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 Contents

Preface xi
The Purpose of This Book xi
Global Structure of the Book xii
The On-Screen Version of This Book xv
Instructor’s Manual xx
Preparation of This Book xxi

Reading This Book On-Screen xxiii

What do I Need to Read This Book On-Screen? xxiii
What Is Scientific Notebook? xxiii
Getting Started xxiv
Using the Movie and Installation CD xxiv
Setting Your Screen View xxv
Navigating in the On-Screen Book xxvii
Reading and Writing in Scientific Notebook xxx
Interactive Reading with Scientific Notebook xxx
Updating Your Copy of the Book xxxi
Summing Up xxxii

A Note to the Reader 1

PART I Background Material 3

1 The Emergence of Rigorous Calculus 5

1.1 What Is Mathematical Analysis? 5
1.2 The Pythagorean Crisis 6
1.3 The Zeno Crisis 7
1.4 The Set Theory Crisis 10

v
vi Contents

2 Mathematical Grammar 12
2.1 The Quantifiers For Every and There Exists 12
2.2 Negating a Mathematical Sentence 17
2.3 Combining Two or More Statements 19

3 Strategies for Writing Proofs 26

3.1 Introduction 26
3.2 Statements that Contain the Word and 27
3.3 Statements that Contain the Word or 29
3.4 Statements of the Form P ⇒ Q 32
3.5 Statements of the Form ∃x (P (x)) 33
3.6 Statements of the Form ∀x (P (x)) 37
3.7 Proof by Contradiction 41
3.8 Some Further Examples 44

4 Elements of Set Theory 50

4.1 Introduction 50
4.2 Sets and Subsets 52
4.3 Functions 59

PART II Elementary Concepts of Analysis 69

5 The Real Number System 71

5.1 Introduction to the System R 71
5.2 Axioms for the Real Number System 79
5.3 Arithmetical Properties of R 81
5.4 Order Properties of R 81
5.5 Integers and Rationals 84
5.6 Upper and Lower Bounds 84
5.7 The Axiom of Completeness 88
5.8 Some Consequences of the Completeness Axiom 91
5.9 The Archimedean Property of the System R 93
5.10 Boundedness of Functions 97
5.11 Sequences, Finite Sets, and Infinite Sets 98
5.12 Sequences of Sets 100
5.13 Mathematical Induction 103
Contents vii

5.14 The Extended Real Number System 103

5.15 The Complex Number System (Optional) 106

6 Elementary Topology of the Real Line 107

6.1 The Role of Topology 107
6.2 Interior Points and Neighborhoods 108
6.3 Open Sets and Closed Sets 111
6.4 Some Properties of Open Sets and Closed Sets 113
6.5 The Closure of a Set 117
6.6 Limit Points 122
6.7 Neighborhoods of Infinity 125

7 Limits of Sequences 127

7.1 The Concepts “Eventually” and “Frequently” 127
7.2 Subsequences 128
7.3 Limits and Partial Limits of Sequences 129
7.4 Some Elementary Facts About Limits and Partial Limits 137
7.5 The Algebraic Rules for Limits 143
7.6 The Relationship Between Sequences
and the Topology of R 148
7.7 Limits of Monotone Sequences 151
7.8 The Cantor Intersection Theorem 158
7.9 The Existence of Partial Limits 161
7.10 Upper and Lower Limits 164

8 Limits and Continuity of Functions 165

8.1 Limits of Functions 165
8.2 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits 176
8.3 One-Sided Limits 181
8.4 The Relationship Between Limits of Functions
and Limits of Sequences 183
8.5 Some Facts About Limits of Functions 186
8.6 The Composition Theorem for Limits 188
8.7 Continuity 192
8.8 The Distance Function of a Set 198
viii Contents

8.9 The Behavior of Continuous Functions

on Closed Bounded Sets 198
8.10 The Behavior of Continuous Functions on Intervals 200
8.11 Inverse Function Theorems for Continuity 207
8.12 Uniform Continuity 210

9 Differentiation 220
9.1 Introduction to the Concept of a Derivative 220
9.2 Derivatives and Differentiability 222
9.3 Some Elementary Properties of Derivatives 227
9.4 The Mean Value Theorem 233
9.5 Taylor Polynomials 239
9.6 Indeterminate Forms 246

10 The Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 253

10.1 The Purpose of This Chapter 253
10.2 Integer Exponents 254
10.3 Rational Exponents 255
10.4 Real Exponents 258
10.5 Differentiating the Exponential Function:
Intuitive Approach 260
10.6 Differentiating the Exponential Function:
Rigorous Approach 263

11 The Riemann Integral 270

11.1 Introduction to the Concept of an Integral 270
11.2 Partitions and Step Functions 275
11.3 Integration of Step Functions 279
11.4 Elementary Sets 287
11.5 Riemann Integrability and the Riemann Integral 294
11.6 Some Examples of Integrable and
Nonintegrable Functions 299
11.7 Some Properties of the Riemann Integral 304
11.8 Upper, Lower, and Oscillation Functions 307
11.9 Riemann Sums and Darboux’s Theorem (Optional) 314
11.10 The Role of Continuity in Riemann Integration 317
Contents ix

11.11 The Composition Theorem for Riemann Integrability 320

11.12 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 324
11.13 The Change of Variable Theorem 327
11.14 Integration of Complex Functions (Optional) 334

12 Infinite Series 335

12.1 Introduction to Infinite Series 335
12.2 Elementary Properties of Series 343
12.3 Some Elementary Facts About Convergence 345
12.4 Convergence of Series with Nonnegative Terms 346
12.5 Decimals 353
12.6 The Ratio Tests 353
12.7 Convergence of Series Whose Terms May Change Sign 365
12.8 Rearrangements of Series 375
12.9 Iterated Series 375
12.10 Multiplication of Series 377
12.11 The Cantor Set 382

13 Improper Integrals 383

13.1 Introduction to Improper Integrals 383
13.2 Elementary Properties of Improper Integrals 387
13.3 Convergence of Integrals of Nonnegative Functions 389
13.4 Absolute and Conditional Convergence 392

14 Sequences and Series of Functions 399

14.1 The Three Types of Convergence 400
14.2 The Important Properties of Uniform Convergence 412
14.3 The Important Property of Bounded Convergence 414
14.4 Power Series 426
14.5 Power Series Expansion of the Exponential Function 440
14.6 Binomial Series 442
14.7 The Trigonometric Functions 448
14.8 Analytic Functions of a Real Variable 456
14.9 The Inadequacy of Riemann Integration 456

15 Calculus of a Complex Variable (Optional) 458

x Contents

16 Integration of Functions of Two Variables 459

16.1 The Purpose of This Chapter 459
16.2 Functions of Two Variables 460
16.3 Continuity of a Partial Integral 464
16.4 Differentiation of a Partial Integral 466
16.5 Some Applications of Partial Integrals 468
16.6 Interchanging Iterated Riemann Integrals 470

