FUNDAMENTALS

OF FLUID FLOW
This chapter will deal with fluid in motion which is
based on the following principles.
a. PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATIONOF MASS
b. ENERGY PRINCIPLE (Kinetic Potential Energy)
c. Principle of Momentum
• STREAMLINES – these are imaginary curves
drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction
of motion in various sections of the flow of
the fluid system.
Any particle of a stream (flowing body) of fluid has
at any given instant a certain velocity (ν) which is a
vector quantity and therefore possesses both
magnitude and direction.
At any instant, force acting on the particle may
cause it to have velocity which is different in amount
and direction.
• The path, followed by a particle called PATH
LINE is ordinarily a curve in three dimensions.

ν3 ν6
ν5 y
ν1 ν2 ν4

Path line in two dimensional projection x

One –Dimensional Flow – this occurs in an incompressible fluid, the direction and
magnitude of the velocity at all points are identical.
Two –Dimensional Flow – this occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or
parallel planes and the streamline patterns are identical in each plane.
If path lines were drawn for all particles in a stream, their composite effect
would represent the motion of the entire stream.
Most problems in applied hydraulics can be solved by considering the
entire cross section of the stream, however, it is advisable to consider only a small
part of the cross section.
For this purpose a small bundle of path lines called a STREAM TUBE can be
used.
• STREAM TUBE is bounded by an imaginary
surface formed by surrounding layers of the
fluid.
Imaginary surface of fluid
streamline

Stream tube

These represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a group

of streamlines which confine the flow.
• DISCHARGE OR FLOW RATE, (Q)
The volume of fluid passing a cross section of a
stream per unit time. This is expressed as;
a) Volume flow rate = Q = Aν
b) Mass flow rate = M = ρQ
c) Weight flow rate = W = γQ
Where:
Q = discharge in m3/s or ft3/s
A = cross sectional area of flow in m2 or ft2
ν = mean velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s
ρ = mass density in kg/m3 or slugs/ft3
γ = weight density or unit weight in N/m3 or lb/ft3
• Note:
• cfm = cubic feet per minute
• gpm = gallons per mintue
• gpd = gallons per day
• mgd = millions of gallons daily
• 1] Compute the discharge of water through a
3 inch pipe if the mean velocity is 8.5 ft/sec.

3 in Ф 8.5 ft/s

Sol’n:
Q = Aν
Where ; A = πD2
4
Where; D = 3 in x 1ft/12in = 0.25ft
Then;
A = π(0.25)2
4
A = 0.049 ft2
Q = (0.049)(8.5) = 0.417 ft3/s
0.417 cfs
• 2] The discharge of air through a 24 inch pipe
is 8600 cfm. Compute the mean velocity in
feet per second.
24 in Ф 8600 cfm

Sol’n:
Q = Aν
ν = Q/A
Where ; A = πD2
4
Where; D = 24 in x 1ft/12in = 2 ft
Then;
A = π(2)2
4
A = π ft2
Q =8600 ft3/min x 1m/60sec
Q = 143.33 ft3/s
ν = 143.33/ π
ν = 45.62 ft/s
• 3] Water flows through a 80mm diameter pipe
at a velocity of 4m/sec. Find
• a) Volume flow rate in m3/s and li/s
• b)Mass flow rate in kg/s
• c)the weight flow rate in kN/s
Sol’n:

80mm Ф 4m/s
a)

Q = Av
Q = π(0.08)2 (4)
4
Q = 0.02 m3/s x 1000li/m3
Q =20.10 li/s

b)
M = ρQ
M = (1000)(0.02)
M = 20.10 kg/s

c)
W = γQ
W = (9.81)(0.02)
W = 0.196 kN/s
• 4] Air at 30oC and 110 kPa abs, flows at 20 N/s
through a rectangular duct that measure
160mm x 320mm. Compute the average
velocity and volume flux. (R = 287 N.m/kgoK)
• (flux meaning flowing out)
• Sol’n:

160mm = 0.16m

320mm = 0.32m

A = (0.16)(0.32)
A = 0.0512 m2
ρ = P/RT
ρ = 110 kN/m2 x 1000 N/kN
(287)(30 + 273) Q = Av
ρ = 1.265 kg/m3 v = Q/A
v = 1.61m3/s
γ = ρg
γ = 1.265kg/m3(9.81m/s2)
(0.16)(0.32)
γ = 12.41 N/m3 v = 31.45 m/s ave. velocity

Wf = 20 N/s
Wf = γQ
Q = Wf
γ
Q = 20N/s
12.41 N/m3
Q = 1.61 m3/s volume flux or discharge
 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
• STEADY FLOW – occurs when the discharge Q
passing a given cross section is constant with
time.
t = t = t

fluid

Q1 = Q2 = Q3
• Unsteady flow – if the flow Q at the cross
section varies with the flow.

t = t = t

fluid

Q1 ≠ Q2 ≠ Q3
• Uniform Flow – this occurs if, with steady flow
for a given length or reach of a stream, the
average velocity of flow is the same at every
section. This usually occurs when an
incompressible fluid flows through a stream
with uniform cross section.
L L

fluid

v1 = v2 = v3
• Non – uniform Flow – occurs if in a stream,
the cross sections and velocity changes

A1 A3
≠ A2 ≠
3
1
2 ν3
≠
ν1
≠ ν2
 • Continuous flow – this occurs when at any
time, the discharge Q at every section of the
stream is the same (Principle of conservation
of mass)
2 Q
Q 1 3

Q1 = Q2 = Q2

CONTINUITY EQUATION
For incompressible fluids
Q = A1v1 = A2v2 = A3v3 = constant

For compressible fluids

ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 = ρ3A3v3 = constant
γ 1A1v1 = γ2A2v2 = γ3A3v3 = constant
• 1] A pipe line consists of successive length
with a diameter of 15 in, 12 in and 10 in pipe,
with a continuous flow through the line of 9
cfs of water, compute the mean velocity in
each size of pipe.

Q = 9 cfs Q = 9 cfs
2 3
1
 Sol’n:

Q = 9 cfs Q = 9 cfs
2 3
1

Convert; Q = Av
15”Ф = 15/12 = 1.25 ft ν1 = Q/A1 ν3 = Q/A1
12” Ф = 12/12 = 1 ft ν 1 = 9 ft3/s ν 3 = 9 ft3/s
10” = 10/12 = 0.83ft (π)(1.25)2 (π)(0.83)2
4 4
ν 1 = 7.33 ft/s ν 3 = 16.6ft/s
ν2 = Q/A1
ν 2 = 9 ft3/s
(π)(1)2
4
ν 2 = 11.46 ft/s
• 2] A city requires a flow of 25 mgd for its water
supply. Compute the diameter of pipe required if
the velocity of low is to be
• a) 2 ft/s
• b)6 ft/s
Given:
Q = 25 mgd
v = 2 ft/s
Convert Q to ft3/s
Q = 25 x 106 gal/day x 3.785 li/gal x 1m3/1000li x (3.28) 3/m3 x 1day/24hrs x hr/60min x 1min/60sec = 38.647 ft3/sec
 • Q = Av
• A = Q/v
a) when v = 2ft/sec
A = 38.647 ft3/s
2 ft/s
A = 19.324 ft2
πd2/4 = 19.324
d2 = 24.6
d = 4.96 ft = 59.52”

b) v = 6 ft/s
A = 38.647 ft3/s
6 ft/s
πd2/4 = 38.647 ft3/s
6 ft/s
d2 = 8.2
d = 2.86 ft = 34.32”
• 3] A 100mm diameter plunger is being pushed
at 60 mm/sec into a tank filled with oil having
a sp.gr. Of 0.82. If the fluid is incompressible,
how many N/s of oil is being forced out at a
30mm diameter hole? Solve also for the
velocity at the outlet.

