Chapter 3 : Comminution and

Industrial screening
1. INTRODUCTION
• Minerals are rarely found in pure form and in the size
range required

• it is often necessary to decrease the particle size so that

the target mineral is liberated from the gangue.

• The most appropriate type of machine at each stage

depends, not only on the size of the feed and of the
product, but also on such properties as compressive
strength, brittleness and stickiness.

• For example, the first stage in the process may require

the use of a large jaw crusher and the final stage a sand
grinder, two machines of very different characters.

1
• Milling, sometimes also known as
fine grinding, pulverising or
comminution, is the process of
reducing materials to a powder of
fine or very fine size.

• Comminution is used to produce a

variety of materials which either have
end uses themselves or are raw
materials or additives used in the
manufacture of other products

• The material subjected to size

reduction may be a mineral, rock or
ore which contains both useful and
gangue minerals.

2
• The goal of comminution of rock
and ore material is to
release/liberate useful particles
from the gangue.

• If liberation is not complete, the

product of comminution contains
intergrowths.

3
 Typical shapes of intergrowths are shown in below

Fig. . Typical intergrowths of valuable and gangue minerals: a – regular,

b – vain, c – frame, d – occlusion

4
Mechanism of Size reduction
• Whilst the mechanism of the process of
size reduction is extremely complex,

• In recent years a number of attempts

have been made at a more detailed
analysis of the problem.

• If a single lump of material is subjected

to a sudden impact, it will generally break
so as to yield a few relatively large
particles and a number of fine particles,
with relatively few particles of
intermediate size.

5
• If the energy in the blow is
increased, the larger particles will
be of a rather smaller size and more
numerous

• the number of fine particles will be

appreciably increased, their size
will not be much altered.

• It therefore appears that the size of

the fine particles is closely
connected with the internal
structure of the material,

• the size of the larger particles is

more closely connected with the
process by which the size reduction
is effected.

6
Comminution can be selective, partially selective and nonselective

7
• The energy required to effect
size reduction is related to the
internal structure of the
material and the process
consists of two parts,

• First opening up any small

cracks which are already
present, and secondly forming
new surface.

• A material such as coal

contains a number of small
cracks and tends first to break
along these, and therefore the
large pieces are broken up
more readily than the small
ones.
8
• In considering energy utilisation,
size reduction is a very
inefficient process and only
between 0.1 and 2.0 per cent of
the energy supplied to the
machine appears as increased
surface energy in the solids.

• The efficiency of the process is

very much influenced by the
manner in which the load is
applied and its magnitude.

• In addition the nature of the

force exerted is also very
important depending, for
example, on whether it is
predominantly a compressive,
an impact or a shearing force.
9
• If the applied force is
insufficient for the elastic limit
to be exceeded, and the
material is compressed, energy
is stored in the particle.

• When the load is removed, the

particle expands again to its
original condition without
doing useful work. The energy
appears as heat and no size
reduction is effected.

• A somewhat greater force will

cause the particle to fracture,
however, and in order to obtain
the most effective utilisation of
energy, the force should be
only slightly in excess of the
crushing strength of the
material.
10
• The surface of the particles will
generally be of a very irregular
nature so that the force is initially
taken on the high spots, with the
result that very high stresses and
temperatures may be set up locally in
the material.

• All large lumps of material contain

cracks and size reduction occurs as a
result of crack propagation that
occurs above a critical parameter, F,
where:

11
Bond terms Ei the work index
• Bond terms Ei the work index, : the amount of energy required to reduce
unit mass of material from an infinite particle size to a size L2 of 100 μm.

• The size of material L2 is taken as the size of the square hole through
which 80 per cent of the material will pass.

• Expressions for the work index are given for various types of materials
and various forms of size reduction equipment.

12
13
• Grinding may be carried out either wet or dry, although wet grinding is
generally applicable only with low speed mills. The advantages of wet
grinding are:

(a) The power consumption is reduced by about 20–30 per cent.

(b) The capacity of the plant is increased.
(c) The removal of the product is facilitated and the amount of fines is
reduced.
(d) Dust formation is eliminated.
(e) The solids are more easily handled.

• Against this, the wear on the grinding medium is generally about 20

per cent greater, and it may be necessary to dry the product.

