

Time
FIGURE 3-2 Function, disturbances, resistance, and resilience.
SOURCE: Kate Scow (committee interpretation of figure from presentation) redrawn
from Herrick and Wander (1998) and Seybold et al. (1999).

She described the requirements that indicators must fill to be useful,

Figure 4
and stated that it will be difficult to come up with a single meaningful
R01519
indicator. Indicators must be relevant to all aspects of function, respond
redrawn
to management within a practical time frame, be easy to estimate, have
vector, editable
a robust methodology for estimation, and be cost-effective. In addition,
when deciding which indicators to use, it is necessary to know the issue or
ecosystem that is being studied and the purpose for which the indicators
will be used.
Scow categorized indicators into four types:

1. Physical: water retention and transmission, soil structure

2. Chemical: cation exchange capacity, pH, exchangeable cations,
nutrient levels
3. Biological: diversity, fauna, microbial population, rooting depth,
organic matter content
4. Computational/archival: regional modeling may have a role to play;
databases, such as the soil survey, are useful but are not used much

In conclusion, Scow noted that there needs to be a shift from assessing

to managing soil resilience and resistance.
Throughout her talk, Scow made note of the following research
needs:

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SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS 29

• Developing a better definition of soil as an ecosystem services

provider
• Finding ways of assessing the value of soil services other than
agriculture
• Scaling up from an indicator to big-picture influences
• Adapting conceptual models to serve as indicators
• Anticipating when degradation will occur in the future before it
happens
• Evaluating trade-offs
• Bringing in stakeholders
• Developing a reward system for soil managers utilizing soils as an
ecosystem services provider

Following Scow’s presentation, Jayne Belnap, U.S. Geological Survey,

discussed why defining indicators is difficult. Different users have differ-
ent definitions of soil quality. There is a desire to have a “Grand Unifying
Theory of Soil,” which she felt could not be done at this time. The impor-
tance of indicating factors changes among systems, as well as temporally and
spatially. The changes in one aspect may or may not change other factors,
depending on conditions. Some known factors (e.g., climate) are under-
employed as indicators. There is a poor understanding of the relationship
between environment, food web structure, and function in soils.
She then divided indicators into three classes: (1) climate, which is not
really an indicator, but a dominant influence; and the problem is that most
of our past information will not help us as climate changes in the future;
(2) soil stability, the resistance to erosion; and (3) soil function, including
soil structure, processes, and biotic activity—the first two being relatively
well known, but biotic activity is difficult to assess.
Birl Lowery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, discussed how maps
can be useful indicators of, for example, soil quality and contamination. He
noted that we can also determine some soil properties simply by looking
over a landscape when we know what to look for. He echoed others earlier
in the workshop with his comment that soils need to be viewed three-di-
mensionally, not just in two dimensions.

The workshop concluded with a plenary session during which partici-

pants discussed the various presentations and expressed their opinions on
the gaps and needs in soil science research. Highlights of these discussions
are noted in Chapter 4.

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30 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

REFERENCES
Boumans, R. M. J., R. Costanza, J. Farley, M. A. Wilson, R. Portela, J. Rotmans, F. Villa,
and M. Grasso. 2002. Modeling the dynamics of the integrated earth system and the
value of global ecosystem services using the GUMBO model. Ecological Economics
41:529-560.
Costanza, R., R. d’Arge, R. de Groot, S. Farber, M. Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S.
Naeem, R. V. O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R. G. Raskin, P. Sutton, M. van den Belt. 1997. The
value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387(6230):255.
Herrick, J. E., and M. M. Wander. 1998. Relationships between soil organic carbon and soil
quality in cropped and rangeland soils: the importance of distribution, composition
and soil biological activity. Pp. 405-425 in Advances in Soil Science: Soil Processes and
the Carbon Cycle, R. Lal, J. Kimble, R. Follett, and B. A. Stewart, eds.. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity
Synthesis. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
Seybold, C. A., J. E. Herrick, and J. J. Brejda. 1999. Soil resilience: A fundamental compo-
nent of soil quality. Soil Science 164:224-234.
World Resources Institute. 1998. Valuing ecosystem services. World Resources 1998-99.

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The Frontiers in Soil Science Research

A ll of the speakers and participants in the workshop were asked to con-

sider the following:

• Challenges and priorities within basic soil science research

• Opportunities for inter- and cross-disciplinary research
• Technological and computational opportunities to advance soil
science research
• Student and early career training issues

The main ideas that came out of the presentations, the discussions,
and the breakout groups are summarized below in five sections: (1) Over-
arching Challenges, (2) Research Needs and Opportunities (divided into
six subcategories), (3) Tools, Techniques, and Current Opportunities, (4)
Interdisciplinary Collaborations and Emerging Research Opportunities,
and (5) Student and Training Issues.

Overarching Challenges
Throughout the workshop, two main challenges were frequently men-
tioned. One was the need to place a value on the soil resource and give the
soil science discipline societal relevance by relating it to global issues such as
food and energy security, human health, and environmental sustainability.
This topic was addressed in Chapter 2 of this report.

31

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32 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

The second main challenge, which is also a research frontier, was that
of scale. Several of the speakers addressed the topic, introducing the need
to consider both spatial scale (from the molecular level to landscape and
beyond) and temporal scale (across time and also across processes that oper-
ate at different speeds). For example, Session 2 included discussion on using
microscopic and spectroscopic techniques to elucidate physical, chemical,
and biological processes at the microscopic level to understand impacts at
the “field scale.” Session 5, “Upscaling to a Regional Level,” considered the
roles of landscape structure and remote sensing in translating soil processes
from the laboratory to the field and regional scales. Both sessions addressed
the issue of temporal scale. At one end of the scale, Don Sparks noted in
Session 2 that there are processes that happen within nanoseconds and
cannot be measured. At the other end of the spectrum, César Izaurralde
and others noted that some landscape processes occur over geologic scales
beyond human perception.
Scaling up of processes, rather than simply scaling up of properties,
by soil scientists is particularly understudied, and soil scientists are often
uncomfortable in doing so, as noted by one of the breakout groups. Soil
scientists must focus on research at multiple scales ranging from nanometers
to watersheds. While small-scale research is often interesting and more likely
fundable, large-scale research is needed to translate small-scale research to
appropriate societal and global issues. The ability to “scale down” is also
needed and tractable by soil scientists. For example, the effects of global
climate change on specific regions or landscapes can be translated at a scale
that society and managers can understand and act on. The notion of a
coordinated “grand experiment” was discussed to facilitate soil scientists in
addressing the issue of scaling.

Overarching challenges:
• Placing a value on the soil resource
• Integrating research from different spatial and temporal
scales

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THE FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 33

Research Needs and Opportunities

Ecosystem Functioning
As was described extensively in Chapter 2, there is a need to develop
methodologies for valuing, both financially and culturally, ecosystem
services provided by soil. However, to do this, identification and quanti-
fication of the key ecosystem services performed by soil is needed, as was
noted by Kate Scow in the last presentation. Several speakers—including
Fendorf, Pierzynski, Sparks, and Tiedje—discussed the need to develop
measurements that extrapolate to the ecosystem scale both spatially and
temporally. A future growth need stressed by workshop participants
was the development of appropriate indicators of soil function to allow
for the anticipation of degradation. Opportunities were mentioned
for the application of soil science research to urban ecosystems. Long-
term monitoring is needed to quantify global dynamics rather than
static soil properties so that the resulting measurements can be more
meaningful.

Ecosystem functioning research needs:

• Identify and quantify key ecosystem services provided by
soil
• Measure the value of ecosystem services performed by soil
• Develop measurements to extrapolate to the ecosystem
scale
• Develop appropriate indicators of soil function
• Long-term monitoring to quantify global dynamics
• Incorporate soils into studies of urban ecosystems

Role of Soils in Human Health

There is a general need to characterize the relationship between soil
quality and human health, including processes at the landscape scale. For
example, the relationship between the transport of biologicals and their fate
in soil and human health issues needs to be explored. There is a need to
understand the effect of land management on the fate and transport of com-
pounds and organisms that affect human health. The topic of desertification

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34 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

and resulting effects of soil particulates on human health was identified as

a research need. There are also less direct links that need further explora-
tion, such as the role of soil on water quality, and indirect links, such as soil
and environmental quality.