Oil, s = 0.82
100mm Ф
plunger
V = 60mm/s
1
2

30mm Ф
 Oil, s = 0.82
100mm Ф
plunger
V = 60mm/s
1
Sol’n: 2
Q1 = Av
= π(0.10)2(0.06) 30mm Ф
4
Q1 = 4.712 x 10-4 m3/s
Q1 = Q2
W = γQ
W = 9.81(0.82)(4.712x10-4)
W = 3.79 x 10 -3 kN/s
W = 3.79 N/s
• 4] Gas is flowing through a square conduit
whose section gradually changes from 150mm
(section 1) to 300mm (section2). At section 1,
the velocity of flow is 7 m/s and the density of
gas is 1 kg/m3 while at section 2, the velocity
of flow is 2m/s. Calculate the mass flow rate
and the density of the gas at section 2.
Sol’n:
(0.30x 0.30)m2
(0.15x 0.15)m2

v1 = 7m/s
ρ1 = 1 kg/m3 v2 = 2m/s
ρ2 = ?
Mf= ?
 0.30m2
0.15m2

v1 = 7m/s
ρ1 = 1 kg/m3 v2 = 2m/s
ρ2 = ?
Mf= ?

For compressible fluids

Mf1 = Mf2 where; Mf2 = ρ2Q
ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2
(1)(0.15)(0.15)(7) = ρ2(0.30)(0.30)(2)
ρ2 = 0.875kg/m3

Mf2 = ρ2Q
Mf2 = ρ2A2v2
Mf2 = (0.875)(0.30)(0.30)(2)
Mf2 = 0.1575 kg/s
• 5] Water flows at the
rate of 7.5 m/s through
75mm diameter pipe
(pipe 1) and leaves d4 = 50mm 4
through 50mm
diameter and 65mm air h
diameter pipes at the
rate of 3m/s and 3.5m/s
respectively as shown in
the figure. Air at the top
of the tank escapes water 2
through a 50mm d2 = 50mm
diameter vent. d1 = 75mm d3 = 65mm
Calculate dh/dt and the 1
velocity of air flow 3
through the vent.
Assume the flow to be
incompressible.

600mm Ф
 d4 = 50mm 4

air dh/dt h

v2 = 3m/s
water 2
v1 = 7.5m/s
d2 = 50mm Sol’n:
d1 = 75mm d3 = 65mm
1
For incompressible fluid
3 v3 = 3.5 m/s
Qin = Qout
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Qairchamber
A1v1 = A2v2 + A3v3 + Atank (dh/dt)

600mm Ф
Then;
π(0.075)2 (7.5) = π(0.05)2 (3) + π(0.065)2 (3.5) + π(0.60)2 (dh/dt)
4 4 4 4
dh/dt = 0.055 m/s
• Qairchamber = Q4
• π(0.060)2 (0.055) = π(0.05)2 (v4)
4 4
v4 = 7.92m/s
• ENERGY AND HEAD
• ENERGY – is defined as ability to do work.
• Energy and work are measured in foot –
pound(ft-lb) or (kg-m).
• Two forms of energy
• Kinetic Energy
• Potential Energy
• The three forms of energy which must be considered in connection
with flow of fluids are:
• 1. Kinetic energy
• 2. Elevation energy potential energy
• 3. Pressure energy
• Kinetic energy – is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its
velocity.
• KE = Wv2 = ½ Mv2
2g
Which is also KE = v2
W 2g (kinetic or velocity head )
when applied to a
moving mass
And reduce to;
KE = v2
2g
The unit of velocity head is in ft or m (represents a linear quantity)
• Although representing a linear quantity, the
velocity head is directly proportional to the
kinetic energy of any mass having a velocity
(v) and is equal to the kinetic energy of 1lb or
1kg or 1N of any mass moving with velocity.
• Velocity head is the amount of energy per
pound or Newton of fluid.
• For circular pipe of diameter D flowing full;
• v2 = 8Q2
2g π2gD4
• ELEVATION ENERGY (POTENTIAL ENERGY)
The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of
its position or elevation with respect to a
datum plane.
Elevation Energy = Wz
= Mgz
Elevation Head z;
z = Elevation Energy
W
z = position of the fluid above (+) or below (-)
the datum plane.
• Pressure Energy (Potential Energy)
- Energy transmitted to or through the mass
considered.
- In chapter 2 (Hydrotatic) the pressure head for
pressure (P) is;
H = P/ γ
Pressure energy = WP/ γ
Pressure head = Pressure Energy = WP/ γ
W W
Pressure head = P/γ
• Total Flow Energy, (E)
– The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum
of the kinetic and the potential energies.
Total energy = kinetic energy + Potential energies
Total Head, E is equal to;
E = v2/2g + P/ γ + z
Note:
Unit for kinetic energy, potential energy and pressure
energy is in lb-ft or ft-lb, N-m , kg-m.
• The three forms of Imaginary reference line
energy which a fluid may vA2
2g
have are illustrated in
E
the figure: PA
• At any point A in a γ
stream of fluid where
Center
the velocity is va, the A
line
velocity head is v A2/2g,
stream
the pressure head is zA
PA/γ, and the elevation
head referred to the
datum
datum plane is zA, thus,
with respect to the datum plane, the total head at point A or its equivalent, the total
energy per weight of fluid at A, expressed in ft-lbs or kg-m or N-m is;
EA = vA2/2g + PA/ γ + ZA

The pressure and the elevation heads are usually located from the center line of the
stream tube.
• Power and Efficiency
– Power (Pn) is the rate at which work is done.
Power = Q γ E
Where E is the total Energy Head
Unit of power is N.m/s or (Joule/sec) or watts
Efficiency , ŋ = Power Output x 100%
Power Input
Note:
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts
= 550 ft-lb/sec
1 watt = 1 N-m/sec = 1 Joule/sec
Note:
Power input is usually has a greater value compare to
Power output unless the efficiency is 100%.
• 1] A liquid having sp.gr. of 2.0 is flowing in a
50mm diameter pipe. The total head at a
given point was found to be 17.5 Joule per
Newton. The elevation of the pipe above the
datum is 3m and the pressure in the pipe is
65.6 kPa. Compute the velocity of flow and
the horsepower in the stream at that point?
Sol’n:
Imaginary reference line
E = 17.5 Joule/N x N.M/Joule vA2
E = 17.5 m 2g
E = v2/2g + P/ γ + Z E = 17.5 m
Where; PA
P = 65.6 KN/m2 γ
h = P/ γ
h = 65.6 Center
(9.81)(2) 50mm Ф pt1 P = 65.6 kPa
line
h = 3.34m
stream
Then;
z= 3m
E = v2/2g + P/ γ + Z
17.5= v2/2g + 3.34 + 3
17.5 - 3.34 - 3= v2/2(9.81) datum
v2 = 218.96
Then;
v = 14.797 m/s Pn = Q γ E
For Power; Pn = (0.029)(9.81)(2)(17.5)
Pn = Q γ E; solve first the Q; Pn = 9.96 kN.m/s
Q = Av Pn = 9.96 x 1000 N.m/s x 1 watt x hp
Q = π(0.05)2(14.797) N.m/s 746watts
4 P = 13.35 hp
Q = 0.029 m3/s
• 2] A standpipe 5m in diameter
and 10m high is filled with
water. Calculate the potential
energy of the water, if the
elevation datum is taken 2m
below the base of the
standpipe.
Sol’n:

10m

5m
Z = 7m

datum 2m

PE = Wz
Where;
W = γV
PE = γVz
PE = (9.81)(π)(5) 2(10)(7)
4
PE = 13,483.3 kN-m
• 3] A liquid (s = 2.0) is flowing in a 2 inches
pipe. The total energy at a given point is found
to be 24.5 ft-lb per pound. The elevation of
the pipe above the datum is 10ft and the
pressure in the pipe is 9.5 lb per square inch.
Compute the velocity of flow and the
horsepower in the stream at that point.
 v2/2g

P/ γ
E = 24.5 ft

2 in Ф Center
pt1 P = 9.5 lb/in2
line
stream
z= 10 ft
E= v2/2g + P/ γ + Z
24.5 = v2/2g + (9.5 lb/in2)(144in2/ft2) +10
(62.4)(2) datum
24.5 = v2/2g + (9.5 lb/in2)(144in2/ft2) +10
(62.4)(2)
v2/2g = 24.5 – 20.96
v2 = (3.54)(2)(32.174)
v2 = 227.79
V = 15.09 ft/s
P = Q γE
P = Av γE
P = π(2/12)2(15.09)(62.4)(2)(24.5)
4
P = 1006.6 lb-ft/sec x hp/550 lb-ft/sec
P = 1.83 hp
• 4] The jet of water from a nozzle discharging
into air has a diameter of 6 inches and a mean
velocity of 120 ft/sec. Compute the velocity
head and the horsepower in the jet.
Sol’n:

h = v2/2g
h = (120)2
(2)(32.174) P = Q γE
h = 223.78 ft P = Av γE v = 120 ft/s
P = π(0.5)2(62.4)120(223.78) h
4
P = 329015.98 lb-ft/sec x hp/550 lb-ft/sec
P = 598.21 hp
6”Ф
• 5] At a summit in a 12 inch pipe line in which
6cfs of water is flowing, the elevation above
datum is 30ft and the total head is 15 ft.
Compute the absolute pressure in the pipe.

Q = 6 cfs
12 in Ф Center
pt1
line
stream
z= 30 ft

datum
• E = 15 ft
• E = v2/2g + P/γ + z
• v = Q/A
• v = 6 ft3/s
π(1)2
4
v = 7.639 ft/s
15 = (7.639)2 + P + 30
2(32.174) 62.4
P = - 15.9068
62.4
P = - 15.9068(62.4)
P = - 992.58 lb/ft2 x ft2/144in2
P = -6.89 lb/in2
Pabs = Patm ± Pg
= 14.696 – 6.89
Pabs = 7.81 lb/in2
• Checking the velocity head;
• V2/2g = (7.639)2
2(32.174)
v2/2g = 0.906 ft
Q = 6 cfs
h = P/ γ 12 in Ф
pt
Center
1 line
h = -992.58 lb/ft2 P/ γ = - 15.906ft
stream
z= 30 ft
62.4 2
v /2g = 0.906 ft
E
h = - 15.906ft datum
• 6] At a point A where the suction pipe
leading to a pump is 4ft below the pump,
an open manometer indicates a vacuum
of 7 inch of mercury. The pipe is 4 inch in
diameter and the discharge is 1.1 cfs of
oil (s = 0.85). Compute the total head at
point A with respect to a datum at the
pump.
 Pump datum

4 ft
Q = 1.1 cfs hhg = 7 in
s = 0.85
E =?
A 4 in Ф

hhg = (soil)(hoil) Or
shg P = γhghhg
hoil = (shg)(hhg) P = (62.4)(13.6)(-7/12)
soil
P = 495.04 lb/ft2 (-) vacuum
hoil = (-7/12)(13.6)
0.85 hoil = P/ γoil
hoil = 9.33 ft (-) vacuum h = -495.04
(62.4)(0.85)
h = - 9.33 ft
 Pump datum

4 ft
Q = 1.1 cfs hhg = 7 in
s = 0.85
E =?
A 4 in Ф

Q = vA
v = Q/A
E = v2/2g + P/γ + z
v = 1.1 ft3/s E = 2.469 -9.33 - 4
π(4/12)2 E = -10.86ft below datum line
E
4
v = 12.605 ft/s
V2/2g = (12.605)2
P/γ
2(32.174)
V2/2g = 2.469 ft
V2/2g
• 7] A turbine is rotated at 600hp when the flow
of water through it is 0.61 m3/s. Assuming an
efficiency of 87%, what is the head acting on
the turbine?
Given:

600hp = Power output E = Pinput

87% = ŋ (0.61)(9810)
ŋ = Poutput x 100% E = 514,482.6
Pinput (0.61)(9810)
Pinput = Poutput/ŋ E = 85.97m
Pinput = [600hp/87] x 100
Pinput = 689.655hp x 746watt/hp x N.m/s
watt
Pinput = 514,482.6 N.m/s
Pinput = Q γE
• FRICTION LOSS
– A fluid in motion suffers a frictional loss which is
an expenditure of energy to overcome resistance
to flow. The expended energy is transformed into
heat. After being so transformed it cannot through
the ordinary process of nature, be converted in a
flowing fluid and is therefore often referred to a
LOST ENERGY OR LOST HEAD or HEAD LOST. The
lost may occur as the result of friction between
the various fluid particles as they rub against one
another or it may be due to loss in kinetic energy
resulting from the impact of molecules or masses
moving with different velocities.
 BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
• Bernoulli’s principle, in physics, the concept that
as the speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas)
increases, the pressure within that fluid
decreases. Originally formulated in 1738 by Swiss
mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli, it
states that the total energy in a steadily flowing
fluid system is constant along the path. An
increase in the fluids’ speed must therefore be
match by a decrease in its pressure. The
Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the
application of the principles of conservation of
Energy.
 BERNOULLI’S ENERGY EQUATION
WITHOUT HEAD LOST Reference
(Neglecting
imaginary line
Friction)
Energy Grade line, EGL
E1 = E2
V12 V22
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 2g 2g

Neglecting P1 Hydraulic Grade Line, HGL

Friction, the total γ
head or the total
amount of energy
P2
per unit weight is
the same at every γ
point in the path
flow.
Z1

Z2
Datum
• ENERGY EQUATION WITH HEAD LOST
E1 = E2 + HL
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL
Fluid in motion invariably suffer a loss
of energy through friction. If the
Energy Grade line, EGL direction of flow in the stream tube is
V12 HL from section 1 to section 2, the total
2g energy at section 2 must be less than at
section 1. In order to make it balance, a
Hydraulic Grade Line, HGL V22
P1 quantity (HL) equal to the loss of
2g
γ energy or what is equivalent, the loss of
head due to friction between two
sections must be added to the right
P2 hand side of the equation therefore;
γ E1 = E2 + HL

Remember: with continuous steady flow, the

Z1 total head at any point in a stream is equal
to the total head at any downstream point
plus the loss of head between the two
Z2 points.
Datum
 ENERGY EQUATION WITH PUMP
• If energy is added to the stream between
points 1 and 2 as for instance by a pump, the
left side of the energy equation must include
the added Head (HA) and the complete energy
equation then becomes;
E1 + HA = E2 + HL1-2

v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 + HA= v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2