17 Sets of Measure Zero (Optional) 478

18 Calculus of Several Variables (Optional) 479

Bibliography 480

Index of Symbols and General Index 482

 Preface

The Purpose of This Book

This book provides a rigorous course in the calculus of functions of a real vari-
able. It is intended for students who have previously studied calculus at the
elementary level and are possibly entering their first upper-level mathematics
course. In many undergraduate programs, the first course in analysis is expected
to provide students with their first solid training in mathematical thinking and
writing and their first real appreciation of the nature and role of mathematical
proof. Therefore, a beginning analysis text needs to be much more than just a
sequence of rigorous definitions and proofs. The book must shoulder the respon-
sibility of introducing its readers to a new culture, and it must encourage them to
develop an aesthetic appreciation of this culture.
This book is meant to serve two functions (and two audiences): On the one
hand, it is intended to be a gateway to analysis for students of mathematics and
for certain students majoring in the sciences or technology. It is also intended,
however, for other groups of students, such as prospective high school teachers,
who will probably see their course in analysis as the hardest course that they
have ever taken and for whom the most important role of the course will be as an
introduction to mathematical thinking.
At the same time, this book is meant to be a recruiting agent. It is my desire
to motivate talented students to develop their interest in mathematics and to pro-
vide them with an incentive to continue their studies after the present course has
ended. Each topic is presented in a way that extends naturally to more advanced
levels of study, and it should not be necessary for students to “unlearn” any of
the material of this book when they enter more advanced courses in analysis and
topology.
The approach in this book is particularly gentle in its first few chapters, but
it gradually becomes more demanding. By the time one reaches the last few
chapters, both the pace and depth have been increased. Those who reach the later
chapters are probably in the second term of a two-term sequence in mathemat-
ical analysis, and I expect students who use this book for a second course (the
survivors of a first course) to be generally stronger than those who take analysis
for one term only. These later chapters cover quite a lot of ground and contain
a number of innovative sections on topics that are not usually covered in a book
at this level. A third level of coverage is provided by the optional chapters that
appear only in the on-screen version of this book. These are the chapters that

xi
xii Preface

are marked in green in the on-screen Contents documents. However, even in the
more demanding chapters, I have preserved my commitment to strong motivation
and clean, well-explained proofs.

Global Structure of the Book

The book is divided into two main parts: Part I and Part II.
Part I
Part I introduces the notion of mathematical rigor and consists of Chapters 1, 2,
3, and 4 as illustrated in the following figure. The lighter boxes in this figure
represent chapters in the main body of the book and the darker boxes represent
chapters that can be reached only in the on-screen version.
A Note
to the Reader

1
The Emergence
of Rigorous Calculus

2
Mathematical
Grammar

3
Strategies
for Writing Proofs

4 4
Elements of A More Detailed
Set Theory Presentation of
Set Theory

Chapter 1, The Emergence of Rigorous Calculus, presents a very brief view

of the history of rigorous calculus and of the notion of rigor in mathematics.
Chapter 2, Mathematical Grammar, provides an introduction to the reading
and writing of mathematical sentences and to some of the special words that we
use in a mathematical argument.
Chapter 3, Strategies for Writing Proofs, is a sequel to the chapter on math-
ematical grammar. The message of this chapter is that the nature of an assertion
that one wishes to prove can often suggest a strategy for the proof. Students who
study this chapter will find it easier to solve problems later in the text.
Chapter 4, Elements of Set Theory, presents a brief elementary review of the
set-theoretic and function concepts that are used throughout the text. The on-
Preface xiii

screen text offers an alternative chapter, Set Theory, which covers the material
much more carefully and goes on to present some advanced topics.
An instructor may choose to base a significant part of the course on Part I
of the text or to let the course skim through this part. Some instructors may
choose to skip Part I altogether and proceed directly to Part II, where the study
of mathematical analysis begins.
Part II
Part II presents an introductory course in mathematical analysis as illustrated
in the following figure. The lighter boxes in this figure represent chapters in
the main body of the book and the darker boxes represent chapters that can be
reached only in the on-screen version. Notice that some of the interdependence
arrows in the figure are dotted to remind us that we have a choice of using
either a printed chapter or its alternative on-screen partner as the prerequisite
to later material. For example, we can use either of the two Chapters 11 as the
prerequisite to Chapter 13.

10
5 The Exponential and
The Real Number Logarithmic Functions
System

6 6 11 11 12
Elementary Topology The Topology The Riemann-Stieltjes The Riemann Infinite Series
of the Real Line of Metric Spaces Integral Integral

14
7 13
7 Sequences and Series
Limits of Sequences Improper Integrals
Limits of Sequences of Functions
in Metric Spaces

15 16
8 Calculus of a
8 Integration
Limits and Continuity Complex Variable
Limits and Continuity of Functions
of Functions
in Metric Spaces of Two Variables

17 17
Sets of Measure Zero Sets of Measure Zero
18
Stieltjes Version Calculus of
9
Several Variables
Differentiation

Chapter 5, The Real Number System, introduces the real number system and
the notion of completeness that plays a prominent role throughout the succeeding
chapters.
Chapter 6, Elementary Topology of the Real Line, introduces some of the
simple topological properties of the number system R. These properties are used
xiv Preface

extensively in the subsequent chapters on limits, continuity, differentiation, and

integration. The on-screen text offers an alternative chapter, The Topology of
Metric Spaces, for those who prefer a more advanced approach to the material.
Chapter 7, Limits of Sequences, presents an introduction to the theory of
limits. I believe that it is easier to study limits of sequences before one studies
limits of functions of a real variable. The on-screen text offers an alternative
chapter, Limits of Sequences in Metric Spaces, for those who read the more
general version of Chapter 6.
Chapter 8, Limits and Continuity of Functions, presents an introduction to the
theory of limits and continuity of functions of a real variable. The on-screen text
offers a more general chapter, Limits and Continuity in Metric Spaces, for those
who desire the more general approach.
Chapter 9, Differentiation, presents an introduction to differentiation of func-
tions of a real variable. The core of this chapter is the mean value theorem,
whose proof rests heavily on the properties of continuous functions developed in
Chapter 8.
Chapter 10, The Exponential and Logarithmic Functions, presents a rigorous
definition of exponents and logarithms and derives their principal properties.
Chapter 11, The Riemann Integral, begins with a discussion of the integration
of step functions. Although this discussion lengthens the chapter a little, I believe
that the increase in length is worthwhile. The discussion of step functions and
elementary sets is easy to read and takes little classroom time. Moreover, it
provides simple, clean, and precise notation in which to present the mainstream
of Riemann integration. This notation allows us to give short clean proofs of
several theorems later in the chapter that look quite formidable in many other
texts. The composition theorem for Riemann integrability is a case in point.
Finally, the efficient notation developed in this chapter facilitates the proof of the
Arzela bounded convergence theorem in Chapter 14. The on-screen text offers
an alternative chapter, The Riemann-Stieltjes Integral, for those who elect to read
Chapter 12 before Chapter 11 and who prefer a Stieltjes integral.
Chapter 12, Infinite Series, presents an introduction to the theory of infinite
series. Those who wish to study this chapter before the chapter on Riemann
integration may do so.
Chapter 13, Improper Integrals, presents a brief theory of improper integrals
that runs parallel to some of the material in Chapter 12.
In Chapter 14, Sequences and Series of Functions, I have departed a little
from some of the traditions that are canonized in most other books. This de-
parture stems from the availability of the Arzela bounded convergence theorem.
Because this theorem is presented here with a fairly simple proof, I have been
Preface xv

able to place the concept of uniform convergence in a slightly different perspec-