Human health research needs:

• Characterize the relationship between soil quality and hu-
man health
• Relate virus transport and fate in soil to human health
• Characterize the effect of soil particulates from desertifica-
tion on human health
• Characterize the role of soil quality in water quality and its
effect on human health

Transport Processes
To better interface within the soil science community and with other
sciences, it is important to understand transport processes in soil and to
scale up to global processes. For example: (1) the characterization of gas
fluxes to the atmosphere in relation to climate change; (2) the effect of water
flow through the soil column on the hydrosphere; (3) how this flow is scaled
up to a complex landscape; and (4) the impact of the transport of viruses
and other microorganisms in soils on human health. There is a need for
studying the interaction of physical transport through soil with microbial
or chemical processes. There needs to be better characterization of transport
and reactions by exploring, for example, the use of in situ tomographic and
spectroscopic techniques.
Research at interfaces between soil and the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere is a need noted by many speakers (Trumbore,
Izaurralde, Fendorf, Young, and Tiedje). Greater use of tracer techniques
provides an opportunity to characterize the interactions between the
“spheres” as discussed by Trumbore. The role of colloids as facilitators of
transport of natural material and contaminants and as accelerators in soil
formation was identified as a research opportunity during the breakout
session. In addition, small-scale experiments should be better related to the
natural environment (landscape scales). It was noted that there are opportu-

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THE FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 35

nities to combine geomorphological landscape analysis and remote sensing

techniques to facilitate scaling.

Transport processes research needs:

• Research transport processes at interfaces between soil and
atmosphere
• Characterize gas fluxes to the atmosphere in relation to
climate change
• Characterize the impact of water flow through the soil
column on the hydrosphere
• Identify the impact of the transport of viruses and other
microorganisms in soils on human health
• Employ in situ tomographic and spectroscopic techniques
to characterize transport and reactions
• Characterize reactions at the interface of the various
“spheres”
• Research the role of colloids as facilitators of transport

Plant-Soil-Microbial Interface
Basic research at the plant-soil-microbial interface is needed, includ-
ing a particular emphasis on applying modern genomics techniques as
noted by several speakers. The role of plant-soil-microbial interfaces on
nutrient cycling needs to be characterized. The need to better under-
stand the effect of biofilms was noted in Sessions 2 and 3 as well as in
several breakout groups. The biofilm-microbe surface interaction and
biotic interaction at surfaces relates to geochemical cycling processes, not
just to nutrient cycling. It was noted that the plant-soil interface relates
to soil formation, that is, the role of interfaces in controlling rates of
weathering. Similarly, Young emphasized how soil architecture and the
properties of soil surfaces, such as hydrophobicity, are greatly influenced
by microbial activities occurring at plant-soil-microbial interfaces. Fen-
dorf expressed the need to understand the role of plant-soil-microbial
interfaces in contaminant fate.

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36 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Interfacial research needs:

• Conduct basic research at the plant-soil-microbial
interface
• Apply genomics techniques
• Characterize the role of interfaces on nutrient cycling, in
contaminant fate, and in weathering processes
• Research the role of biofilms in geochemical cycling
processes

Characterization of Coupled Reaction Processes in Soil

A general need raised throughout the workshop was that of a better
understanding of feedback mechanisms between physical, chemical, and
biological processes. Young noted that in situ techniques could help provide
that understanding. Other speakers, notably Fendorf, Sparks, and Tiedje,
discussed how the integration of in situ physical, chemical, biological
(omics), and imaging techniques could be used to elucidate the coupling of
soil processes. The tools exist, but integration is needed.
As was noted in one of the breakout groups, it is important to empha-
size and understand that reactive phases are dynamic. Research opportuni-
ties that were brought forth were feedback mechanisms among linked soil
processes and improved characterization of the dynamics and coupling
between physical, chemical, and biological soil processes. Young noted the
need to understand the feedback mechanisms between biotic activity and
soil architecture. There is also a need to characterize the reaction of soil to
external perturbations from climate, as well as the long-term stability and
resilience of soil experiencing degradation from human activity.

Coupled reaction processes research needs:

• Employ in situ imaging techniques
• Understand dynamic reactive phases
• Improve characterization of the dynamics and coupling
between physical, chemical, and biological processes
• Improve the understanding of feedback mechanisms be-
tween physical, chemical, and biological processes

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THE FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 37

• Characterize the reaction of soil to external perturbations

from climate or change
• Characterize long-term resilience of soil experiencing
degradation from human activity

Data Acquisition and Synthesis

Throughout the workshop, discussion included how data are acquired,
assimilated, and integrated. For example, it was suggested that existing pools
of data be organized and standardized to permit improved interchange
among scientists across disciplines. Data from long-term studies could
be synthesized and analyzed to improve and update future monitoring
practices.
As mentioned above, the integration of in situ physical, chemical, bio-
logical (omics), and imaging techniques is needed to elucidate soil processes.
James Tiedje suggested expanding omics studies on important soil bacteria
to discern and investigate genes relevant to soil ecology. He also noted that
metagenomics (the community genome) could be used to reduce the com-
plexity of information for a given microbial community for use by other soil
science disciplines. There is a need to interface the interpretive expertise of
soil scientists with the expanding efforts and new initiatives in metagenom-
ics to better identify the questions and strategies that will help minimize
complexity issues in the soil and to enhance interpretive capabilities.
Upscaling of soil processes requires�������������������������������
improved data acquisition and
modeling. In his paper, César Izaurralde stated, “Data acquisition and avail-
ability has been a key impediment for applying models across spatial scales.”
Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) at various scales
combined with interactive computer models were noted as needs. Susan
Moran noted that “t����������������������������������������������������
he biggest breakthrough in upscaling of soil models
to a regional level will be made when satellite-derived model parameters
are available for free to everyone.” Henry Lin noted in his discussion paper
that pattern recognition or “spatial-temporal organization” may improve
the understanding of soil variability. New measurement technologies will
aid in upscaling processes. For example, the potential for using laser-in-
duced breakdown spectroscopy, mid- and near-infrared spectroscopy, and
inelastic neutron scattering to monitor soil carbon levels is currently being
explored.

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38 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Data research needs:

• Standardize and synthesize existing databases and improve
access
• Integrate in situ physical, chemical, biological, and imaging
techniques
• Improve modeling across spatial and temporal scales
• Develop new measurement techniques

Tools, Techniques, and Current Opportunities

One of the goals of this workshop was to identify tools and tech-
niques—some already in use by other disciplines, some new—that could
be applied to soil science research. Although many soil scientists already
use some of these tools (for example, many soil scientists are already using
synchrotrons), more soil scientists need to be made aware of them and how
to use them. Several attendees at the workshop expressed their desire to
learn more about the tools and techniques they were hearing about, some
for the first time.
The integration of new techniques and tools such as third-generation
light sources with multiple scientific disciplines provides new and exciting
opportunities for addressing a variety of highly relevant soil science issues,
as presented by Kenneth Kemner. The integration of the strengths of both
X-ray and electron microscopies to investigate geomicrobiological systems
is especially promising. Hard X-ray micro(spectro)scopy offers many excit-
ing possibilities for future environmental and biogeochemical soil science
investigations.
The use of geospatial technology to better understand soil was
demonstrated in Session 4. In his presentation, Iain Young used a three-
dimensional display that got all workshop participants interested in—and
excited about—how to use such a tool in their own research. The de-
velopment�����������������������������������������������������������
and use of nondestructive imaging methods to characterize
three-dimensional soil structures of nondisturbed soil horizons, and the
development of dynamic flow theory that transforms three-dimensional soil
architecture into function is a frontier research area. �������������������������
Such spatial informatics
can be applied at multiple scales.