Pump is used basically to increase the head. (To raise water from a lower to a
higher elevation. The input power (Pinput) of the pump is electrical energy and
its output power (Poutput) is the flow energy.
Output power of Pump = QγHA
 ENERGY EQUATION WITH TURBINE or MOTOR

• If energy is given up by the stream to a turbine

between two points 1 & 2, the right side of the energy
equation must include a term HI to represent the head
given up.
E1 = E2 + HL1-2 + HI
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2 + HI

Input power of Turbine= QγHI

• Turbine extract flow energy to do mechanical work
which in turn converted into electrical energy for
turbines.
ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE

• HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL) – also known

as pressure gradient. It is a graphical
representation of the total potential energy of
flow. It is the line that connects the water
levels in successive piezometer tubes placed
at intervals along the pipe. Its distance from
the datum plane P/γ + z.
• HGL = P/γ + z
 Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow,
but it may rise or fall due to changes in
velocity or pressure.
• For uniform pipe cross –section, HGL is
parallel to the EGL.
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter,
the drop in pressure heads between any two
points is also equal to the head lost between
these points.
 ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)
• EGL – it is a graphical representation of the
total energy of flow (the sum of kinetic and
potential energies. Its distance from the
datum plane is;
• v2/2g + P/γ + z
• Then;
• EGL = v2/2g + P/γ + z
 Characteristics of EGL
• EGL always slope downward in the direction of
flow and it will only rise with the presence of a
pump.
• The drop of the EGL between any two points is
the head lost between those points.
• For uniform pipe cross section, EGL is parallel to
the HGL.
• EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal
to the velocity head v2/2g
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.
• 1]For pipe shown in the figure v1 = v2 =
1.2m/s. Determine the total head lost
between pt.1 and pt.2, and show the energy
and hydraulic grade line.
P2 = 200 kPa
P1 = 280 kPa
2
1
9.08m

4.3m

datum
• @pt 1
• z1 = 4.3m
• P1/γ = 280/9.81 = 28.54m
• v12/2g = (1.2)2
(2)(9.81)
v12/2g = 0.0734 m
• @pt 2
• z2 = 9.08m
• P2/γ = 200/9.81 = 20.39m
Where v1=v2
v22/2g = 0.0734 m
Thus;
E1 = E2 +HL1-2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2
Reference imaginary line
0.074 + 28.54 + 4.3 =
0.0734 + 20.387 + 9.08 + HL1-2 v12/2g HL1-2
EGL
32.84 -29.467 = HL1-2 v22/2g
HL1-2 = 3.373 m HGL
E1= 29.54m
E1= 32.92m
P2/γ
P1/γ
P2 = 200 kPa

P1 = 280 kPa
2
1
z2=9.08m

z1= 4.3mm

datum
 • 2] The fluid as shown is water, with the
surface 20 ft above the datum. The pipe is 6
inch in diameter and the total loss of head
between point 1 in the water surface and
point 5 in the jet is 10ft. Determine the
velocity of flow in the pipe and the discharge
Q.
Open Pt.1 Pg = 0

Piezometer
20 ft

6 in Ф
datum Pt.2
Pt.3 Pt.4 Pt.5
 Open Pt.1 Pg = 0
HL1-5 =10ft

Piezometer
20 ft v2/2g

6 in Ф
datum Pt.2
Pt.3 Pt.4 Pt.5

Sol’n: E1 = E5 + HL1-5
HL1-5 = 10ft v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v52/2g + P5/γ + z5 + HL1-5
v=? Where P5 is zero because it is open to air (Pg = 0)
Q=? P1/γ is zero because it is open to atmospheric pressure.
v1 is 0 due to the 0 + 0 + 20 = v52/2g + 0 + 0 +10
vastness of the 10 = v2/2g
reservoir and no v2= (10)(2)(32.174)
inflow of water v= 25.37 ft/s
entering the Q = Av
reservoir Q = (π)(6/12)2(25.37)
4
Q = 4.98 ft3/s
• 3]In example 2, assume the following head
losses from 1 to 2, 0ft; from 2 to 3, 2 ft; from 3
to 4, 7 ft; from 4-5, 1 ft. Make a table showing
elevation head, velocity head, pressure head
and total head at each of the five points. How
high above the center of the pipe will water
stand in the piezometer tubes at 3 and 4?
Open Pt.1 Pg = 0

Piezometer
20 ft

6 in Ф
datum Pt.2
Pt.3 Pt.4 Pt.5
• Sol’n:
• E1 = E5 + HL1-2 + HL2-3 +HL3-4 +HL4-5
• v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v52/2g + P5/γ + z5 + 0 + 2 + 7 + 1
• 0 + 0 + 20 = v5 2/2g + 0 + 0 + 2 + 7 + 1
• v52/2g = 20 – 10
• v52 = 2(32.174)(10)

• v5= 25.37 ft/s (same velocity from 2-5)

• v22/2g = (25.37) 2
= 10ft
(2)(32.174)
2 2
v3 /2g = 10ft = v4 /2g
• E1 = E3 + HL1-2 + HL2-3
• 20 = v32/2g + P 3/γ + z 3 + 0 + 2
• 20 = 10 + P3/γ + 0 + 0 + 2
• P3/γ = 8
• E1 = E4 + HL1-2 + HL2-3 +HL3-4
• 20 = v42/2g + P4/γ + z 4 + 0 + 2 + 7
• 20 = 10 + P4/γ + 0 + 9
• P4/γ = 20 – 19
• P4/γ = 1 ft

Table:
Point v2/2g P/γ Z HT or (E)
1 0 0 20 20’
2 10’ 10’ 0 20’
3 10’ 8’ 0 18
4 10’ 1’ 0 11
5 10’ 0 0 10
 Open Pt.1 Pg = 0 Reference imaginary line
HL2-3=2ft
v22/2g HL3-4=7ft
v32/2g Piezometer HL4-5=1ft
v42/2g
20 ft
P2/γ v52/2g
P3/γ
P4/γ 6 in Ф
datum Pt.2
Pt.3 Pt.4 Pt.5
• 4] A 12 in pipe is connected by a reducer to a
4 inch pipe as shown. Points 1 and 2 are at the
same elevation. The pressure at 1 is 30 lb per
sq. in. Q = 1cfs flowing from 1 to 2 and the
energy lost between 1 and 2 is equivalent to 3
lb/in2. Compute the pressure at 2 if the liquid
is 12” Фpipe

• a) water 4” Фpipe
1 2
• b) oil (s = 0.80)
• c) molasses (s =1.50)
• Given:
• P1 = 30 lb/in2 x 144 in2/ft2 = 4320 lb/ft2
• Q = 1 ft3/s
• Elost1-2 = 3 lb/in2 = Pressure lost from 1 to 2
• Then;
• H1-2 = P1-2/γ = (3)(144) = 6.92 ft
62.4
P2 =?
E1 = E2 + HL1-2
v1 = Q/A1
v1 = (1)
(π)(1)2 ; = 1.273 ft/s
4
v2 = Q/A2
v2 = (1)
(π)(4/12)2 ; = 1.273 ft/s
4
v2 = 11.459 ft/s
• a) v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2