14
• Grinding mills can be filled with different grindings aids including balls,
cylpebbs, rods, and pieces of ore

15
 Grinding equipment
The Ball mill

• In its simplest form, the ball

mill consists of a rotating
hollow cylinder, partially
filled with balls, with its axis
either horizontal or at a small
angle to the horizontal.
• The material to be ground may
be fed in through a hollow
cylinder at one end and the
product leaves through a
similar cylinder at the other
end. 16
• The outlet is normally covered with
a coarse screen to prevent the
escape of the balls.

• The inner surface of the cylinder is

usually lined with an abrasion-
resistant material such as
manganese steel, stoneware or
rubber.

• Less wear takes place in rubber-lined

mills, and the coefficient of friction
between the balls and the cylinder is
greater than with steel or stoneware
linings.

17
• The balls are therefore carried
further in contact with the
cylinder and thus drop on to the
feed from a greater height.

• In some cases, lifter bars are

fitted to the inside of the
cylinder.

• Another type of ball mill is used

to an increasing extent, where
the mill is vibrated instead of
being rotated, and the rate of
passage of material is controlled
by the slope of the mill.

18
• The ball mill is used for the
grinding of a wide range of
materials, and it copes with feed
up to about 50 mm in size.

• The efficiency of grinding

increases with the hold-up in the
mill, until the voids between the
balls are filled. Further increase in
the quantity then lowers the
efficiency.

• The balls are usually made of flint

or steel and occupy between 30
and 50 per cent of the volume of
the mill. The diameter of ball used
will vary between 12 mm and 125
mm

19
➢ During grinding, the balls wear and are
constantly replaced by new ones so that
the mill contains balls of various ages,
and hence of various sizes.

➢ This is advantageous since the large

balls deal effectively with the feed and
the small ones are responsible for giving
a fine product.

➢ The maximum rate of wear of steel balls,

using very abrasive materials, is about 0.3
kg/Mg of material for dry grinding, and 1–
1.5 kg/Mg for wet grinding. The normal
charge of balls is about 5 Mg/m3

20
Factors influencing the size of the
product

• (a) The rate of feed. With high rates of

feed, less size reduction is effected since
the material is in the mill for a shorter
time.
• (b) The properties of the feed material.
The larger the feed the larger is the
product under given operating
conditions. A smaller size reduction is
obtained with a hard material.
• (c) Weight of balls. A heavy charge of
balls produces a fine product. The weight
of the charge can be increased, either by
increasing the number of balls, or by
using a material of higher density..
21
• Since optimum grinding
conditions are usually obtained
when the bulk volume of the
balls is equal to 50 per cent of
the volume of the mill,
variation of the weight of balls
is normally effected by the use
of materials of different
densities.

22
(d) The diameter of the balls. Small balls
facilitate the production of fine material
although they do not deal so effectively
with the larger particles in the feed. The
limiting size reduction obtained with a
given size of balls is known as the free
grinding limit. For most economical
operation, the smallest possible balls
should be used.
e) The slope of the mill. An increase in the
slope of the mill increases the capacity
of the plant because the retention time
is reduced, although a coarser product is
obtained.

(f) Discharge freedom. Increasing the

freedom of discharge of the product has
the same effect as increasing the slope.
In some mills, the product is discharged
through openings in the lining.

23
• (g) The speed of rotation of the mill. At low speeds
of rotation, the balls simply roll over one another
and little crushing action is obtained. At slightly
higher speeds, the balls are projected short
distances across the mill, and at still higher speeds
they are thrown greater distances and considerable
wear of the lining of the mill takes place. At very
high speeds, the balls are carried right round in
contact with the sides of the mill and little relative
movement or grinding takes place again. Thus,
optimum speed of rotation is required.

• (h) The level of material in the mill. Power

consumption is reduced by maintaining a low level
of material in the mill, and this can be controlled
most satisfactorily by fitting a suitable discharge
opening for the product. If the level of material is
raised, the cushioning action is increased and
power is wasted by the production of an excessive
quantity of undersize material.

24
• (h) The level of material in the mill.
Power consumption is reduced by
maintaining a low level of material in
the mill, and this can be controlled most
satisfactorily by fitting a suitable
discharge opening for the product. If the
level of material is raised, the cushioning
action is increased and power is wasted
by the production of an excessive
quantity of undersize material.

25
Advantages of the ball mill

(i) The mill may be used wet or dry although wet grinding facilitates the
removal of the product.

(ii) The costs of installation and power are low.

(iii) The ball mill may be used with an inert atmosphere and therefore can
be used
for the grinding of explosive materials.