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THE FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 39

In her presentation, Susan Trumbore discussed the use of isotopic

tracers as a soil science research tool and emphasized that some powerful
opportunities exist today but will not be available in the future, for example,
isotopes of carbon and cesium as a result of aboveground weapons testing.
In addition, several needs or research gaps were identified during the pre-
sentation and the following discussion. How can tracers be effectively used
to address a series of questions that quantify state factors in soil? How can
interactions among the physical, biological, and chemical processes within
soil be quantified across a range of ecosystems? What new insights into soil
processes can be gained through application of isotopic tracers to soils?
Microscopic and spectroscopic techniques need to be applied for
improved understanding of coupled processes in soil, as noted by Scott
Fendorf in his presentation. He also noted that we are on the leading
edge of efforts to develop conceptual and mathematical models based on
molecular-level data that will facilitate the generalization of processes from
individual studies.
Throughout the workshop, the need for the development of more
tools for use in soil science research was identified. Further advances in soil
science could be accomplished with tools that allow for in situ studies of
the chemistry, structure, and biology of soil. There is a need for improved
modeling techniques that allow for extrapolating experiments across scales
and techniques to capture the variability and heterogeneity related to the
function and processes of soil. Related to this is the need for a greater use of
mathematical and computational capabilities. And, as noted above, a greater
use of geospatial technology, along with GIS and remote sensing, can lead
to breakthroughs in soil science research.
The development of computational methodologies could help address
complexity problems such as heterogeneity, variability, and scaling, as noted
in Session 3. Furthermore, new techniques characterizing mineral surfaces
could contribute to understanding microbial interactions with charged
surfaces and help create bridges between soil chemistry and soil biology.
In addition to using already existing tools, new tools do need to be de-
veloped. The challenge is to make more soil scientists aware of these existing
and emerging tools and techniques and how to use them for their research.
One way to do this is to encourage collaboration of soil scientists with the
scientists in other disciplines who are either developing these tools or are
using them for their own research.

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40 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Research opportunities using new tools and techniques:

• Encourage greater employment of micro(spectro)scopy by
soil scientists
• Employ isotopic tracers in soil science research
• Develop new tools for in situ studies of the chemistry, struc-
ture, and biology of soil
• Improve modeling techniques for extrapolating across
scales
• Employ more mathematical and computational capabilities
in modeling
• Employ modeling to transform architecture into function

Interdisciplinary Collaborations and

Emerging Research Opportunities
Soil science is intrinsically an interdisciplinary science that integrates
physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and computational sciences. Soil
scientists have long been at the forefront of applying state-of-the-science
technologies and methodologies to complex environmental systems. Per-
haps “soil system science” would be a more effective term to describe the
transformations that this discipline has already undergone and will continue
to undergo.
As was seen in several of the workshop presentations (Fendorf, Young,
and Kemner, in particular), the advances in separation, spectroscopic, and
imaging technologies in recent years have resulted in major breakthroughs
in understanding complex physical and chemical properties of soil that con-
trol the fate and transport of fluids, nutrients, carbon, and contaminants.
Furthermore, the revolution in molecular biology and the fusion and inte-
gration of rapidly advancing analytical and molecular biological methods
are enabling key biogeochemical processes to be probed at very high reso-
lution at submicron to millimeter scales. The integration of this physical,
chemical, and biological information collected in situ with these advanced
techniques will provide an unprecedented opportunity to understand how
physicochemical and biological processes are coupled and to elucidate vari-
ous feedbacks that are operating in complex environmental systems.
There has never been a period where revolutionary breakthroughs in

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THE FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 41

understanding soil and the hydrobiogeochemical processes occurring within

soil are so likely. As was noted by several participants in the workshop, these
breakthroughs will only be possible if soil scientists greatly expand their
collaborative efforts with colleagues in other scientific disciplines to bring
the most advanced techniques and approaches to bear on unraveling the
mechanisms underlying key physical, chemical, and biological processes;
understanding how these processes are coupled; as well as the feedback sys-
tems operating across temporal and spatial scales. Brent Clothier noted in
his presentation that the complete scientific study of soil requires researchers
from a wide range of disciplines. Breakthroughs in soil science will require
mathematicians, physicists, chemists, and biologists to work together, and
for them to link with economists and sociologists. Breakthroughs and in-
novations will come from the synergy of collaboration and from research at
the interfaces between disciplines��.
In addition to areas of research, it is helpful also to consider the ways
in which the conduct of research may be most effective in the future. Iain
Young assembled a diverse group of 23 young scientists at the Scottish
������������
In-
formatics, Mathematics, Biology, and Statistics (�����������������������
SIMBIOS) Centre (based
at the ��������������������������������������������������������������������
University of Abertay, Scotland)������������������������������������
. The group has expertise in a wide
variety of fields: experimental soil mechanics, mycology, cell biology, com-
putational fluid mechanics, statistical mechanics, theoretical biology, plant
physiology, computer gaming, and information technology. This forms a
flexible, interdisciplinary research team that can tackle soil problems in an
innovative manner, not being bound by traditional approaches. They work
together in an open environment without doors, creating synergy and op-
portunities for serendipity. This work-model is not new in general, but it
is for the soil science community and presents an intriguing approach to
solving problems in the future.
New areas of collaboration need to be more aggressively pursued. For
example, the role of soils in human health had been traditionally thought to
be tied to food supply, nutrition, and water quantity and quality. However,
many additional aspects are involved, including the role of soil in exposure
pathways to contaminants and pathogens and the involvement of soil in
emerging diseases. Informatics is another area where stronger collabora-
tions between soil scientists and colleagues from other disciplines will be
required. Integrating advances in bioinformatics, spatial informatics, and
ecoinformatics, as well as molecular modeling will be critical to advancing
soil science research and will demand new collaborations. Another emerging
area identified by workshop participants was the area of urban soils. While

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42 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

soil science research has traditionally focused on wildland and managed for-
est ecosystems and agricultural soils, many problems and issues surrounding
the urban soil resource require attention and provide opportunities for soil
scientists to work with engineers and others to address these issues. It was
clear from the workshop that, while many soil scientists are at the leading
edge of utilizing the most advanced techniques and approaches through col-
laborative efforts, there needs to be much greater effort in making the tools
and approaches more widely available and collaborations with colleagues
in other disciplines more mainstream. Workshop attendees, many of whom
were unfamiliar with the advanced tools, techniques, and approaches avail-
able, expressed enthusiasm to collaborate with other colleagues.
Other emerging interdisciplinary research opportunities for soil
scientists involve Earth-observing systems. Workshop participants men-
tioned several major new research initiatives funded by the National Sci-
ence Foundation, such as the National Ecological Observatory Network
(NEON), the Collaborative Large-scale Engineering Analysis Network for
Environmental Research (CLEANER), and the Consortium of Universities
for the Advancement of Hydrologic Sciences, Inc. (CUAHSI), that involve
measurement of soil properties and processes over large spatial and temporal
scales. The NEON will be the first national ecological measurement and ob-
servation system designed both to answer regional- to continental-scale sci-
entific questions and to have the interdisciplinary participation necessary to
achieve credible ecological forecasting and prediction. The CLEANER and
CUAHSI programs are planning a dual-purpose network called the Water
and Environmental Research Systems (WATERS) Network. The WATERS
Network is proposed as a networked infrastructure of environmental field
facilities working to promote interdisciplinary research and education on
complex, large-scale environmental systems. While many in the soil sci-
ence community have been involved in the planning and execution of
these major interdisciplinary research initiatives, more soil scientists have
to become involved to ensure that the role of soil is properly appreciated up
front and that appropriate measurements of soil properties and processes are
integrated into the observatory and experimental platforms.
Several presenters and participants noted that there are major chal-
lenges in scaling up from understanding mechanisms involved in coupled
hydrobiogeochemical processes in soil that control the fate and transport of
water, nutrients, carbon, contaminants, and pathogens to addressing issues
manifested at larger scales. The link between key soil processes and critical
ecosystem services needs to be more firmly established, as does the value of

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THE FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH 43

these services, as was discussed in Chapter 2. Additionally, the importance

of the soil resource as the foundation of terrestrial ecosystem health, water
resources, global carbon budgets, and global biogeochemical cycles needs to
be better articulated to policy makers and members of the general public.
To address these larger-scale issues and to properly integrate advances and
breakthroughs in soil science research into policy will require collaborations
with colleagues in the social sciences, humanities, and economics.
Jayne Belnap, in discussing the final presentation, stressed how soil sci-
entists must collaborate with others to make them aware of the importance
of soils. Soil scientists need to be active collaborators and not expect those
from other disciplines to come to them if they are not reaching out to other
scientists. Attending meetings of other related disciplines is important to
raise awareness of the relevance of soil science to those other disciplines.
Equally important is understanding how to make soil science relevant to the
audience being addressed, whether it is that of another scientific discipline
or stakeholders, end users, or policy makers.