• (1.273)2 + 4320 + 0 =(11.459)2 + P2 + 0 + 6.92

2(32.174) 62.4 2(32.174) 62.4
0.025 + 69.23 = 2.041 + P2 + 6.92
62.4
69.255 = 8.96 + P2/62.4
62.4(69.255 - 8.96) = P2
P2 = 3762.408 lb/ft2
P2 = 26.13 lb/in2
• b) oil (s=0.80)
• v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2
• H1-2 = P1-2/γ = (3)(144) = 8.65 ft
(62.4)(0.8)
• (1.273)2 + 4320 + 0 =(11.459)2 + P2 + 0 + 8.65
2(32.174) 62.4(0.80) 2(32.174) 62.4(0.8)

0.025 + 86.538 = 2.041 + P2/49.92 + 8.65

75.872 = P2/49.92
P2 = 3,787.53 lb/ft2
P2 = 26.3 lb/in2
• c) molasses(s=1.50)
• v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2
• H1-2 = P1-2/γ = (3)(144) = 4.615 ft
(62.4)(1.5)
• (1.273)2 + 4320 + 0 = (11.459)2 + P2 +0 + 4.615
2(32.174) 62.4(1.5) 2(32.174) 62.4(1.5)

0.025 + 46.154 = 2.041 + P2/93.6 + 4.615

93.6(39.523) = P2
P2 = 3,699.35 lb/ft2
P2 = 25.68 lb/in2
• 7] In the figure shown, with 1.2 cfs of sea
water (s=1.03) flowing from 1 to 2, the
pressure at 1 is 15 lb/in2 and at 2 is -2 lb/in2.
Point 2 is 20 ft higher than point 1. Compute
the lost energy in pounds per square inch
between 1 and 2.
2

20’

1
P1 = 15/in2
• Given
• Q = 1.2 cfs
• s = 1.03
• P1 = 15 lb/in2 = 2160 lb/ft2
• P2 = -2 lb/in2 = -288 lb/ft2
Gen. Equation to be used : E1 = E2 + HL1-2
Where: HL1-2 = Elost /γ
Solving for velocity;
v1 = Q/A = 1.2 v2 = Q/A = 1.2
π(1)2 π(4/12)2
4 4
v1 = 1.528 ft/s v2 = 13.75 ft/s
Sol’n:
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2
(1.528)2 + 2160 + 0 = (13.75)2 - 288 + 20’ + HL1-2
(2)(32.174) (62.4)(1.03) (2)(32.174) (62.4)(1.03)
• 0.0363 + 33.607 = 2.938 – 4.481 + 20 + H1-2
• H1-2 = 15.186 ft
• Where: HL1-2 = Elost /γ
• Elost1-2 = (H1-2)(62.4)(1.03)
• Elost1-2 = (15.186)(62.4)(1.03)
• Elost1-2 = 6.78 lb/in2
• 8] A 20hp suction pump operating at 70%
efficiency draws water from a suction line whose
diameter is 200mm and discharges into air
through a line whose diameter is 150mm. The
velocity in the 150 mm line is 3.6m/s. If the
pressure at point A in the suction pipe is 34 kPa
below atmosphere where A is 1.8m below B on
the 150mm line, determine the elevation above B
to which water can be raised assuming a head loss
of 3m due to friction.
200mm Ф

A
P

150mmФ
B
C

1.8m
h =?
• Given:
• Poutput = 20hp
• ŋ = 70%
• DA = 200mm ; DB-C = 150mm
• vc = 3.6m/s
• PA = -34 kPa
• HL A-C = 3m
Where; EA + HA = Ec + HLA-C
Qc = vc(Ac)
vA2/2g + PA/γ + z + HA= v /2g + P /γ + z + HL
2
Qc = (3.6m/s)(π)(0.15)2 A c c c A-C

4 (2.024)2 - 34 + 0+ HA= (3.6)2 + 0 + 1.8 + h + 3

Q c = QA = Q (2)(9.81) 9.81 2(9.81)
then
Q = 0.0636 m3/s Where:
HA = Pout
Then;
(Q)(γ)
Solving for velocity; 20hp x 746 N.m/s
vA = Q/A = 0.0636 HA = hp
π(0.20)2 (0.0636)(9810)
4
vA = 2.024 m/s HA = 23.91 m

Then;

0.209 – 3.465 + 23.91 = 0.66 + 1.8 + h + 3

h = 15.194m
• 9] A Pipe line with a pump leads to a nozzle as
shown. Find the flow rate when pump
develops an 80 ft (24.4m) head. Assume head
lost in the 6 inch (152mm) pipe to be five
times its velocity head while the head lost in
the 4 inch (102mm) pipe to be twelve times its
velocity head. Compute the flow rate and find
the pressure head at the suction side.
 3” (76.2 mm) Ф jet
El. 80’ (24.4m)
B

Line 2
4” (102 mm) Ф
A
El. 70’ (21.3m)

6” (152mm) Ф
P El. 30’ (15.2m)
Line 1
Pump
• Given: Solving for velocity;
v1 = Q/A1 = Q_
• HL1 = 5(v 2/2g) π(0.152)2
1 4
• HL2 = 12(v22/2g) v1 = 55.11Q
v2 = Q/A2 = Q_
π(0.102)2
4
v2 = 122.38Q
vB = Q/AB = Q_
π(0.0762)2
4
vB = 219.28Q
a)
EA + HA = EB + HL1 + HL2
vA2/2g + PA/γ + zA + HA= v B2/2g + PB/γ + zB + HL1 + HL2
0 + 0 + 21.3 + 24.4 = vB 2/2g + 0 + 24.4 + 5(v1 2/2g) + 12(v2 2/2g)

21.3 + 24.4 = (219.28Q)2 + 0 + 24.4 + 5(55.11Q)2 + 12(122.38Q)2

2(9.81) 2(9.81) 2(9.81)
45.7 = 2450.75Q2 + 773.98Q2 + 9160.16Q2 -24.4
Q = 0.0415 m3/s
b) Pressure Head @ line 1
• EA = E1 + HL1
• v 2/2g + P /γ + z = v 2/2g + P /γ + z + HL
A A A 1 1 1 1
21.3 = (55.11Q)2 + P1 + + 15.2 + 5(v1)2
2(9.81) γ 2(9.81)
21.3 = (55.11)(0.0415)2 + P1 + + 15.2 + 5(55.11)(0.0415)2
2(9.81) γ 2(9.81)
21.3 = 0.267 + P1 + 15.2 + 1.333
γ
P1 = 4.5 m
γ
• 10] Water enters a motor through a 600mm
diameter pipe under a pressure of 14 kPa. It
leaves through a 900mm diameter exhaust
pipe with a pressure of 4 kPa. A vertical
distance of 2.5m separates the centers of two
pipes at the sections where the pressures are
measured. If 500li of water pass the motor
each second, compute the power supplied to
the motor.
 0.159m
E1 = E2 + HI
1.43m
600mm Ф 900mm Ф
M

P1 = 14 kPa HI

Given:
Q = 500 li/s x 1m3 = 0.5m3/s EGL 2.5m
1000 li
Given: 0.03m
0.03m
Solving for velocity;
v1 = Q/A1 = 0.5_ HGL 0.41m
π(0.6)2 P2 = 4 kPa
4
v1 = 1.768 m/s
900mm Ф
v2 = Q/A2 = 0.5_
π(0.9)2
4
v2 = 0.786 m/s
E1 - HI= E2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 -HI = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2
(1.768)2 + 14 + 2.5 - HI= (0.786)2 + 4 + 0
(2)(9.81) 9.81 2(9.81) 9.81
0.159 + 1.43 + 2.5 - HI= 0.031 + 0.41
HI= 3.648m