tive, still important but not quite as important as it is in most texts. The fact
that we do not require uniform convergence of a sequence (fn ) of functions to
guarantee an equality of the form

b
b
lim fn = lim fn
a n→∞ n→∞ a

opens the door to some beautiful and powerful theorems that appear, in Chapter
16, in a more powerful form than one would find in most texts. Among these are
the theorems on differentiating under an integral sign and interchange of iterated
Riemann integrals.
Chapter 15, Calculus of a Complex Variable, is optional and is available in
the on-screen version of the book.
Chapter 16, Integration of Functions of Two Variables, is concerned with
iterated Riemann integrals of functions defined on a rectangle in R2 . The key
theorems of the chapter are the theorem on differentiation under an integral
sign and the beautiful and elegant Fichtenholz theorem on the interchange of
iterated Riemann integrals. The latter theorem, which has been much neglected
in analysis texts, is truly a theorem about Riemann integration. It has no analog
for Lebesgue integrals and is not a special case of Fubini’s theorem.
Chapter 17, Sets of Measure Zero, is optional and is available in the on-
screen version of the book. This chapter takes the reader to the doorstep of the
modern theory of integration and presents a number of interesting theorems about
Riemann integration that are beyond our reach in Chapter 11. Among these are
the sharp form of the composition theorem for Riemann integrability and the
most natural form of the change of variable theorem. The on-screen text offers
an alternative chapter, giving a version for Stieltjes integrals of the measure zero
concept.
Chapter 18, Calculus of Several Variables, is optional and is available in the
on-screen version of the book. This chapter develops many of the central topics
in the calculus of several variables, including partial differentiation, integration
on curves, the inverse and implicit function theorems, and the change of variable
theorem for multiple integrals.

The On-Screen Version of This Book

This book is supplied both as a traditionally printed and bound textbook and also
in a version that is designed for on-screen reading using the software product Sci-
xvi Preface

entific Notebook1 Version 4.0 or later. Both the on-screen version and Scientific
Notebook are supplied in the compact disk that is bundled with the book. Once
installed, Scientific Notebook will run for 30 days and will then be converted
automatically into its free viewer version called Scientific Viewer, which will run
permanently in your computer.
Scientific Viewer is all you need for the reading of the on-screen version of
this book. However, if you want to be able to revise a document and save the
changes, and if you want to be able to read the interactive topics in this book
using one of the computer algebra systems with which Scientific Notebook comes
bundled, then you need to have the full version of Scientific Notebook. Those who
have an earlier version of Scientific Notebook and who do not wish to upgrade
at present should consider installing Scientific Viewer 4.0 for reading this text
and using their present Scientific Notebook when they want to do computing
operations. For information about purchasing Scientific Notebook or unlocking
the timelocked version in your computer, go to the MacKichan Software website,
http://www.mackichan.com, or telephone them at (206) 780-2799.
Disclaimer
The author of this text has no business connection with MacKichan Software
Inc. and does not represent that company in any opinions or perspectives of the
software products that are presented in this text.
I am, nevertheless, greatly indebted to MacKichan Software Inc. for the
wonderful job that they have done, for the unique opportunities that they have
provided the mathematical community with their truly unique products, and for
the help that they have provided to me personally in the writing of my books.
Why an On-Screen Version?
Both the printed version and the on-screen version can play an important role in
the reading of this book, and readers are encouraged to make use of both of them.
The importance of a traditionally printed and bound text speaks for itself. There
is, of course, nothing quite like thumbing through a printed text and there is no
doubt that, at times, the reader’s best course of action is to read the printed text.
However, the on-screen version of the text presents special features that could
never be found in a printed text, and there are times when the reader would gain
by taking advantage of these special features.
The basic core of the book is contained in the printed version. The on-screen
version contains all of the material in the printed version, but, taking advantage
of the powerful communication and word processing features of Scientific Note-
book, the on-screen version also contains a large number of hyperlinks that can
1
Scientific Notebook is a product of MacKichan Software Inc.
Preface xvii

whisk the reader to many other items that do not appear in the printed text.
The on-screen version of the text contains the following features:
1. It includes a large number of alternative approaches and extensions of the
text that can be accessed by clicking on hyperlinks. I have also provided
hyperlinks that lead to hints or solutions to exercises, and, on many of the
occasions on which the reader is told in the text that an assertion is “easy to
see”, I have provided a link to a full explanation of that assertion. In this way
I have managed to make the on-screen text more friendly than any printed
text could be. Some of the hyperlinks in this book lead to files located
on the reader’s hard drive, but others will take advantage of the Internet
communication features of Scientific Notebook and will take the reader to
targets in the World Wide Web. Links of the latter type allow me to be
responsive to feedback received from students and instructors.
2. Hyperlinks in the on-screen version also allow for instant cross referencing.
A single click takes us to the target of a cross reference and one more click
returns us to the point at which the reference was made.
3. The on-screen version of the text contains a very useful set of Contents
documents that will enable you to reach any chapter, section, or subsection
that you want to see. Every header in the book also contains a link back to
the appropriate position in the Contents documents, thus providing you with
an instant roadmap of the book at any time.
4. The navigation bar in Scientific Notebook provides a list of headers in the
document you are reading, and you can reach any item in this list by clicking
on it.
5. The on-screen version of the text includes an index document. By clicking
on any entry in the index, the reader can jump to the appropriate position in
the text.
6. The on-screen version of the text will contain a variety of links to sound
messages and sound movies. Many of the movies are presented as mini-
lectures that show part or all of a proof as it is being written and explained
by the author. In this way, they simulate the lecture room experience with the
added advantage that you can fast forward them or drag the cursor back to
repeat any portions of the movie that you want to hear again.

Additional Material Provided in the On-Screen Version

One of the important roles of the on-screen version is to allow me to include
a wide variety of exercises, proofs, and topics without compromising the ease
with which a first course in real analysis can be selected from the printed book.
The printed book remains uncluttered and contains the basic bill of fare of an
xviii Preface

introductory course, but the on-screen version provides the option to read much
more, even in those chapters that also appear in the printed version.
For example, there are links to extra blocks of exercises that are not included
in the printed text, there are links to proofs that were omitted in the printed book,
and there are some extra optional sections to which reference may be made in
later optional sections. Furthermore, the on-screen version of the text contains
several additional chapters that do not appear in the printed version:
1. The chapter on set theory in the printed text contains only a minimum of
material. However, at the beginning of that chapter, the on-screen version
provides a link to a more extensive presentation that includes the concept of
countability, the equivalence theorem, and some more advanced topics such
as the axiom of choice, Zorn’s lemma, the well ordering principle, and the
continuum hypothesis.
2. At the beginning of the chapter on topology of the real line, the on-screen
version provides a link to the topology of metric spaces.
3. At the beginning of the chapter on limits of sequences in R, the on-screen
version provides a link to the theory of limits of sequences in metric spaces.
4. At the beginning of the chapter on Riemann integration, the on-screen
version provides a link to an alternative chapter on Riemann-Stieltjes
integration.
5. The on-screen version provides a link to an optional chapter that introduces
the calculus of a complex variable. Topics included in this optional chapter
include the fundamental theorem of algebra, some elementary properties of
power series, and the exponential and trigonometric functions of a complex
variable. However, this chapter makes no attempt to reach any of the
theorems that form the basic bill of fare in a first course in complex analysis.
6. The on-screen version provides a link to an optional chapter that introduces
the concept of a set of measure zero in the line and that makes it possible
to prove a variety of theorems about Riemann integrals that could not be
reached in the main integration chapter. Another link offers an alternative
to this chapter that presents the measure zero concept for Riemann-Stieltjes
integrals.
7. The on-screen version provides a link to a chapter that develops many
of the central topics in the calculus of several variables, including partial
differentiation, integration on curves, the inverse and implicit function
theorems, and the change of variable theorem for multiple integrals.
My intention is to make this book serve as a reference long after the first
course in analysis has ended.
Preface xix