Opportunities for soil science in interdisciplinary collaborations:

• Research at the interface of disciplines could lead to
breakthroughs
• Consider new models for interdisciplinary collaboration
• Participate in Earth-observation systems and other new
multidisciplinary research initiatives
• Collaborate with colleagues in social sciences, humanities,
and economics to integrate advances and breakthroughs in soil
science research into policy making

Student and Training Issues

Throughout the workshop, participants were asked to consider whether
there were any issues related to education and training that needed to be
addressed for soil science to reach new frontiers in research. Several gener-
alities were made in the discussion periods and breakout groups; many of
these echo the challenges raised under other subheadings: teach students to
work across the discipline and with other disciplines; provide internships
to work with new tools and techniques; train students to understand the

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44 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

societal relevance of their research; teach the capacity to communicate with

nonscientists.
During one breakout session, it was noted that there has been a para-
digm shift in the approach to soil science research that affects how soils
should be taught, but the soil science curriculum has not undergone the
same change. Many soil science departments have become part of larger
programs with labels such as environmental science. This may attract more
students, but some scientists question whether it dilutes the fundamentals
of the discipline. Collaboration with other departments is necessary, how-
ever, to allow students to be involved in interdisciplinary opportunities and
have access to high-tech instruments not found in most soil science depart-
ments. Ways to introduce undergraduates in other disciplines to soil science
were discussed in several breakout groups, such as research experiences and
summer field courses.
The issue of certification and licensing was also discussed during the
breakout sessions. Engineers and geologists, who are licensed and certified,
work in environmental consulting. Soil scientists are not being extensively
involved in much of this work, and the work may be suffering by not hav-
ing greater involvement by soil scientists. There is voluntary certification
for soil scientists, and some states have licensing of soil scientists, but this
is not widespread.

Issues in student training:

• Teach students to
– collaborate across disciplines
– think at larger scales
– relate to the general public
• Provide interdisciplinary opportunities
• Collaborate with other departments to give students access
to high-tech instruments

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Epilogue

T his workshop was not intended to be a one-time event, but rather a step
in a process of identifying how soil science research can expand and
grow to meet the needs of science and society. We ���������������������������
must understand soil in
terms of its dynamics, its stability, and the resulting rates and efficiencies of
soil processes. Many
��������������������������������������������������������������
of the research topics and issues raised at the workshop
will be important in the future. Among them are the following:

• Valuing soil as an ecosystem service

• Translating research across both temporal and spatial scales
• Sharing and using data already available for other purposes in soil
science research
• Incorporating existing and new technologies from other disciplines
to study soil systems
• Collaborating across disciplines
• Translating soil science research into information for stakeholders
and end users (e.g., policy makers, regulators, farmers, land developers, and
engineers)

Many of these topics are interrelated. Using available data may require up-
scaling or downscaling of results owing to the disparate scales at which soils
and, for example, vegetation, water, sediment, and atmospheric measure-
ments are made. Likewise, interdisciplinary collaboration may result as soil
scientists apply new and existing technologies to soil science research.

45

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46 FRONTIERS IN SOIL SCIENCE RESEARCH

There is an identified need for more funding for both agricultural-

related and environmental soil science. As was noted several times during
the workshop, soil science lacks a primary sponsor or steward, which partly
emanates from its interdisciplinary nature.
In recent years when science budgets have diminished, it is increasingly
important for soil scientists to continue to collaborate across and outside
the discipline, finding ways to relate their science to the societal needs, as
well as linking it to such issues as environmental policy. This is a struggle
not just in the United States, but in other countries as well, as witnessed by
Brent Clothier’s presentation to the workshop on efforts to link soil science
to policy in New Zealand, and recent meetings in Europe on the future of
soil science research.
Several networks mentioned during the workshop—including, for ex-
ample, the National Ecological Observatory Network and the Critical Zone
Exploration Network—are working across disciplines on research issues of
interest to soil scientists. Soil scientists need to continue to find ways to link
their basic research to broader research efforts, in an effort both to bring
soil science research to the forefront and to raise awareness in the broader
scientific community as to what soil science research can offer to the larger
scientific endeavor.
It is up to soil scientists to continue to search for the frontiers in re-
search, linking research to important societal and global issues, such as food
security, sustainability, climate change, and water resources. However, to
do so, we must continue to collaborate, keeping ourselves open to learning
from other disciplines, and reaching out to our scientific colleagues, scien-
tific societies, and research endeavors.

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Appendixes

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Appendix A

Workshop Agenda
Frontiers in Soil Science Research
December 12-14, 2005
National Academy of Sciences, Lecture Room
Washington, DC

Monday, December 12
6:00 Workshop introduction by Charles Rice, Kansas State
University
Welcome comments from National Academy of Sciences
President Ralph J. Cicerone

Keynote address: Brent Clothier, Horticultural and Food

Research Institute of New Zealand
Sustaining Soil Science: Participation, Policy, Purchase and
Progress

7:00 Discussion

7:30-9:00 Reception buffet in the Great Hall

Tuesday, December 13
8:00 Session 1: How well do we understand the interaction of
physical, chemical, and biological processes in soils that
impact the atmosphere, vegetation, and the hydrogeosphere?
Where are the innovations? What gaps need to be addressed?

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50 APPENDIX A

For example, with respect to greenhouse gas fluxes or liquid,

gas, and biologic transport.

Speaker: Susan Trumbore, University of California, Irvine

Transient Tracers on Land: Coordinated Use of Tracers to
Quantify Soil Processes within the State Factor Framework

Discussants: Janet S. Herman, University of Virginia

John M. Norman, University of Wisconsin,
Madison

Moderator: Jerry Hatfield, USDA-ARS, National Soil Tilth

Laboratory

9:30 Break

10:00 Session 2: What are the chemical interactions at the

molecular level that define the fate of ions, chemicals, and/or
microbes as they are transported through soil systems? How
can knowledge gained through molecular investigations be
used to constrain studies focused on the chemical interactions
and how are these linked to physical and biological processes?

Speaker: Scott Fendorf, Stanford University

Toward Gaining a Molecular-level Understanding of Processes
Governing the Fate and Transport of Ions/Chemicals within Soils

Discussants: Gary Pierzynski, Kansas State University

Donald Sparks, University of Delaware

Moderator: Paul M. Bertsch, University of Georgia

11:30 Lunch

1:00 Session 3: What controls biodiversity belowground? How can

knowledge gained through molecular biological investigations
(i.e., genomics, proteomics, metabolomics) be used to
advance soil science? How do coupled chemical, physical,

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APPENDIX A 51

and biological processes influence biodiversity? How does this

biodiversity affect the function of the soil system?