Power = Q γHI
= (0.50)(9810)(3.648)
Power = 17893.44 N.m/s x Watt x 1 hp
N.m/s 746 Watts
Power = 23.986 hp
• A 50mm diameter siphon discharges oil
(s=0.82) from a reservoir (elev.20m) into open
air (elev. 15m). The head loss from the
reservoir (point 1) to the summit (point 2,
Elev. 22m) is 1.5m and from the summit to the
discharge end is 2.4m. Determine the flow
rate in the pipe in lit/sec and the absolute
pressure at the summit assuming atmospheric
pressure to be 101.3kPa.
 2 El. 22m

p2/y
50mm Ф siphon
V22/2g
1 El. 20m

oil

V32/2g
El. 15m 3
E1 = E3 + HL1-2 + HL2-3
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v32/2g + P3/γ + z3 + HL1-2 + HL2-3
0 + 0 + 20 = v32/2g + 0 + 15 + 1.5 + 2.4
20 = v32/2(9.81) + 0 + 15 + 1.5 + 2.4
v32 = (1.1)(2)(9.81)
v3 = 4.6456 m/s
Q = v(A)
Q = (4.6456)(π)(0.05)2 Solving for v2;
4 v2 = Q/A
Q = 9.12 x 10 -3 m3/s x (1000li/m3) = 9.12 x 10-3
Q = 9.12 li/s (π)(0.05)2
Solving for the absolute pressure; 4
E1 = E2 + HL1-2 v2 = 4.645 m/s
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2
0 + 0 + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2
20 = (4.645)2/2(9.81) + P2/γ + 22 + 1.5
20 = 1.0997 + 22 + 1.5 + P2/γ
P2 = (9.81)(-4.5997)(0.82) Pabs = 101.3 - 37
P2 = - 37 kPa P2 = 64.3 kPa
 VENTURI METER
• An instrument used for measuring the
discharge through pipes.
• Invented by an american engineer, Clemens
Herschel, and named by him in honor of the
original discoverer of the principle involved.
 EGL
v12/2g
V22/2g

P1/γ
A D
P2/γ
B C

1 ϴ1 2 ϴ2

THROAT

INLET Piezometer ring OUTLET

z1 z2
ϴ2 < ϴ1

Datum
Figure:
• Venturi meter is consist of a converging tube AB which is
connected to the main pipe at the inlet at A and ending in a
cylindrical section BC called the throat and a diverging
section CD which is connected again to the main pipe at the
outlet D. The angle of divergence is kept small to reduce
the head lost cause by turbulence as the velocity is
reduced.
• Considering two points in the system 1 at the base of the
inlet and 2 at the throat and writing the energy equation
between these two points neglecting head lost;
• v12/2g + P1/γ + z 1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z 2
• v22/2g - v12/2g = [P1/γ + z 1 ] – [P2/γ + z2 ]
• The left side of the equation is the kinetic energy which
shows an increase in value, while the right side of the
equation is the potential energy which shows a decrease in
value. Therefore, neglecting head lost, “the increase in
kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in potential energy”,
this statement is known as the VENTURI PRINCIPLE.
• The difference in pressure between the inlet
and the throat is commonly measured by
means of a differential manometer connecting
the inlet and the throat:
THROAT

1 2

h
• If the elevations and the difference in pressure 1
and 2 are known, the discharge can be solved.
• The theoretical or ideal discharge “Qt” can be
found once v1 or v2 is known. The actual
discharge “Q” is computed by multiplying the
theoretical value by the coefficient of discharge
or meter coefficient “C”.
• Q = CQt
• Note:
• If head lost is neglected in energy equation, the
values that will be determined will be known as
theoretical or ideal values, (theoretical velocity
and theoretical discharge), considering head lost,
the values that will be obtained will be the actual
values (actual velocity and actual discharge).
• Device Coefficients
• Coefficient of Discharge (C or Cd)
– It is the ratio of the actual discharge through the
device to the ideal or theoretical discharge which
would occur without losses.
– This may be expressed as;
C or Cd = Actual discharge = Q
Theoretical discharge QT
The actual discharge maybe accomplished by series of
observation, usually by measuring the total amount of
fluid passing through the device for a known period. The
theoretical value can be accomplished using
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM neglecting losses.
 Coefficient of Velocity, Cv
• The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of the
actual mean velocity to the ideal or
theoretical velocity which would occur
without any losses.
• Cv = Actual velocity =v
Theoretical velocity vT
 Coefficient of Contraction, Cc
• The coefficient of contraction is the ratio of
the actual area of the contracted section of
the stream or jet to the area of the opening
through which the fluid flows.
or in case of orifice:
• Cc = Area of stream or jet = a = cross sectional area of the jet at the vena contrata
Area of opening A Area of the orifice
 Coefficient of Discharge can be
computed using the formula;

•C = (Cc)(Cv)
• Example 1] A venturi meter having a throat 4
inches in diameter is installed in a horizontal
12 inches pipeline carrying a light oil (s=0.82).
A mercury U-tube connected as shown, shows
a difference in height of mercury columns of 9
inches, the remainder of the tube being filled
with oil. Find the rate of discharge, Q in cubic
feet per second, if C = 0.975.
 4”Ф THROAT

12”Ф
1 2

9 in Solving for velocity

v1 = Q/A1
v1 = Q
Hg
π(12/12)2
4
E1 = E2 v1 = 1.273Q
v2 = Q/A2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2
v2 = Q
v22/2g - v12/2g = [P1/γ + z1 ] – [P2/γ + z2 ]
v22/2g - v12/2g = P1/γ – P2/γ π(4/12)2
4
v2 = 11.459Q
 P1/γ – P2/γ = (11.459Q)2 – (1.273Q)2
2(32.174) 2(32.174)
P1/γ – P2/γ = 2.0406Q2 – 0.02518Q2 - eq. 1
4”Ф THROAT

12”Ф
1 2

y
Solving for pressure difference
Summing up pressure head from 2 to 1
9 in Converting the height of mercury to
height of oil
Where :
hoil(soil) = hhgshg
hoil = hhgshg
soil
P2/γoil + y(0.82) + (9/12)(13.6) – 9/12(0.82) – y(0.82) = P 1/γ oil
0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82
P2/γoil + y(0.82) + (9/12)(13.6) – 9/12(0.82) – y(0.82) = P1/γoil
0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82
P1/γoil - P2/γoil = 12.439 -0.75 P1/γoil - P2/γoil = 11.689
• Subs. to 1
• 11.689 = 2.01542Q2
• Q2 = 11.689
2.01542
Q = 2.408ft3/s = theoretical discharge (Qt)
Q = CQt
Q = (0.975)(2.408)
Q = 2.35 cfs (actual discharge)
• 2] A venturi meter having a diameter of 6 inches
at the throat is installed in a horizontal 18 inches
water main. In a differential gage partly filled with
mercury (the remainder of the tube being filled
with water) and connected with the meter at the
inlet and throat, the mercury column stands 15
inches higher in one leg than in the other. What is
the discharge through the meter in cubic feet per
second,
• a) neglecting friction
• b)if the loss of head between inlet and throat is
1ft of water?
• c) compute the meter coefficient in (B)
 6”Ф THROAT