Interaction with Readers

An important advantage of an on-screen text is that is can be a constantly chang-
ing product that allows me to be responsive to requests that may be made by my
readers. I encourage my readers to write to me at
[email protected]
with comments and requests.
1. You may point out errors or omissions in the text that I can repair in the
periodic update files that I shall be providing on my website. Instructions for
updating your copy of the book can be found on page xxxi.
2. You may request additional “mini-lecture” versions of proofs.
3. If your instructor permits, then you will be given a version of the text in
which the links that appear at the beginning of each set of exercises
lead to documents that contain more extensive sets of solutions than those
that exist in the standard solutions documents.
Based on my experiences with my own students, I am hopeful that some of
my readers will feel encouraged to learn to write their mathematics in Scientific
Notebook documents. By acquiring this skill they will become more organized in
their study and will keep better records of their work. Such readers will be able to
contact me by E-mail enclosing Scientific Notebook documents as attachments.
If you wish to send me a document to which you have added pictures, please
remember to save it as a rap file before you send it. Please use a utility
2
such as PKZIP to compress any large file before you upload it.
Interactive Reading with Scientific Notebook
Readers who have the full version of Scientific Notebook, rather than the free
viewer version, also have a copy of a powerful computer algebra system (such as
Maple3 or MuPAD4 ) with which Scientific Notebook comes bundled. The oper-
ation of this computer algebra system within Scientific Notebook is particularly
simple and does not require the reader to be familiar with any special syntax.
Access to the computing features allows the reader to experiment and to increase
his/her understanding of the work. Items that are meant to be read interactively
with Scientific Notebook are marked by the Scientific Notebook logo .
2
PKZIP is a trademark of PKWARE, Inc. For details, go to
http://www.pkware.com/Welcome.html
3
Maple is a trademark of Waterloo Maple Software.
4
MuPAD is a trademark of Sciface Software, GmbH and Co.
xx Preface

In spite of the obvious value of interactive reading that makes use of the
computing features of Scientific Notebook, this text does not go out of its way
to present interactive reading on every page. Certainly, there are topics in this
text for which the use of computing features is relevant and useful, but there are
even more topics in which an attempt to use such computing features would be
artificial and counterproductive.
The philosophy of this book is that, where the nature of the material being
studied makes the computing features useful, these features should be exploited.
However, where the material would not benefit from these computing features,
the features have no place. Under no circumstances is the material of this book
specifically chosen in order to provide opportunities to use the computing fea-
tures of Scientific Notebook. In this sense, my book is not a “reform” text.

Instructor’s Manual
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Preface xxi

Preparation of This Book

This book is a sequel to the text An Introduction to Mathematical Analysis by
Jonathan Lewin and Myrtle Lewin, whose first edition was published by Random
House Inc. in 1988 and second edition was published by McGraw-Hill Inc. in
1993. I am deeply indebted to Myrtle Lewin for the many important contributions
that she made to that book; they were contributions whose reach extends to the
present work.
Both the printed version and the on-screen version of this work were prepared
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ation to the folks at MacKichan Software and, in particular, to Jon Stenerson
and Jeanie Olivas, for the patient help that they gave me when I was working on
this document style. I would also like to express my profound appreciation to
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I would like to express my appreciation to Eric Kehr (son of Natalie Kehr)
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to perform automatic uninstallation of the movies and, thereby, made this book
available to those who do not have unlimited free disk space.
Jonathan Lewin
 Reading This Book On-Screen

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xxiii
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 Northmen leaving Iceland.

The prominent incidents in this alleged ante-Columbian discovery, it

seems, are given on the authority of certain Icelandic manuscripts,
the genuineness, and even the existence of which, have formerly
been doubted by many; but which, there is now reason to suppose,
are entitled to credence. The general story may be received as
probable. In the details, there is often something too vague, if not
too extraordinary, to entitle it to any historical importance. The
adventurous spirit, and even the naval skill of the Northmen, are not
a matter of doubt with any who are acquainted with the history of
the times to which reference is here made. The seas and the coasts
of Europe were the scenes of their exploits—their piracies, their
battles, or their colonization. According to the Icelandic statements,
Eric the Red, in 986, emigrated from Iceland to Greenland, and
formed there a settlement. Among his companions was Herjulf
Bardson, who fixed his residence at a place which was called after
him, Herjulfsness. Herjulf had a son, whose name was Biarné, who,
with his father, was engaged in trading between Iceland and Norway.
Biarné was absent on a trading voyage, when his father
accompanied Eric, on the emigration of the latter to Greenland. The
son returning to Iceland in a few months, and finding that Herjulf
was absent, sailed in pursuit of him. In the course of the sail, having
been enveloped in the fogs, he was carried to some unknown
distance; but after the fogs were dispersed, land was seen. As,
however, it did not answer the description given respecting
Greenland, the party did not steer for it. During a sail of several
days, they came in sight of land at two different times in succession;
and at last, tacking about, and carried by brisk and favorable winds
in a north-west direction, they reached the coast of Greenland. This
tradition of Biarné's voyage, allowing it to be authentic, would seem
to indicate that he was carried far down on the coast of America,
and passed on his return the shores of Newfoundland and Labrador.
 Discovery of Labrador.