Speaker: James M. Tiedje, Michigan State University

Attacking Nature’s Greatest Biological Frontier, the Soil
Community

Discussants: Cindy H. Nakatsu, Purdue University

Kenneth H. Nealson, University of Southern
California

Moderator: Julie D. Jastrow, Argonne National Laboratory

2:30 Break

3:00 Session 4: What is the effect of in situ soil architecture on soil

physical, chemical, and biological processes? How does it vary
from one soil system to another? What are the controlling
factors?

Speaker: Iain M. Young, Scottish Informatics, Mathematics,

Biology, and Statistics (SIMBIOS) Centre, University of
Abertay
Architecture and Biology of Soil Systems

Discussants: Brenda J. Buck, University of Nevada

Larry P. Wilding, Texas A&M University

Moderator: Johan Bouma, Wageningen University,

Netherlands

4:30 Breakout Groups. See listing for assignments and locations.

6:00-7:00 Poster display and beer and wine reception

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52 APPENDIX A

Wednesday, December 14
8:00 Report on Tuesday’s breakout groups

9:00 Session 5: How does landscape architecture (topography,

vegetation, land use) affect the upscaling of soil processes to a
regional level?

Speaker: César Izaurralde, Joint Global Change Research

Institute, University of Maryland
How Does Landscape Architecture Affect the Upscaling of Soil
Processes to a Regional Level?

Discussants: Henry Lin, Pennsylvania State University

Susan Moran, USDA-ARS Southwest
Watershed Research Center

Moderator: Jennifer Harden, U.S. Geological Survey

10:30 Break

11:00 Session 6: What are the new tools for making in situ
and laboratory measurements of soil biological and
physicochemical properties and processes? How can soil
science use technologies and tools already used in other
disciplines to advance soil science research?

Speakers: Kenneth Kemner, Argonne National Laboratory

X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy for Making In Situ
Measurements of Soil Biological and Physicochemical Properties
and Processes

Kenneth J. Klabunde, Kansas State University

Nanotechnology and Its Possible Applications to Soil Science

Moderator: Joaquin Ruiz, University of Arizona

12:30 Lunch (on your own, available in cafeteria downstairs)

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APPENDIX A 53

2:00 Session 7: From a systems analysis standpoint, what are

the key indicators for detecting the resilience and stability
of the soil system? What are critical factors that control the
resilience and stability? Our understanding of soils in the
United States is based largely on observations, measurements,
and maps generated during the past 60 years. How might our
current understanding of soils and soil processes be impacted
by changes in climate, land use, and water-nutrient-biotic
interactions? What types of monitoring might be needed to
detect such changes?

Speaker: Kate Scow, University of California, Davis

Soil and Ecosystems: Stability, Resilience, and Resistance in the
Face of Disturbance

Discussants: Jayne Belnap, U.S. Geological Survey

Canyonlands Research Station, Utah
Birl Lowery, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Moderator: William A. Jury, University of California,

Riverside

3:30 Plenary discussion

6:00 Adjourn

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Appendix B

Speakers and Discussants*

Ralph J. Cicerone, President, National Academy of Sciences

An atmospheric scientist, Ralph J. Cicerone became president of the
National Academy of Sciences in 2005. His research in atmospheric
chemistry and climate change has involved him in shaping science and
environmental policy at the highest levels, nationally and internation-
ally. His research was recognized on the citation for the 1995 Nobel Prize
in chemistry award to his University of California, Irvine, colleague F.
Sherwood Rowland. In 1997 he received a United Nations Environment
Program Ozone Award for research in protecting the earth’s ozone layer.
The Franklin Institute recognized his outstanding contributions to the
understanding of greenhouse gases and ozone depletion and his funda-
mental research in biogeochemistry by selecting Cicerone as the 1999
laureate for the Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science. In
2001 he led a National Academy of Sciences study of the current state
of climate change and its impact on the environment and human health.
The American Geophysical Union awarded him its 2002 Roger Revelle
Medal for outstanding research contributions to the understanding of
Earth’s atmospheric processes, biogeochemical cycles, or other key ele-
ments of the climate system. In 2004 the World Cultural Council hon-

*Listed in same order as agenda. (These biosketches were current at the time of the
workshop.)

54

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APPENDIX B 55

ored him with the Albert Einstein World Award in Science. He received
his bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, where he was also a varsity baseball player, and
both his master’s and doctoral degrees from the University of Illinois in
electrical engineering, with a minor in physics.

Brent Clothier, Horticultural and Food Research Institute of New

Zealand (HortResearch)
Brent Clothier is a soil physicist and environmental scientist who is sci-
ence leader of the Sustainable Land Use team within HortResearch. In
his 30-year research career, he has published more than 165 scientific
papers on the movement and fate of water and chemicals in production
systems and the environment. He has led projects on risk assessments
of land-use practices and the protection of soils, surface water, and
groundwater from contamination, both in New Zealand and in the
Pacific islands. Clothier is the program leader of New Zealand’s major
soil-science research program SLURI (Sustainable Land Use Research
Initiative). He has a B.Sc. (Honors) from Canterbury University, and a
Ph.D. and D.Sc. in soil science from Massey University. He is a fellow of
the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Soil Science Society of America,
the American Society of Agronomy, the New Zealand Soil Science
Society, and the American Geophysical Union. He received the Don
and Betty Kirkham Soil Physics Award from the Soil Science Society of
America in 2000.

Susan Trumbore, University of California, Irvine (UCI)

Susan Trumbore is professor of earth system science and director of the
UCI branch of the UC Institute for Geophysics and Planetary Phys-
ics. She received a B.S. in geology from the University of Delaware
and a Ph.D. in geology and geochemistry from Columbia University’s
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory (1989). After postdoctoral
work at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Lawrence Liver-
more National Laboratory, she joined the Earth system science faculty
at UCI as a founding member in 1991. Dr. Trumbore studies how the
Earth’s natural exchanges of carbon among ocean, land, and atmosphere
are altered by human activity. She uses the distribution of radiocarbon
added to the atmosphere in the 1960s during nuclear weapons testing to
determine the timescale of carbon exchange between ecosystems (plants
and soils) and the atmosphere. With Ellen Druffel and John Southon,

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56 APPENDIX B

she established the W. M. Keck Carbon Cycle Accelerator Mass Spec-

trometry Facility at UCI in 2002 to expand the use of radiocarbon in
studies of the carbon cycle. Professor Trumbore was the recipient of a
National Science Foundation National Young Investigator Award in
1993. She was the first president of the Biogeosciences Section of the
American Geophysical Union (AGU), and is a fellow of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science and the AGU.

Janet S. Herman, University of Virginia

Janet S. Herman is full professor in the Department of Environmental Sci-
ences at the University of Virginia and is director of the interdepartmental
Program of Interdisciplinary Research in Contaminant Hydrogeology. She
obtained her B.S. in geological sciences and her Ph.D. in geochemistry
(1982), both from the Pennsylvania State University. Her numerous pub-
lications contribute to understanding the chemical evolution of natural
waters through water-rock interactions. Her research is focused on the com-
plex interactions among hydrological transport, microbiological processes,
and geochemical reactions in the groundwater environment. Dr. Herman
has attracted approximately $4 million in research funding to the University
of Virginia from federal agencies, including the National Science Founda-
tion, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Energy, and
the U.S. Geological Survey. Recently, Dr. Herman served as chair of the
Hydrogeology Division of the Geological Society of America and as chair
of the F. W. Clarke Award Committee of the Geochemical Society. Notable
honors include election to fellow of the Geological Society of America in
1994 and receipt of the Presidential Award for Excellence for Mentoring in
Science, Engineering, and Mathematics in 1996.