18”Ф
1 2

water
y

15 in Solving for velocity

Hg
v1 = Q/A 1
v1 = Q
π(18/12)2
4
a) Qt; neglecting friction v1 = 0.5659Q
E1 = E2 v2 = Q/A2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 v2 = Q
π(6/12)2
4
v2 = 5.0929Q
[P1/γ + z1 ] – [P2/γ + z2 ] = v22/2g - v12/2g
P1/γ – P2/γ = v22/2g - v12/2g
P1/γ – P2/γ = (5.0929Q)2 – (0.5659Q)2
2(32.174) 2(32.174)
P1/γ – P2/γ = 0.4031Q2 – 4.9767x 10-3Q2
P1/γ – P2/γ = 0.3981Q2 ---- eq.1

6”Ф THROAT
18”Ф
1 2

water
y

Solving for pressure difference

15 in Summing up pressure head from 2 to 1
Hg
Converting the height of mercury to
height of oil
Where :
hH2o(sH20) = hhgshg
hH20 = hhgshg
sH20
 6”Ф THROAT

18”Ф
1 2

water
y

15 in
Hg

Solving for pressure difference

Summing up pressure head from 2 to 1
P2/γ + y(1) + (15/12)(13.6) – 15/12(1) – y(1) = P1/γ
1 1 1 1
P2/γ - P1/γ = 17 – 1.25
P2/γ - P1/γ = 15.75 subst to Eq.1
P1/γ – P2/γ = 0.3981Q2
15.75 = 0.3981Q2
Q = 6.29 cfs theoretical discharge
b)
E1 = E2 + HL1-2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + HL1-2
[P1/γ + z1 ] – [P2/γ + z2 ] = v22/2g - v12/2g + HL1-2
P1/γ – P2/γ = v22/2g - v12/2g + HL1-2
15.75 = 0.3981Q2 + 1 ft
14.75 = 0.3981Q2
Q = 6.087 cfs
c)
Q = CQt
C = Q/Qt
C = 6.087
6.29
C = 0.9677
• 3] A venturi meter having a diameter of 6
inches at the throat is installed in a horizontal
12 inches water main. In a differential gage
partly filled with mercury (the remainder of
the tube being filled with water) and
connected with the meter at the inlet and
throat, what would be the difference in level
of the mercury columns if the discharge is 5.0
cfs? Neglect loss of head.
 6”Ф THROAT

12”Ф
1 2

water
y

Solving for velocity

h v1 = Q/A1
Hg v1 = 5
π(1)2
Q = 5 ft3/s 4
v1 = 6.366 ft/s

v2 = Q/A2
v2 = 5
π(1)2
4
v2 = 25.465 ft/s
E1 = E2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2
[P1/γ + z1 ] – [P2/γ + z2 ] = v22/2g - v12/2g
P1/γ – P2/γ = v22/2g - v12/2g
P1/γ – P2/γ = (25.465)2 – (6.366)2
2(32.174) 2(32.174)
P1/γ – P2/γ = 9.4477 ------ Eq. 1
6”Ф THROAT
12”Ф
1 2

water
y
Solving for pressure difference
Summing up pressure head from 2 to 1
h P2/γ + y(1) + (h)(13.6) – h(1) – y(1) = P1/γ
P1/γ - P2/γ1 = 13.61h – h 1 1
Hg P1/γ - P2/γ = 12.6h subst to eq. 1
Q = 5 ft3/s P1/γ – P2/γ = 9.4477
12.6h = 9.4477
h = 0.7498 ft x 12 in/ft
h = 8.99 in say 9 in Hg
• 4] A 3 inches by 1 ½ inches venturi meter is
installed in a 3 inch pipe to measure the flow
of oil (s=0.852). A differential gage connected
with inlet and throat contains water in the
lower part of the tube, the remainder of the
tube being filled with oil. The difference z in
height of water column in the two legs of the
tube is 1.832 ft. If the coefficient of the meter
is 0.957, compute the discharge in gpm.
 1 1/2 ”ФTHROAT

3”Ф
1 2

oil
y

Solving for velocity

1.832 ft v1 = Q/A1
v1 = Q
π(3/12)2
4
H20
v1 = 20.37 Q

C = 0.957 v2 = Q/A2
v2 = Q
π(1.5/12)2
4
v2 = 81.487Q
E1 = E2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2
[P1/γ + z1 ] – [P2/γ + z2 ] = v22/2g - v12/2g
P1/γ – P2/γ = v22/2g - v12/2g
P1/γ – P2/γ = (81.487Q)2 – (20.37Q)2
2(32.174) 2(32.174)
P1/γ – P2/γ = 103.19Q2 – 6.448Q2
P1/γ – P2/γ = 96.742Q2 --------- Eq. 1
 1 1/2 ”ФTHROAT

3”Ф
1 2

oil
y
Solving for pressure difference
Summing up pressure head from 2 to 1
1.832 ft
P2/γ + y(0.852) + (1.832)(1) – (1.832(0.852) – y(0.852) = P1/γ
0.852 0.852 0.852 0.852
H20 P1/γ - P2/γ = 0.318 subs. to 1
P1/γ – P2/γ = 96.742Q2 --------- Eq. 1
0.318 = 96.742Q2
Q = 0.0573 ft3/s theoretical discharge

Q = CQt
Q = (0.957)(0.0573)
Q = 0.054836 ft3/s x 7.48gal/ft3 x 60sec/min = 24.61 gpm
• 5]A venturi meter is installed in a pipeline
carrying air. The meter has a diameter of 24
inches. At inlet and 18 inches at throat. A U –
tube connected to inlet and throat contains
water, the difference in levels in the two legs
of the tube being 4 inches. Considering the
unit weight of air constant at 0.08 lb/ft3,
determine the approximate discharge in cubic
feet per minute, neglecting friction.
 Solving for velocity
air v1 = Q/A1
v1 = Q
π(24/12)2
4
v1 = 0.318 Q

2 v2 = Q/A2
18 in
v2 = Q
π(18/12)2
12” 4
v2 = 0.5659Q

1 x
4”
24 in Ф
H20
 E1 = E2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 air Where:
[P1/γ + z1 ] – [P2/γ + 12”/12”/ft] = v22/2g - v12/2g sair = 0.08 lb/ft3
P1/γ – P2/γ – 1 = (0.5659Q)2 – (0.318Q)2 62.4 lb/ft3
(2)(32.174) (2)(32.174) sair = 1.282 x 10-3
P1/γ – P2/γ - 1= 4.9767 x 10-3Q2 – 1.5715x 10-3Q2
P1/γ – P2/γ - 1= 3.4052 x 10-3Q2 -------------Eq.1
2
Solving for pressure difference 18 in
Summing up pressure head from 2 to 1
P2/γ + (1+x)(1.282) + (4/12)(1) – (4/12(1.282) – x(1.282) = P1/γ
12” =1ft
1.282 1.282 x 10-3 1.282 1.282
P2/γ + 1+260 -0.33 = P1/γ
P1/γ - P2/γ = 260.67 ft subs. to 1 1 x
260.67 – 1 = 3.4052 x 10-3Q2 4”
Q2 = 259.67 24 in Ф
3.4052 x 10-3
H20
Q =276.147 ft3/s x 60sec/min = 16,569 ft3/min
 NOZZLE
• It is a converging tube attached to the end of a
pipe or hose which serves to increase the
velocity of the issuing jet.
• Types of Nozzle
base
tip
1 2

a) The converging part of the tube may be the frustum of a cone.