In consequence of this adventure, and the interest which the

account of it excited, a voyage of exploration was projected, and at
length put into effect. It was conducted by Leif, a son of Eric the
Red, an adventurous rover, who selected a company as adventurous
as himself, among whom was a German named Tyrker. It was in the
year 1000 that the voyage was made. After finding a shore in a
direction similar to that in which Biarné took, they landed, calling the
region Helluland, which was most probably Labrador. It was an
iceberg-lined shore, without grass or verdure. From this spot they
put out to sea, and, steering south, they came to another coast, low
like the first, but covered with thick wood, except the portion
immediately skirting the sea, which consisted of white sand. It was
probably Nova Scotia, named by them, however, Markland, or
Woodland. They pursued their voyage for two days, under the favor
of a north-east wind, when they discovered land for the third time.
Here they disembarked on a part of the coast, which was sheltered
by an island. The face of the country was found to be undulating,
covered with wood, and bearing a growth of fine fruits and berries.
Taking to their vessel again, they proceeded west in search of a
harbor, which they were so fortunate as to find. It was at the mouth
of a river proceeding from a lake. They first made the river and then
the lake; in the latter they cast anchor. In this spot they erected huts
in which to pass the winter. When thus established, Leif made a
division of his company into two parties, for the purpose, on the one
hand, of watching the settlement, and, on the other, of exploring the
country.
In performing the latter service it happened, on one occasion, that
the German Tyrker, above named, failed to return at night. After
much anxiety and search, he was discovered, having found during
his wanderings a region which afforded an abundance of grapes.
The country, from this incident, was named Vinland or Wineland.
From the mention which they made of the rising and the setting of
the sun, at the shortest day, it has been inferred that the island was
Nantucket, and the region called Vinland embraced the coast of
Massachusetts and Rhode Island. They returned to Greenland the
following season.
Thorwald, a brother of Leif, next undertook to make a voyage, to the
newly discovered land beyond the ocean. This was in 1002. We need
not mention the particulars, but may state generally that the
adventurers continued in Vinland till the year 1004, and that the
expedition terminated unfortunately in the death of Thorwald. He
was killed in a skirmish with certain Esquimaux, with whom the party
came in contact in three several boats. Before breathing his last, he
gave directions as to the spot where they should inter him. The rest
returned to Greenland.
Following this adventure, the third son of Eric, named Thornstein,
embarked with his wife Gudrida, in search of the body of Thorwald.
But he never reached the country. He was eventually driven back to
Greenland, where he died.
The next expedition seems to have been a project to colonize the
country. The vessels were three in number, on board of which one
hundred and forty men embarked, who took with them all kinds of
live stock. The leaders on this occasion were Thorfinn, who married
the widow of Thornstein, Biarné Grimolfson, and Thorhall Gamlason.
The enterprise appears to have been attended with a measure of
success. They erected their tents, and fortified them in the best
manner they were able, as a protection against the natives. An
incident of some interest is mentioned as having occurred in their
trade with the latter. These were eager for arms, but as they were
not suffered to become an article of barter, one of the natives seized
an axe, and, in order to test its efficacy, struck a companion with it,
who was killed on the spot. The affair shocked them exceedingly;
but in the midst of the confusion, the axe having been seized by one
who appeared to be a chief, was critically inspected for a while, and
then violently cast into the sea.
 An Incident in the Camp of the Northmen.

The period of their continuance in Vinland was three years. They

found it a beautiful country, while residing in it. Thorfinn had a son
born to him, whom he named Snorre, the first child of European
descent born on this continent, the ancestor of many distinguished
personages now living. Among them is the noted sculptor
Thorwaldsen. Thorfinn and a part of his company returned at length
to Iceland. The remainder still continued in Vinland, where they
were afterwards joined by an expedition led by two brothers, Helge
and Finnboge, from Greenland. But this latter enterprise ended
tragically, a large number of the colonists having been killed in a
quarrel, which a wicked female adventurer in the expedition had
excited. A few other voyages to Vinland, either accidental or
designed, were made by the Northmen during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, some of them connected with attempts to
propagate Christianity among the natives, but no interesting results
are spoken of, and the whole project of colonizing the new region
seems to have been not only abandoned, but to have passed from
the minds of men. On the supposition that the records are true,
which in general may be admitted, the colony could not have had a
long continuance, and it is certain that no remains of it have ever
appeared, unless some questionable accounts of the Jesuists, or the
more questionable inscriptions on Dighton-rock. It was not until the
era of Columbus that the world was awakened to the enterprise, or
even to the thought of discovering land beyond the Western ocean.
Whether he knew or did not know, respecting the adventures of the
Scandinavians in those northern seas, it is hardly to be supposed
that he could have the remotest conception that the country they
called Vinland was the same as the Indies, which he proposed to
reach by sailing due west. The honor, first of his theory, and then of
his achievement, is therefore, in no degree diminished, by the facts
above narrated, so far as they may be believed to be facts. He after
all stands prëeminent among men, as the discoverer of the new
world. It was certainly, at that period, new to European knowledge
and adventure.
 II. COLUMBUS.

Columbus.

It is not ascertained in what year the birth of this illustrious

individual occurred. Some authorities have placed it in 1446, others
have removed it back eight or ten years farther. As he died in 1506,
and was said by Bernaldez, one of his cotemporaries and intimates,
to have departed "in a good old age of seventy, a little more or less,"
[1] it would seem, abating the vagueness of the expression, that
about 1436 was the period. The place of his birth also has been a
subject of controversy, but the evidence is decidedly in favor of
Genoa. His parentage was humble, though probably of honorable
descent. It is generally believed that his father exercised the craft of
a wool-carder or weaver. Christopher was the eldest of four children,
having two brothers, Bartholomew and Diego, and one sister, who
was obscurely connected in life. In his early youth he was instructed
at Pavia, a place then celebrated for education, and is said there to
have acquired that taste for mathematical studies in which he
afterwards excelled. Of geographical science he was particularly
enamored, as it became also to be the favorite study of an
adventurous age. It doubtless gave a direction, in some measure, to
the course which Columbus pursued in life. At the early age of
fourteen years, he began to follow the seas, and after continuing
this profession for more than sixteen years, he proceeded to
Portugal, the country of maritime enterprise at that era. Hither the
adventurous spirits of Europe repaired, where they sought their
fortunes in this department of business. Columbus mingled in the
exciting scenes of the country and the times. Sailing from thence, he
continued to make voyages to the various then known parts of the
world, and while on shore, he occupied his time in the construction
and sale of maps and charts. Thus furnished with all the nautical
science of the times, and with a large fund of experience, he was
prepared to enter upon those speculations, respecting the possibility
of lands lying beyond the western waters, the result of which, when
put into practice, proved to be so auspicious to the interests of
mankind. What will not a single thought, when pursued as it may be,
sometimes effect! In our hero, it brought to light the existence of a
new world. His single object appeared to be, to find the eastern
shores of Asia, or some unknown tract, by sailing due west.
How far that idea was original with him, it is not very material to
ascertain. If not the first individual to conceive it, he was the first to
carry it into execution. That land existed beyond the Atlantic, was a
conjecture merely of the ancients. Seneca comes the nearest to a
direct intimation, though as a poetic fancy it claims no serious
consideration. As the idea is given by Frenau, he says:

"The time shall come when numerous years are past,

 The ocean shall dissolve the band of things,
And an extended region rise at last:
And Typhis shall disclose the mighty land,
Far, far away, where none have roamed before:
Nor shall the world's remotest region be
Gibraltar's rock, or Thule's savage shore,"
Ferdinand Columbus informs us, that his father's conviction of the
existence of land in the west was founded on—1, natural reason, or
the deductions of science; 2, authority of writers, amounting,
however, to vague surmises; 3, testimony of sea-faring persons, or
rather popular rumors of land, described in western voyages,
embracing such relics as appeared to be wafted from over the
Atlantic to Europe. What particular intimations he may have
received, either from authors or sailors, do not appear; since, in his
voyage to Iceland, no mention is made of his having learned the
story of the Scandinavian voyages to the northern portion of
America. It is possible, however, that he may have been informed of
them; and the reason why no mention was made by him was, as M.
Humboldt conjectures, that he had no conception that the land
discovered by the Northmen had any connection with the region of
which he was in pursuit. The traditions which he may have met with,
and the speculations of the times, were realized in his view. So
strong was the conviction which had been wrought in his mind, from
whatever cause, he was willing to jeopard life and fortune to put it
to the test of experiment.
With this grand object before him, he first submitted his theory of a
western route to the Indies, to John the Second, king of Portugal.
He met with no countenance from this quarter. His project, in its
vastness, was in advance of the comprehension of the age. John
was not unwilling clandestinely to avail himself of information
communicated to him by Columbus, but he would enter into no
stipulation to aid him in the enterprise. Leaving the court of Lisbon
in disgust, in the latter part of 1484, Columbus repaired to the
Spanish sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. The time of the
application was peculiarly unfavorable, as the nation was then in the
midst of the Moorish war, and needed for its prosecution all the
pecuniary resources of the state. The persons of influence also in
the court, were destitute of those enlarged views, which are
essential to a just appreciation of the scheme that fired the great
mind of Columbus. With these causes of discouragement, and the
submission of his proposal on the part of the sovereigns to a council
chiefly of ecclesiastics, he had little reason to expect a favorable
issue. After waiting years in the most agitating suspense and doubt
(for the council would come to no decision), he was preparing to
abandon the suit. Pressing the court for a definite answer at that
juncture, they at last gave him to understand, that his scheme was
"vain, impracticable, and resting on grounds too weak to merit the
support of the government." In deep despondency he quitted the
court, and took his way to the south, as if in desperation, to seek
other patronage in other quarters.
From the period of his application to the Spanish court, to that at
which we are now arrived in his history, it would seem that he made
several attempts to interest other distinguished personages in his
scheme, particularly the citizens of his native Genoa; but the early
authorities so disagree among themselves, that the chronology of his
movements, previously to his first voyage, cannot be determined
with precision. It is certain, however, that while in the act of leaving
Spain, probably for the court of the French king, from whom he had
received a letter of encouragement, he was purposely detained by a
friend, Juan Perez, (who had formerly been a confessor of Isabella,)
for the purpose of trying the effect of another application to the
Spanish sovereigns. This measure, seconded by the influence of
several distinguished individuals, and occurring just at the
triumphant termination of the Moorish war, had well nigh proved
successful at once; but Columbus was again doomed to
disappointment. The single obstacle in the way now, was not the
disinclination of Ferdinand and Isabella, but what were deemed the
extravagant demands of Columbus himself. He would not consent to
engage in the undertaking, except on the condition that he and his
heirs should receive the title of admiral and viceroy over all lands
discovered by him, with one-tenth of the profits. This demand was
the means of breaking up the negotiations, and that at the moment
when he seemed to be on the point of realizing the visions which he
had fondly indulged, through long years of vexation, trouble, and
disappointment. That he would consent to dash those bright visions,
rather than surrender one of the rewards due to his service, is, in
the language of our Prescott, "the most remarkable exhibition in his
whole life, of that proud, unyielding spirit which sustained him
through so many years of trial, and enabled him to achieve his great
enterprise, in the face of every obstacle which man and nature had
opposed to it."

Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella.

Columbus again having turned his back from the scene of the
negotiations, had proceeded only a few leagues distant, when he
was recalled by the royal message. The queen in the meanwhile had
yielded to the dictates of her own noble and generous nature,
having been convinced of the importance of the enterprise, by the
powerful representations of the friends of our hero. She said at once
in answer, "I will assume the undertaking for my own crown of
Castile, and will pledge my private jewels to raise the necessary
funds, if the means in the treasury should be found inadequate."
The money, however, was furnished by the receiver of the revenues
of Arragon, and subsequently refunded at the instance of Ferdinand.
[2] The conditions on which Columbus had insisted, in the event of
discovery, were finally granted. He was constituted by the united
sovereigns, their admiral, viceroy, and governor-general, of all such
countries as he should discover in the Western ocean. He was to be
entitled to one-tenth of the products and profits, within the limits of
his discoveries. These, with other privileges of a like kind, not
necessary to name here, were settled on him and his heirs for ever.
Thus possessing the royal sanction, Columbus immediately entered
upon the arrangements required to prosecute the voyage. Isabella
urged it forward to the extent of her power. Delay, however,
unavoidably occurred, on account of the opposition or indifference of
the local magistrates and the people where the equipment was to be
made. This obstacle was at length removed, by stern edicts on the
part of the government and by the energy of Columbus. The fleet
consisted of three vessels, one furnished by himself, through the
assistance of his friends, and was to sail from the little port of Palos
in Andalusia. Two of the vessels were caravels—that is, light vessels
without decks—the other was of a larger burden, though not
amounting even to an hundred tons. How such craft could survive
the waves and storms of the Atlantic, is one of the marvelous
circumstances of the undertaking. The number of men received on
board amounted to one hundred and twenty. The preparations
having been finished, the undaunted navigator set sail on the
morning of the 3d of August, 1492, having first with his whole crew
partaken of the sacrament.
 Columbus sets sail.