John M. Norman, University of Wisconsin, Madison

John M. Norman has been professor of soil science and also professor of
atmospheric and oceanic science at the University of Wisconsin, Madison,
since 1988. Following his Ph.D. in 1971 from the University of Wisconsin,
Madison, he was an associate professor of meteorology at the Pennsylvania
State University until 1978 and professor of agronomy at the University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, until 1988. He conducts biophysical research involving
studies of the interaction between plants and their environment, including
measurements of soil, plant, and atmospheric characteristics and integra-
tive modeling of the soil-plant-atmosphere system. Applications to ecology,
agriculture, forestry, and meteorology have included plant productivity

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APPENDIX B 57

and water-use efficiency, integrated pest management, irrigation water use,

precision agriculture, agrochemical leaching losses, remote sensing, and
measurement and modeling of soil surface carbon dioxide fluxes. Recent
research focuses on the sustainability of agricultural production and the im-
portance of soil in the spatial and temporal distribution of crop production
and environmental consequences. He is a fellow of the American Society
of Agronomy and the Crop Science Society of America and received the
American Meteorology Society Award for Outstanding Biometeorologist
in 2004.

Scott Fendorf, Stanford University

Scott Fendorf is an associate professor of soil and environmental biogeo-
chemistry in the School of Earth Sciences at Stanford University. He con-
ducted his graduate work in soil chemistry at the University of California,
Davis (M.S., 1990), and the University of Delaware (Ph.D., 1992) and
then joined the soil science faculty at the University of Idaho in 1993.
After spending six years (1993-1998) in Idaho, Professor Fendorf joined
the School of Earth Sciences at Stanford University in 1999 to initiate
a program in soil biogeochemistry. Broadly, he is interested in defining
chemical environments that develop as a result of biotic and abiotic pro-
cesses within physically complex and dynamic media. His research focuses
on the chemical and biological processes that drive the fate and transport
of trace elements such as arsenic and chromium within soils, sediments,
and surface waters. A thrust of his research, for example, is presently
on deciphering the processes responsible for arsenic release into aquifers
throughout Southeast Asia.

Gary M. Pierzynski, Kansas State University

Gary M. Pierzynski is a professor of soil and environmental chemistry in
the Department of Agronomy at Kansas State University. Dr. Pierzynski’s
research interests include trace element chemistry, remediation of trace
element-contaminated soils, phosphorus bioavailability, water quality, risk
assessment, and land application of by-products. Professional activities in-
clude serving as soil and environmental division chair for the Soil Science
Society of America; U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Re-
search Initiative panel manager for the Soils and Soil Biology Program; vice
chairperson for the Soil Remediation Subcommission of the International
Union of Soil Sciences; cochair of the USDA Chemistry and Bioavailability
of Waste Constituents in Soils regional research committee; peer reviewer

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58 APPENDIX B

for the Environmental Protection Agency’s risk assessment efforts; member

and chair of the technical and organizing committees for the International
Conference on the Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements Series; and technical
advisor for citizen groups in the Tri-State Mining Region. Dr. Pierzynski
teaches courses on environmental quality, plant nutrient sources, soil and
environmental chemistry, and advanced soil chemistry. He is a fellow of the
American Society of Agronomy and the Soil Science Society of America.
Dr. Pierzynski received his B.S. in crop and soil science (1982) and his M.S.
in soil environmental chemistry (1985) from Michigan State University in
East Lansing, Michigan. He earned his Ph.D. in soil chemistry (1989) from
the Ohio State University, Columbus.

Donald L. Sparks, University of Delaware

Donald L. Sparks is the S. Hallock du Pont Endowed Chair in Soil and
Environmental Chemistry at the University of Delaware and chairman of
the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences. He is former president of the
International Union of Soil Sciences and former president of the Soil Sci-
ence Society of America (SSSA). Dr. Sparks is internationally recognized for
his research in the areas of kinetics and surface chemistry of soil chemical
processes. He has pioneered the application of chemical kinetics to soils
and soil minerals, including development of widely used methods, elucida-
tion of rate-limiting steps and mechanisms, and coupling of kinetic studies
with molecular scale investigations. He and his research group’s discoveries
on the formation and role of surface precipitates in the retention, fate, and
transport of metals in natural systems have received worldwide attention
and had major influence in the areas of sorption models, metal speciation,
and soil remediation and contamination. He is a fellow of the SSSA, Ameri-
can Society of Agronomy, and American Association for the Advancement
of Science. He has received numerous awards, including the M. L. and
Chrystie M. Jackson and Soil Science Research Awards, the Environmental
Quality Research Award, McMaster Fellowship from Australia’s Common-
wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, the Sterling Hen-
dricks Lectureship from the U.S. Department of Agriculture–Agricultural
Research Service, and the University of Delaware Francis Alison Faculty and
Outstanding Doctoral Advising and Mentoring Awards.

James Tiedje, Michigan State University

James Tiedje is a university distinguished professor of microbiology and
soil science, and is director of the Center for Microbial Ecology at Michi-

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APPENDIX B 59

gan State University. He has 30 years of experience leading research in

microbial ecology and physiology, especially regarding the nitrogen cycle
and biodegradation of environmental pollutants. His group has discovered
several new microbes that live by halorespiration on chlorinated solvents.
Some of the dechlorination processes carried out by these microbes have
reduced the environmental burden of PCB, DDT, and chlorinated solvents.
He has been editor-in-chief of Applied and Environmental Microbiology and
editor of Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. He has received the
Environmental Award from the American Society for Microbiology and
shared the 1992 Finley Prize given by UNESCO for research contributions
in microbiology of international significance. He is a fellow of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Academy of
Microbiology, and the Soil Science Society of America, and is past president
of the International Society for Microbial Ecology. He is a member of the
National Academy of Sciences and a former president of the American Soci-
ety for Microbiology. He received his B.S. degree from Iowa State University
and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Cornell University.

Cindy H. Nakatsu, Purdue University

Cindy H. Nakatsu is currently a professor and University Faculty Research
Scholar at Purdue University. She has been on faculty in the Department of
Agronomy at Purdue University since 1995. She was a postdoctoral fellow
at Michigan State University’s Center for Microbial Ecology after receiv-
ing her Ph.D. in 1993 from Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada, and
her M.S. (1983) and B.S. (1978) degrees from the University of Toronto
in Toronto, Canada. Her research is focused toward gaining a greater un-
derstanding of the diversity of microorganisms in nature and the genetic
mechanisms used by bacteria to adapt to their environment. Molecular
genetic, traditional microbiology, and ecology experiments are used in her
research program. Major projects currently being investigated are (1) to
determine the diversity and role of microbial populations in communities
of various ecosystems, (2) to determine methods to detect potential sources
of pathogenic microorganisms in the environment, and (3) to determine
the genetic elements and mechanisms involved in horizontal gene transfer
in the environment.

Kenneth H. Nealson, University of Southern California

After receiving his B.S. degree in biochemistry (1965) and Ph.D. in mi-
crobiology (1969), both from the University of Chicago, Dr. Nealson did

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60 APPENDIX B

postdoctoral work with Dr. J. W. Hastings at Harvard University. He then

moved to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (University of Califor-
nia, San Diego), where he remained for 12 years, studying various aspects of
marine bioluminescence, particularly the physiology and ecology of lumi-
nous bacteria and the organisms with which they are symbiotically associ-
ated. During this time, the process of autoinduction (later called quorum
sensing) was defined, the active molecules were isolated, and the genes were
cloned. In 1982, utilizing a Guggenheim Fellowship for sabbatical leave,
Dr. Nealson shifted his area of work to environmental microbiology and
biogeochemistry, with a focus on the interactions between microbes and
metals. In 1985 he took a position as the Shaw Distinguished Professor of
Biology at the University of Wisconsin’s Center for Great Lakes Studies,
where he continued his studies of metals and microbes. Dr. Nealson is a
fellow of the American Academy of Microbiology and has received several
awards and commendations, including several from the Society for Indus-
trial Microbiology and the American Society for Microbiology. In 1997 Dr.
Nealson moved to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California Institute
of Technology, where he established the Center for Life Detection, and
served as director of the astrobiology group, developing new methods for
life detection. In 2001 he moved to a new position as the Wrigley Professor
of Geobiology at the University of Southern California, setting up the pro-
gram in geobiology, and continuing studies of organisms and communities
in extreme environments on Earth and, perhaps, elsewhere.