(iv) The grinding medium is cheap.

(v) The mill is suitable for materials of all degrees of hardness.

(vi) It may be used for batch or continuous operation. 26

• Ball mill may be used for
open or closed circuit
grinding. With open circuit
grinding, a wide range of
particle sizes is obtained in
the product.

• With closed circuit grinding,

the use of an external
separator can be obviated by
continuous removal of the
product by means of a
current of air or through a
screen.

27
The tube mill

• The tube mill is similar to the ball mill in construction and

operation, although the ratio of length to the diameter is
usually 3 or 4 : 1, as compared with 1 or 1.5 : 1 for the ball
mill.

• The mill is filled with pebbles, rather smaller in size than the
balls used in the ball mill, and the inside of the mill is so shaped
that a layer of pebbles becomes trapped in it to form a self-
renewing lining.

• The characteristics of the two mills are similar although the

material remains longer in the tube mill because of its greater
length, and a finer product is therefore obtained.
01/02/2025 Eng. Elias Mamushet 28
The Rod mill

• In the rod mill, high carbon

steel rods about 50 mm
diameter and extending the
whole length of the mill are
used in place of balls.

• This mill gives a very uniform

fine product and power
consumption is low, although
it is not suitable for very
tough materials and the feed
should not exceed about 25
mm in size.
01/02/2025 Eng. Elias Mamushet 29
• .
• It is particularly useful with
sticky materials which would
hold the balls together in
aggregates, because the
greater weight of the rods
causes them to pull apart
again.

• Worn rods must be removed

from time to time and
replaced by new ones, which
are rather cheaper than balls

30
Autogenous grinding(AG) and semi-autogenous
grinding (SAG) mills
• An AG mill is a tumbling mill that utilizes the ore itself as
grinding media.

• The ore must contain sufficient competent pieces to act as

grinding media.

• An SAG mill is an autogenous mill that utilizes steel balls in

addition to the natural grinding media.

• Experience indicates that the ball charges used in SAG have

generally been most effective in the range of 4-15% of the
mill volume, including voids.

31
• The main advantages of AG/SAG
mills are :
– their lower capital cost,
– the ability to treat a wide
range of ore type including
sticky and clayey feeds,
– relatively simple flowsheets,
– the large size of available
equipment,
– lower manpower
requirements, and
SAG mill
– reduced grinding media
expense.
32
Vibratory mills

• Vibratory mills are designed for

continuous, or batch, grinding
to give a very fine end product
from a wide variety of
materials, the operation being
performed either wet or dry.

• The outstanding features of

correctly designed vibratory
ball mills are their small size
and lower energy
consumption relative to
throughput when compared
with other types of mill.

33
Centrifugal mills

• In centrifugal milling, the

forces on the charge inside
the mill are increased by
operating the mill in a
centrifugal, rather than a
gravitational, field.

• Comminution is more rapid,

and the size of machine
needed for a given grinding
duty is thus reduced.

34
 Industrial Screening
• Industrial sizing is extensively
used for size separations from
300 mm down to around 0.4mm,
although the efficiency decreases
rapidly with fineness.
• Dry screening is generally limited
to material above about 5 mm in
size, while wet screening down
to around 0.25mm is common.
• Selection between screening and
classification is influenced by the
fact that finer separations
demand large areas of screening
surface and therefore can be
expensive compared with
classification for high-throughput
applications
35
Industrial Screening
• Screening equipment consists of a drive that induces
vibration, a screen media that causes particle separation,
and a deck that holds the screen media and the drive and is
the mode of transport for the vibration.

• It is used during the mechanical screening processes,

designed to separate one material from another.

• As the second part of the material handling process,

screening equipment is used to separate raw material from
a crusher or quarry into even finer grades, coming closer to
an end product.

36
There are a wide range of screening objectives.

• The main purposes in the minerals industry are:

(a) Sizing or Classifying, to separate particles by size, usually to
provide a downstream unit process with the particle size range
suited to that unit operation;

(b) Scalping, to remove the coarsest size fractions in the feed

material, usually so that they can be crushed or removed from the
process;

(c) Grading, to prepare a number of products within specified size

ranges. This is important in quarrying and iron ore, where the final
• product size is an important part of the specification;

37
 (d) Media recovery, for washing magnetic media
from ore in dense medium circuits;
(e) Dewatering, to drain free moisture from a wet
sand slurry;
(f)Desliming or de-dusting, to remove fine
material,
generally below 0.5 mm from a wet or dry feed;
and
(g)removal, usually to remove wood fibres from a
fine slurry stream.