He soon directed his course to the Canary islands, in consequence of

the condition of one of the vessels, called the Pinta, whose rudder
had been found to be unfit for service. This, after a detention of
more than three weeks, was repaired, and they then, on the 6th of
September, proceeded on their voyage. On the fourth day, land
ceased to be in sight, and now the fearful reality of their condition
pressed upon the minds of the sailors with overpowering weight.
They had been pressed into the service, and from the beginning
were averse to the enterprise. Columbus had reason, therefore, to
expect the open manifestation of discontent, if not insubordination
and mutiny. The first exhibition of their feelings, upon losing sight of
land, was that of alarm and terror. Many of them shed tears, and
broke out into loud lamentations—all before them seemed to be
mystery, danger, and death. It was by no means easy to quell their
fears, and it required all the address of the admiral to effect it. Their
minds were, in a degree, soothed for that time by the promises of
land and riches, which he addressed to their wants or their cupidity.
Every unusual incident, however, on the voyage, was calculated to
awaken their gloomy and distressing apprehensions, such as the
sight of a part of a mast, when they had sailed some one hundred
and fifty leagues, and the variation of the needles. The former
presented to their imagination the probable wreck of their own frail
barks. The variation of the needle created surprise even in the mind
of the admiral, but to his crew the circumstance seemed perfectly
terrific. They felt as if the very laws of nature were undergoing a
change, and the compass was about to lose its virtues and its power,
as a guide over the waste of waters. Columbus, however, by
ascribing the variation of the needle to the change of the polar-star
itself, satisfied the minds of his pilots, inasmuch as they entertained
a high opinion of his knowledge of astronomy. The distance at which
they were every day carried from their homes, was a source of
accumulating uneasiness. Every sort of superstitious fear was
indulged in. One while, the prevalence of winds from the east,
excited their apprehensions that a return to Spain was impracticable.
At another time, the slight south-west breezes and frequent calms,
causing the ocean to seem like a lake of dead water, made them feel
that they were in strange regions, where nature was out of course,
and all was different from that to which they had been accustomed.
Here they thought they might be left to perish, on stagnant and
boundless waters. Now, they seemed to themselves to be in danger
of falling on concealed rocks and treacherous quicksands—then, of
being inextricably entangled in vast masses of seaweed which lay in
their path. Although Columbus had contrived to keep his men
ignorant of the real distance they had come, yet the length of time
could but tell them that they must be far, very far from country and
home, and that their ever going on to the west, would at length
place the east too remote from them to hope ever reaching it. They
had been occasionally cheered with what were deemed indications
of their proximity to land, such as the flying of birds about their
fleet, the patches of weeds and herbs covering the surface of the
water, and a certain cloudiness in the distant horizon, such as hangs
over land; but these had proved fallacious; and the higher hope was
raised by such appearances, the deeper was its fall when the
appearances passed away.
This state of things led to murmurs and discontent, and at one time,
the crew were on the point of combining in open and desperate
rebellion. The power which the great admiral possessed over the
minds of men, was never more signalized, than in putting down this
spirit of insubordination and mutiny. He was perfectly aware of their
intentions, but preserved a serene and steady countenance. He
seemed intuitively to understand in what way to address himself to
the different portions of his company. Some, he soothed with gentle
words. Of others, he stimulated the pride or avarice, by the offers of
honors and rewards. The most refractory he openly menaced with
condign punishment, should they make the slightest attempt at
impeding the voyage.
After the experience of long-continued calms, the wind sprang up in
a favorable direction, and they were enabled efficiently to prosecute
their voyage. This was on the 25th of September, and the vessels
sailing quite near to each other, a frequent interchange of
conversation took place on the subject most interesting to them—
their probable position as to land. In the midst of it, a shout from
the Pinta was heard on board the Santa Maria, the admiral's ship,
"Land, land!"—the signal pointing to the south-west. Columbus, who
had found cause on other occasions to dissent from the opinions of
his men, gave way, in this instance, to the joyful feelings which were
at once excited in their bosoms: but it proved, at length, that what
appeared to be land, was nothing more than an evening cloud of a
peculiar kind. Thus were their hopes dashed, and nothing remained
for them but to press onward. Fain would the crew have turned back
upon their course, but the commander was sternly resolute on
realizing his magnificent project, and pressed forward still deeper
into mid-ocean.
It is a necessary explanation of the character of this extraordinary
man, that he appeared all along to view himself under the
immediate guardianship of Heaven, in this solemn enterprise. He
consequently felt few or none of the misgivings which so strongly
affected his associates. For several days longer they continued on,
till on the 1st of October, they had advanced more than seven
hundred leagues since the Canary islands were left behind. Again
the murmurs of the crew were renewed, but, in this instance,
became soon hushed by increasing tokens of their nearness to land.
Indeed, so sanguine were they on the subject, that on the 7th of
October, on board of the Nina, land was again announced. But it
proved a delusion, and all except Columbus were ready to abandon
hope. At the end of three days more, they saw the sun, after
renewed appearances betokening their neighborhood to land, go
down upon a shoreless horizon. At this time the turbulence of the
crew became clamorous—they insisted upon turning homeward, and
abandoning the voyage as a forlorn hope. The commander now,
after trying to pacify them by kind words and large promises, and
trying in vain, arose in the majesty of his undaunted heart, and gave
them to understand that all murmuring would be fruitless, and that,
with God's blessing, he would accomplish the purpose for which his
sovereigns had sent him on a voyage of discovery. Fortunately, at
this juncture, when the conduct of Columbus had become nearly
desperate, the indications of neighboring land could not be
mistaken. Besides fresh weed, the limb of a tree, a reed, and a small
board, they picked up an artificially carved staff. Soon despondency
and rebellion gave way to hope, and, throughout the day, every
person on board of the little fleet was on the watch for the long-
wished-for land.
 First sight of land from Columbus' ship.

The following evening was a time of intense anxiety to Columbus.

He could but infer that he was near to the goal of his adventures
and his hopes. But was it so indeed? That was the question, and it
must now be soon decided. Would the night reveal it to him? Would
its discoveries settle for ever the truth of his theory, and bring to him
the immortal honor which he sought, as the end of all his toil and
suffering? Taking his station in a conspicuous part of his vessel, he
maintained an intense and unremitting watch. A few hours only had
transpired, when suddenly he thought he beheld a light glimmering
at a great distance. One and another was called to examine the
appearance, in order to confirm the commander in his impression, if
indeed it was correct. They gave their opinion in the affirmative.
Soon, however, the light disappeared, and few attached any
importance to it, except Columbus. They pursued their course until
two in the morning, when from the Pinta, which generally sailed
ahead, the thundering signal was heard, the order being that a gun
should be fired as soon as land hove in sight. It was indeed land at
this time. It lay before them, now dimly seen, about two leagues
distant. The joy which Columbus and his crew felt at the sight,
surpasses the power of description. It is difficult, even for the
imagination, to conceive the emotions of such a man, in whose
temperament a wonderful enthusiasm and unbounded aspiration
prevailed, at the moment of so sublime a discovery. Utterance was
given to his intense feelings by tears, and prayers, and
thanksgivings.
It was on the morning of Friday, 12th of October, 1492, that
Columbus first saw the new world. A beautiful, fragrant, verdure-
crowned island lay before him, and evidently populous, for the
inhabitants were seen darting, in great numbers, through the woods
to the shore. That greenhouse appearance, which the regions within
the tropics are known generally to assume, together with the purity
and blandness of the atmosphere, struck the senses of the voyagers,
as though it had been Eden itself. They could give vent to their
feelings only in tears of gratitude—in prayers and praises to God,
who had conducted them to such happy destinies. Having made the
necessary preparations, Columbus landed with his crew on the
delightful shore, in an ecstasy of joy and devotion, taking possession
of the whole region in the name of his sovereigns, and calling the
island San Salvador. It proved to be one of what has since been
known as the Bahama islands.
The conduct and appearance of the natives were such as to show
that the Spaniards had no reason to fear their hostility or treachery.
Simple, harmless, naked, and unarmed, they seemed rather to be at
the mercy of their visitors. Equally timid and curious, they were at
first shy; but being encouraged to approach the strangers, they at
length became entirely familiar with them, and received presents
with expressions of the highest delight. The new comers to their
shores were thought to have dropped from the skies, and the
articles bestowed were received as celestial presents. All was a
scene of wonder and amazement indeed to both parties.
As Columbus supposed himself to have landed on an island at the
extremity of India, he gave to the natives the general appellation of
Indians, by which, as a distinct race, they have ever since been
known.
 Interview of Columbus with the Natives of Cuba.

After having noticed the features of the new-found island sufficiently,

and learned what he was able from the natives in respect to other
lands or islands, and particularly in respect to the gold they might
contain, he explored the archipelago around, touched at several of
the groups, and finally discovered the larger and more distant
islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. Many interesting adventures
occurred during his sojourn among these islands, in his intercourse
with the natives, upon which we cannot enlarge. Suffice it to say,
that he succeeded according to his wishes in conciliating the
affections of the people, and in the extent of his discoveries for the
first voyage, but found a less amount of gold than he expected, and
was unfortunate in the shipwreck of the Santa Maria, the principal
vessel. His trials, also, with several of his subordinates in office, were
severe; as, on more than one occasion, they proved unfaithful to his
interests and disobedient to his commands.
 Columbus casting a barrel into the sea.