Iain M. Young, Scottish Informatics, Mathematics, Biology, and Statistics

(SIMBIOS) Centre, University of Abertay
Iain M. Young has a background in experimental soil mechanics and moved
into soil biophysics 12 years ago. He was head of the Soil-Plant Dynamics
Theme (a multidisciplinary team of 35 scientists comprising microbiolo-
gists, physicists, and plant scientists) at the Scottish Crop Research Institute.
Since January 2000 he has held the chair of environmental biophysics at the
University of Abertay, in Dundee, Scotland. In partnership with Professor
John Crawford, he established SIMBIOS at Abertay, which now comprises
a multidisciplinary staff of 23. After only two years, SIMBIOS was rated as
the top environmental research center in Scotland and in the top five in the
United Kingdom. The main drive for his work relates to the integration of
physics with microbiology of soil systems, in the context of how geometri-
cally complex architectures impact, and are impacted by, microbial activ-
ity, and how this feeds through to function: water quality, pollutant flow,

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APPENDIX B 61

and so on. Professor Young has acted in an advisory capacity to the U.K.
government on soil quality issues, and the Irish Environmental Agency on
future soils research.

Brenda J. Buck, University of Nevada

Brenda J. Buck is associate professor in the Department of Geoscience at the
University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Her prior positions include visiting scien-
tist at the Desert Research Institute, Las Vegas, Nevada; assistant professor
in the Department of Geoscience at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas;
and assistant professor at the Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Gi-
rardeau. Her research focuses on determining and quantifying the processes
involved with the genesis of arid soils and paleosols. This research is applied
to solve problems involving environmental contamination (heavy metals
and radionuclides), paleoclimate, geoarchaeology, landscape evolution, soil
geomorphology, and salt tectonics. Dr. Buck has experience in 18 countries
on 6 continents. She is a member of the Soil Science Society of America, the
Geological Society of America, and Sigma Xi. Dr. Buck received a Ph.D. in
agronomy (1996) and a M.S. in geoscience from New Mexico State Univer-
sity; and a B.S. in geology from the University of Notre Dame.

Larry P. Wilding, Texas A&M University

Larry P. Wilding is professor emeritus, Soil and Crop Sciences Department,
Texas A&M University. He is a pedologist with more than 40 years teaching
and research experience in near-surface geoscience processes, soil diversity,
and functions of soils in ecosystem management and biosphere sustain-
ability. He has published extensively on soil spatial diversity, pedogenic
quantification through micromorphology and reconstruction analyses;
silica minerals as markers of parent material uniformity and paleontology;
saturation, reduction, and redoximorphic features in hydric soils; pedogenic
carbonate genesis and distribution; shrink-swell phenomena in Vertisols;
soil mineralogy and weathering relationships; surface mine reclamation;
macropore flow and environmental risks in clayey soils; and land degrada-
tion, rejuvenation, and evaluation in Africa, China, and Latin America.
He has served as president of the Soil Science Society of America, a charter
member of the U.S. National Committee for Soil Science, and on several
National Research Council committees. He was cochair of the 18th World
Congress of Soil Science Organizing Committee. He is a registered profes-
sional soil scientist and professional agronomist with the American Registry
of Certified Professionals in Agronomy Crops and Soils (ARCPACS), Soil

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62 APPENDIX B

Science Society of America, and a professional geoscientist (soil scientist),

license number 42, state of Texas.

César Izaurralde, Joint Global Change Research Institute, University of

Maryland
César Izaurralde is interim director and laboratory fellow of the Joint Global
Change Research Institute at College Park, Maryland. The institute is a
collaboration of the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and the Uni-
versity of Maryland. He also has adjunct appointments in the departments
of Geography and Natural Resource Sciences and Landscape Architecture
at the University of Maryland. Dr. Izaurralde earned his agronomist engi-
neer degree from the University of Córdoba (Argentina) and his M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees from Kansas State University. Dr. Izaurralde’s research focuses
on three areas: (1) sustainable agriculture, (2) climate change impacts on
agriculture and water resources, and (3) climate change mitigation through
soil carbon sequestration and reductions in soil emissions of nitrous oxide.
Dr. Izaurralde is an active member of the American Society of Agronomy,
the Soil Science Society of America, the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, the American Geophysical Union, and the American
Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.

Henry Lin, Pennsylvania State University

Henry Lin is an assistant professor of hydropedology/soil hydrology at the
Pennsylvania State University. He holds a B.S. in soil science and agricul-
tural chemistry from Fujian Agricultural University, China; a M.S. in soil
geography from Nanjing Institute of Soil Science of the Chinese Academy
of Sciences; and a Ph.D. in soil science (soil physics and pedology) from
Texas A&M University. His research and teaching program focuses on the
development of hydropedology as an intertwined branch of soil science and
hydrology that embraces interdisciplinary studies of landscape-soil-water
relationships across scales. He is the chair of the Hydropedology Work-
ing Group of the Soil Science Society of America and of the International
Union of Soil Sciences, an associate editor of the Soil Science Society of
America Journal, and a cochair of the Committee on Soil Survey and Water
Movement of the National Cooperative Soil Survey Conference. He has
led a team of interdisciplinary and international scientists in completing
a vision paper for the Consortium of Universities for the Advancement
of Hydrologic Science, Inc. (CUAHSI), a National Science Foundation-
sponsored and community-based professional organization.

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APPENDIX B 63

Susan Moran, U.S. Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research

Service (USDA-ARS) Southwest Watershed Research Center
Susan Moran is a hydrologist and research leader for the USDA-ARS South-
west Watershed Research Center in Tucson, Arizona. She received her Ph.D.
and is an adjunct professor at the University of Arizona Department of Soil,
Water, and Environmental Science. Her research addresses estimation of soil
water and carbon flux at local and regional scales utilizing a combination of
physical models and remote sensing techniques. Dr. Moran has also served
on the National Aeronautic and Space Administration’s Landsat Science
Team and EO-1 Validation Team to evaluate selected technologies for meet-
ing soil science needs in the twenty-first century.

Kenneth Kemner, Argonne National Laboratory

Kenneth Kemner obtained his Ph.D. in condensed matter physics at the
University of Notre Dame in 1993. From 1993 to 1996 he was a National
Research Council postdoctoral fellow at the Naval Research Laboratory
in Washington, D.C., where he focused on the investigation of magnetic
materials and environmental research. In 1996 he joined the Environmental
Research Division at Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago, Illinois,
where he began development of the Molecular Environmental Science
Research Group, an integrated multidisciplinary research group interested
in making use of third-generation synchrotron radiation for environmen-
tal research. Since 1997 he has been investigating mineral-microbe-metal
interactions and their role in effecting the mobility of contaminant metals
and radionuclides, with an emphasis on understanding the role of microbial
exudates and microbial surface adhesion on these interactions. In 1999 he
received the Presidential Early Career Scientist Award and the Department
of Energy Office of Science Early Career Scientist Award. In 2000 he re-
ceived the International Union of Crystallography Young Scientist Award.

Kenneth J. Klabunde, Kansas State University

Kenneth J. Klabunde is a university distinguished professor of chemistry
at Kansas State University, and founding director of NanoScale Materi-
als, Inc., in Manhattan, Kansas. Dr. Klabunde received his education at
Augustana College in Rock Island, Illinois, and earned his Ph.D. at the
University of Iowa. He served a year as a postdoc at Pennsylvania State
University, and began as assistant professor at the University of North
Dakota. In 1979 he moved to Kansas State University, where he served as
department head until 1988. In 1995 he founded NanoScale Materials, a

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64 APPENDIX B

high-technology company that specializes in the manufacture and sale of

NanoActive MaterialsTM as sorbents, catalysts, and other uses. Dr. Klabunde
has won numerous awards (including the Breakthrough Invention Award
from Popular Mechanics Magazine in November 2005), and he was one of
the earliest workers in nanotechnology, publishing in 1976 on the unusual
chemical properties of different-shaped nanoparticles. He and his students
have devised synthetic methods to create numerous metal oxide and metal
nanoparticles, and they have shown that metal oxide nanomaterials make
up a new family of reactive, porous, inorganic materials. Extensive work on
such materials has demonstrated their usefulness for sorption and destruc-
tion of toxic chemicals, chemical warfare agents, and biological agents.