38
• In its simplest form, the screen is a surface having
many apertures, or holes, usually with uniform
dimensions.

• Particles presented to that surface will either pass

through or be retained, according to whether the
particles are smaller or larger than the governing
dimensions of the aperture.

• The efficiency of screening is determined by the

degree of perfection of separation of the material
into size fractions above or below the aperture size.

39
Screen types
• There are numerous different types of industrial
screens available.

• The dominant screen type in industrial

applications is the vibrating screen, of which
there are many sub-types in use for coarse and
fine-screening applications.

• There are also numerous other screen types in

wide use for both coarse and fine screening
applications.
40
Vibrating screens
• Vibrating screens are the most
important and versatile screening
machines for mineral processing
applications

• Vibrating screens have a rectangular

screening surface with feed and
oversize discharge at opposite ends.

• They perform size separations from

300mm in size down to 0.045 mm and
they are used in a variety of sizing,
grading, scalping, dewatering, wet
screening, and washing applications.

41
Grizzly screens
• Very coarse material is
usually screened on an
inclined screen called a
grizzly screen.

• Grizzlies are
characterized by parallel
steel bars or rails set at
a fixed distance apart
and installed in line with
the flow of ore.
Grizzly screens

42
• The gap between grizzly bars is usually
greater than 50 mm and can be as large
as 300 mm, with feed top size as large as
1 m.

• Vibrating grizzlies are usually inclined at

an angle of around 20O and have a
circular-throw mechanism

• The capacity of the largest machines

exceeds 5000 t /h.

• The most common use of grizzlies in

mineral processing is for sizing the feed
to primary and secondary crushers.
Grizzly screens
43
Inclined screens
• Inclined screens Inclined or circular motion
screens are widely used as sizing screens.

• The vibrating Inclined Screen is the most

popular type of screen.

• There are various types of Inclined

Screens, including two and four bearing,
high-speed, and high-frequency screens.

• A vertical circular or elliptical vibration is

induced mechanically by the rotation of
unbalanced weights or flywheels attached
usually to a single drive shaft .

Inclined screens

44
Banana screens
▪ The banana screen is designed by
injecting a banana-shaped multi-
stage working surface based on a
linear classifier.
▪ Banana or Multi-slope screens have
become widely used in high-tonnage
sizing applications where both
efficiency and capacity are
important.

• The capacity of banana screens is

significantly greater and is reported
to be up to three or four times that
of conventional vibrating screens

• Compared with conventional

vibrating screens, the banana screen
handles a considerably larger feed
quantity for the same screen area.
45
Horizontal screens
• Horizontal screens Horizontal low-head
or linear vibrating screens have a
horizontal or near-horizontal screening
surface, and therefore need less
headroom (vertical space in which to
stand) than inclined screens.

• Horizontal screens must be vibrated

with a linear or an elliptical vibration
produced by a double or triple-shaft
vibrator

• Because gravity does not assist the

transport of material along the screen
they have lower capacity than inclined
screens

• Horizontal screens are used in sizing

applications where screening efficiency
is critical,
46
 Trommel Screens
• Trommels are widely used in gold
mines since they are extremely
efficient and very effective at
recovering fine gold.

• Is one of the oldest screening device

and is a cylindrical screen

• The larger-sized models can handle

impressive volumes of gold-bearing
gravel when operating at peak
efficiency.

• They are often powered by large

diesel or electric engines. Trommel Screens

47
• Trommels can handle material
from 55 mm down to 6 mm,
and even smaller sizes can be
handled under wet screening
conditions.

• Although trommels are

cheaper, vibration free, and
mechanically robust; they
typically have lower capacities
than vibrating screens

• Since only part of the screen

surface is in use at any one
time, and they can be more
prone to blinding.
Trommels screen

48
Roller screens/disc screen
• Roller screens/disc screen can be
used for screening applications from
3 to 300 mm

• Roller screens use a series of parallel

driven rolls (circular, elliptical, or
profiled) or discs to transport
oversize across the series of rolls
while allowing fines to fall through
the gaps between rolls or discs.

• Roller screens offer advantages of

high capacity, low noise levels, and
permit screening of very sticky Roller screens/disc screen
materials.

49