It was on the 4th of January, 1493, that Columbus set sail for Spain.
He left a part of his men in the island of Hispaniola (Hayti, in the
language of the original inhabitants), to occupy a fort he had built
near a harbor, which he had named La Navidad. While coasting on
the eastern side of the island, he met the Pinta, which had for a
time, under its disaffected captain, deserted from him. Joined by this
vessel again, they proceeded homeward on their voyage; but they
met with tempests, which their frail barks were little able to
encounter. The Pinta, being separated from the Nina, was supposed
to have been lost; but this proved to have be a mistake, as she
reached Spain nearly at the same time with the other caravel. At the
time of their greatest extremity, when all hope of safety had
departed, Columbus, anxious that the knowledge of his discovery
might be communicated to the world, wrote a brief account of his
voyage; and having properly secured it in a barrel, committed the
latter to the ocean, in the hope that it might afterwards be found,
should he and his crew never see land again.[3] But they were
mercifully preserved, as the storm at length subsided, and, within a
few days, they reached the island of St. Mary's, one of the Azores.
While he was at that island, where he had sought a refuge for his
wearied men and his own over-tasked body and mind, he
encountered a species of persecution most disgraceful to civilized
society. It was the result of the mean malignity of the Portuguese,
who were piqued that the honor of the discovery should not have
been secured for themselves, and was manifested by the
imprisonment of a portion of his crew, and other vexatious
treatment. At length, regaining his men, he set sail for home; but,
meeting with tempestuous weather, he was forced to take shelter in
the Tagus. Here astonishment and envy seemed to be equally
excited by the knowledge of his discoveries; and, could certain
courtiers of the monarch have had their own way, the great
adventurer would have been stricken down by the hand of the
assassin. So black a deed of treacherous villany had been advised.
The king, however, treated him with generosity, and Columbus being
dismissed with safety, soon found himself entering the harbor of
Palos, just seven months and eleven days since his departure from
that port.
His arrival in Spain excited the most lively feelings of astonishment,
joy, and gratitude. The nation was swayed by one common
sentiment of admiration of the man and his exploits. Ferdinand and
Isabella, who seemed to derive so much glory from his success,
most of all participated in this sentiment. He was the universal
theme, and most amply was he indemnified by the honors now
bestowed upon him, and the enthusiasm with which he was every
where welcomed, for all the neglect and contumely he had
previously suffered, as a supposed insane or fanatical projector. His
progress through Spain was like the triumphal march of a conqueror.
But it is impossible, within the limited compass of this narrative, to
present any thing like an adequate idea of the sensation which was
produced throughout the nation and Europe at large, by the events
that had thus transpired, or to enumerate the hundredth part of the
marks of consideration, which "the observed of all observers"
received from prince and peasant—from the learned and ignorant.
The government confirmed anew to him all the dignities, privileges,
and emoluments for which he had before stipulated, and others
were added to them. But to Columbus, the most satisfactory
consideration accorded to him by his sovereigns at this time, was the
request to attempt a second voyage of discovery. For this, the
preparations were on a scale commensurate to the object in view.
The complement of the fleet amounted to fifteen hundred souls.
Among these were many who enlisted from love of adventure or
glory, including several persons of rank, hidalgos, and members of
the royal household. The squadron consisted of seventeen vessels,
three of which were of one hundred tons burden each. With a navy
of this size, so strongly contrasting with that of his former voyage,
he took his departure from the Bay of Cadiz on the 25th of
September, 1493. He sailed on a course somewhat south of west,
instead of due west as before, and after being upon the sea one
month and seven days, he came to a lofty island, to which he gave
the name of Dominica, from having discovered it on Sunday. The
liveliest joy was felt by the numerous company, and devout thanks
were returned to God for their prosperous voyage.
Sad reverses, however, awaited the great commander during this
voyage of discovery. The garrison which he had left on the island of
Hispaniola had disappeared, and the natives seemed less favorably
disposed towards the white man than at first—a change which
probably accounts for the fate of the garrison. Columbus, indeed,
added other islands to the list of those before known, planted
stations here and there on the principal island above named, and
showed his usual unequaled energy and skill in the conduct of the
expedition. But, as he could not be every where at once, his absence
from a place was the sure signal of misrule and insubordination
among that class of adventurers who had never been accustomed to
subjection or labor. His cautious and conciliating policy in the
treatment of the natives was abandoned, where he could not be
present to enforce it, and, the consequence was, that they were
aroused to resentment, on account of the injuries inflicted upon
them. The treatment of the female natives, on the part of the
colonists, was of that scandalous character calculated to produce
continual broils and collisions. Eventually, a fierce warlike spirit was
excited among portions of this naturally gentle and timid people; but
they proved to be unequal to the civilized man, with the superior
arms and discipline of the latter, in hostile encounter, and were
driven before him as the leaves of autumn before a storm. There
was such a war of extermination, that, in less than four years after
the Spaniards had set foot on the island of Hispaniola, one-third of
its population, amounting probably to several hundred thousand,
was destroyed.
Complaints were made by the colonists against the administration of
Columbus, so that eventually he felt the necessity of returning home
to vindicate his proceedings. Ferdinand and Isabella, however, took
no part with the malcontents against him. They treated him with
marked distinction; but it was evident that with the novelty of his
discoveries, the enthusiasm of the nation had passed away. It was
generally felt to be a losing concern. The actual returns of gold and
other products of the new world were so scanty, as to bear no
proportion to the outlays.
A third expedition was projected, and after various hindrances,
arising from the difficulty of meeting the expense, and the apathy of
the public, Columbus took his departure from the port of St. Lucas,
May 30, 1498. Proceeding in a still more southerly direction than
before, on the 1st of August following, he succeeded in reaching
terra firma. He thus entitled himself to the glory of discovering the
great southern continent, for which he had before prepared the way.
It is not necessary to detail the events of this expedition, except to
say, that it proved a source of untold evil and suffering to the
veteran navigator. After his arrival at Hispaniola, he was involved in
inextricable difficulties with the colonists, the final result of which
was, that he was sent home in chains. This shocking indignity was
the unauthorized act of a commissioner, named Boadilla, sent out by
the government to adjust the differences that had taken place. The
king and queen of Spain thus became unwittingly the cause of his
disgrace. This was too much for the kind and generous feelings of
the queen in particular. Columbus was soothed by the assurances of
her sympathy and sorrow for his trials. "When he beheld the
emotion of his royal mistress, and listened to her consolatory
language, it was too much for his loyal and generous heart; and,
throwing himself on his knees, he gave vent to his feelings, and
sobbed aloud."[4] As an indication of the continued confidence of the
king and queen in his fidelity, wisdom, and nautical skill, they
proposed to him a fourth voyage. To this he assented, with some
reluctance at first; but, cheered by their assurances, he quitted the
port of Cadiz on the 9th of March, 1502, with a small squadron of
four caravels. This was his last voyage, and more disastrous than
any which preceded it. Among other misfortunes, he was wrecked
on the island of Jamaica, where he was permitted to linger more
than a year, through the malice of Ovando, the new governor of St.
Domingo. On his return, the 7th of November, 1504, after a most
perilous and tedious voyage, he was destined to feel the heaviest
stroke of all, in the death of his most constant and liberal supporter,
the queen; and, with her death, to fail of that public justice which he
had looked for as the crown of all his labors, hardships, and
sacrifices. The king, always wary and distrustful, though he treated
Columbus with high public consideration, seems to have regarded
him "in the unwelcome light of a creditor, whose demands were
never to be disavowed, and too large to be satisfied." The great
discoverer lived only a year and a half after his return; and, though
poorly compensated by the king in his last days, he bore his trials
with patience, and died on the 5th of May, 1506, in the most
Christian spirit of resignation.
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