Kate Scow, University of California (UC), Davis

Kate Scow is professor of soil science and microbial ecology in the Depart-
ment of Land, Air, and Water Resources at UC, Davis. She is currently
director of the Kearney Foundation of Soil Science, a UC-wide endowed
program supporting research on 5-year defined missions, currently “Soil
Carbon and California Terrestrial Ecosystems.” She obtained her B.S. in
biology at Antioch College (1973) and her M.S. (1986) and Ph.D. (1989)
degrees in soil science at Cornell University. Her research concerns the
microbial ecology of agricultural landscapes and contaminated soil and
groundwater. In particular, Dr. Scow’s research group is interested in how
microbial communities in general, as well as specific functional groups, re-
spond to physical disturbance and organic matter additions in organic and
conventional agricultural soils. Also, Dr. Scow’s lab has conducted extensive
research on the microbial ecology and bioremediation of the fuel additive
methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), a ubiquitous contaminant of ground-
water. Her research program works across different scales, from genome
analysis to field-scale implementation of bioremediation systems.

Jayne Belnap, U.S. Geological Survey Canyonlands Research Station,

Utah
Jayne Belnap has been a scientist with the Department of Interior since
1987, and is currently with the U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resourc-
es Division, in Moab, Utah. Her scientific work is focused on how climate
change and land use affects the fertility and stability of dryland soils around
the world. She has served as an editor for Ecological Applications, the chair
for the Soil Ecology section of the Ecological Society of America, and the
president of the Soil Ecology Society.

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APPENDIX B 65

Birl Lowery, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Birl Lowery is a professor in the Department of Soil Science at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Madison. Dr. Lowery received a Ph.D. in soil physics
from Oregon State University; an M.A. in agricultural engineering technol-
ogy from Mississippi State University; and a B.S. in agricultural education
from Alcorn State University. Dr. Lowery is the recipient of the following
awards and honors: the American Society of Agricultural Engineers Blue
Ribbon Award for an outstanding entry in the 1987 Educational Aids
Competition; fellow of the Soil Science Society of America, 1997; and Vilas
Research Associate 1998 to 2000. His research consists of applications of
basic soil physical principles to solve soil and water management and con-
servation problems. This involves both field and laboratory work, focusing
on the dynamics of soil water and temperature regimes, solute flux, soil
compaction, and other physical properties. He is particularly interested in
developing methods for better understanding spatial movement of water
and pollutants in soils; soil compaction, including the effect of tree harvest-
ing on compaction; effects of soil erosion on soil quality; and developing
new management methods for crop production to reduce surface and
groundwater contamination.

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Appendix C

Steering Committee Members

Charles W. (Chuck) Rice (Chair) is professor of soil microbiology and

director of the Consortium for Agricultural Soils Mitigation of Greenhouse
Gases at Kansas State University, where he has served on the faculty since
1988. His current research interests include soil microbial ecology, carbon
and nitrogen cycling in terrestrial ecosystems, denitrification, and nitrogen
mineralization. Dr. Rice is active in many professional societies, including
the Soil Science Society of America, American Society of Agronomy, and
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He earned his
Ph.D. in 1983 from the University of Kentucky in soil microbiology. He is
a member of the U.S. National Committee for Soil Science.

Paul M. Bertsch is professor of environmental chemistry and toxicology at

the University of Kentucky. He previously served as director of the Savan-
nah River Ecology Laboratory and professor of soil physical chemistry and
mineralogy at the University of Georgia at Athens. His current research
interests include molecular environmental science, biogeochemistry, surface
geochemistry, and the influence of mineralogical and surface charge prop-
erties of sediments and soils on geochemical processes. Dr. Bertsch earned
his Ph.D. in soil physical chemistry and mineralogy from the University
of Kentucky in 1983. He is currently chair of the U.S. National Com-
mittee for Soil Science and previously served on the Committee on Earth
Resources of the National Research Council.

66

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APPENDIX C 67

Johan Bouma is a member of the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences

(RDAS) (1989), a fellow of the Soil Science Society of America (1983), and
an honorary member of the International Union of Soil Sciences (2006).
His research interests are in the field of hydropedology and land-use policy.
He was a member of the Scientific Council for Government Policy in the
Netherlands from 1998 to 2004. He was vice chair of the physics section
board of the RDAS in Amsterdam (2004-2006) and is chair of the scientific
advisory committee of a national research program on sustainable agricul-
ture. Dr. Bouma obtained his Ph.D. in 1969 at Wageningen University,
the Netherlands, in soil science and soil tillage. He was a tenured associate
professor of soil science at the University of Wisconsin, Madison from 1972
to 1975. He recently retired from Wageningen University.

Jennifer Harden is a soil scientist on the research staff at the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey, where she has served as project scientist and/or project chief since
1982. She has contributed to research on geologic mapping, geochronol-
ogy, geologic faulting, paleoclimate, landform evolution, carbon cycling,
and biogeochemical interactions in soil systems. Her research is currently
focused on the role of soils in carbon and nutrient cycling, with an empha-
sis on landscape disturbances such as glaciation, agricultural erosion and
sedimentation, and wildfire. She received her Ph.D. in soil science at the
University of California, Berkeley, in 1982.

Jerry L. Hatfield is director at the U.S. Department of Agriculture–Ag-

ricultural Research Service National Soil Tilth Laboratory at Ames, Iowa.
He has developed a quantitative understanding of the interactions of water-
radiation-nitrogen across different soils, leading to improved production
efficiency, grain quality, and environmental quality in crop production
systems. He is also involved in the integration of remote-sensed data into
soil and crop management models that will lead to improved crop manage-
ment decisions. Dr. Hatfield’s research has also improved understanding
of the energy and gas exchanges in the soil-plant-atmosphere complex
that accounts for spatial and temporal variations. He earned his Ph.D. in
agronomy (agricultural climatology) at Iowa State University in 1975.

Julie D. Jastrow is a terrestrial ecologist in the Biosciences Division at Ar-

gonne National Laboratory in Illinois, where she has been on the scientific
staff since 1975. She is a past president of the Soil Ecology Society. Dr.
Jastrow has contributed to research on restoration ecology, mycorrhizae,

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68 APPENDIX C

and soil aggregation. She is currently involved in research to understand and

quantify the processes involved in soil carbon storage and turnover, which
is essential for determining the carbon sequestration potential of terrestrial
ecosystems. She earned her Ph.D. in biological sciences from the University
of Illinois at Chicago in 1994.

William A. Jury is emeritus distinguished professor of soil physics at the

University of California, Riverside, and a former member of the U.S. Na-
tional Committee for Soil Science. His long-term research interests are in
the areas of measurement and modeling of organic and inorganic chemical
movement and reactions in field soils, and more recently in global water
issues. Dr. Jury earned his Ph.D. in physics at the University of Wisconsin
in 1973. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

Joaquin Ruiz is the dean of the College of Science and a professor of geosci-
ences at the University of Arizona. From 1995 to 2000, Dr. Ruiz served as
the head of the University of Arizona’s Department of Geosciences. Dr. Ruiz
is an expert in radiogenic isotopes applied to the study of regional tecton-
ics, origin of magmas, and hydrothermal ore deposits. He is a fellow of the
Geological Society of America and Society of Economic Geologists. He is
a member of the National Research Council’s Board on Earth Sciences and
Resources, and a former member of the Committee on Earth Resources.
He received a B.Sc. in geology and a B.S. in chemistry from the University
of Miami, and an M.S. and Ph.D. (1983) in geology from the University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

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