tip
1 2

base
b) The inside may be convex.
• A nozzle resembles the converging section of a
venturi meter and can therefore also be used
for the measurement of flow. The base of the
nozzle at its connection with the pipe or hose
corresponds to the inlet of the venturi and the
tip of the nozzle corresponds to the throat.
• The energy equation for horizontal nozzle
written between points 1 and 2 considering
head lost is;
P1/γ + v12/2g = v22/2g + HL1-2

Note: P2 is neglected because

it is open to atmosphere….
• 1] A 2 ½ inches fire hose discharges water
through a nozzle having a jet diameter of 1
inch. The lost head in the nozzle is 4 percent
of the velocity head in jet. If the gage pressure
at base of nozzle is 60 lb/in2, compute the
discharge in gallons per minute.
1” Ф
2 1/2” Ф 1 2
 Sol’n:
1” Ф
2 1/2” Ф 1 2

HL = 0.04 v22/2g
P1 = 60 lb/in2 x 144 in2/ft2 = 8640 lb/ft2

Where; v1 = Q/A1
v1 = Q
π(2.5/12)2
4
v1 = 29.335Q

v2 = Q/A2
v2 = Q
π(1/12)2
4
v2 = 183.346Q
• Computing for the discharge in gpm
• E1 = E2 + HL1-2
P1/γ + v12/2g = v22/2g + HL1-2
8640 + 29.375Q)2 = (183.346Q)2 + (0.04)(183.346Q)2
62.4 2(32.174) 2(32.174) (2)(32.174)
138.46 + 13.373Q2 = 522.4Q2 + 20.896Q2
138.46 = 529.923 Q2
Q = 0.511 ft3/s x 7.48 gal/1ft3 x 60 sec/min = 229.41 gpm
 • 2] A 2 ½ inches fire hose discharges a 1 ¼ inches
jet. If the head lost in the nozzle is 6 ft, what gage
pressure must be maintained at the base of the
nozzle to throw a stream to a vertical height of
100ft, neglecting air resistance?

Note: the difference in elevation between point 1 and point 2 is

negligible because pt 1 and pt 2 is so close (the problem did not
specify the distance from pt 1 to pt 2.
v2/2g =100ft Solving for v:
v1 = Q/A1 v22/2g = 100 ft v1 = 29.33Q
1¼”Ф v1 = Q v2 = (2)(32.174)(100) v1 = 29.33(0.6836)
π(2.5/12)2 v2 = 80.217 ft/s v1 = 20.05ft/s
2
4 v2 = Q/A2
v1 = 29.33Q Q = (80.217) π(1.25/12)2 E1 = E2 + H1-2
4 P1 = 43.23 psi
1 Q = 0.6836 ft3/s
subs. to v1;
2 ½” Ф
• The discharge through a nozzle can be
calculated using the equation;
Q = CAn(2gH)1/2
Where:
H = total head at the base of the nozzle
An = area at the nozzle tip
The following table gives the mean values of
coefficients for water discharging through a
nozzle having a base diameter of 40mm and
Cc = 1.0
Tip Diameter 19 22 25 29 32 35
in mm
C = Cv 0.983 0.982 0.980 0.976 0.971 0.959
• Computing for Head Lost (For nozzle, venturi
meter, tubes and orifices)
• HL = [ (1/Cv 2) - 1][ 1 – (A2/A1)2] v 2/2g

• (For Nozzle: A2 is the nozzle tip area and A1 is

the nozzle base area)
• If the orifices or nozzles takes off directly from
a tank where A1 is very much greater than A2,
then the velocity of approach is negligible and
the equation can be reduced to;
• HL = [ (1/Cv 2) – 1] v2/2g

• Where v = actual velocity

• Ex 3] Compute the discharge through a nozzle
with base diameter of 40mm and tip diameter
of 25mm (Cv = 0.980), the total head at the
base of the nozzle is 10m. Compute also the
head lost if the actual velocity is 13.727 m/s.
• Q = CAn(2gH)1/2
• Q = (0.980) π(0.025)2 [(2(9.81)(10)]1/2
4
• Q = 6.738 x 10-3m3/s
• HL = [ (1/(0.98)2) - 1][ 1 – ([0.025] 2 /[0.04] 2)2] (13.727)2/2(9.81)
• HL=(0.041)(0.84742)(9.604)
• HL=0.333m
Solving for the Dynamic Force at the Nozzle tip
or solving for the Force exerted by the Jet
• F = Q γv
g
Where:
Q = flow rate or discharge
γ = unit wt. of fluid
g = gravitational acceleration
v = velocity of the jet or at the nozzle tip
• Ex. 1] Water flows through a 2.5cm diameter
nozzle at the rate of 10L/s. Calculate the dynamic
force available at the nozzle tip.
• Given:
d = 2.5cm = 0.025m
Q = 10 L/s x m3 = 0.01 m3/s
1000L
A = πd2/4 = 4.9087 x 10 -4 m2
v = Q/A = 20.372 m/s
• F = Q γv
g
F = (0.01)(9.81x 103)(20.372)/9.81
F = 203.7 N
• Ex. 2] A 250mm diameter jet of water discharging
at the rate of 491 L/s impinges normally on a flat
metal plate. What is the force exerted by the jet
on the metal plate in kN.
• Given:
d = 250mm = 0.25m
Q = 491 L/s x m3 = 0.491 m3/s
1000L
A = πd2/4 = 0.049 m2
v = Q/A = 10.02 m/s
• F = Q γv
g
F = (0.491)(9.81)(10.02)/9.81
F = 4.92 kN
 • PITOT TUBE (peètō tóob)
– It is a bent L-shaped tube with both ends open.
– Named after the French physicist and engineer
Henri Pitot.
Fig. A

h = v2/2g

Liquid surface
hd or h1 Pt 2 at the face of the tube
facing stream is called
he or h2 STAGNATION POINT.
d e
1 2
When the tube is first placed in a moving stream in the position shown, the liquid enters the
opening at e until the surface in the tube rises a distance h above the surface of the stream. A
condition of equilibrium is then established and the quantity of liquid in the tube remains
unchanged as long as the flow remains steady.
 Fig. A

h = v2/2g

Liquid surface
hd or h1

he or h2
d e
1 2
STAGNATION POINT

Considering a particle at point 1 in the fig. A to moving with a velocity of v. As the particle
approaches point 2. its velocity is gradually retarded to zero at point 2; writing the energy
equation between 1 & 2 neglecting friction.

E1 = E2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2
v1= v; P1 =h1 ; P2/γ = h2
v2 =2g(h2 - h1)
v2 =2g(h1 - h2) where h =h2 - h1
then
v =(2gh)1/2
Fig.B

Velocity leg
Differential manometer
h
fluid1
Static leg
y
v
fluid1
1 2

Pitot tube in pipe

STAGNATION POINT
• 1]A glass tube with a 90o bend is open at both
ends. It is inserted into a flowing stream of oil
(s=0.90) so that one of the opening is directed
upstream and the other is directed upward. If the
oil inside the tube is 50mm higher than the
surface outside, determine the velocity measured
by the tube.

h = 50mm

Liquid surface

s= 0.90

1 2
 h = 50mm

Liquid surface

s= 0.90

1 2

Sol’n:
v=?
v = (2gh)1/2
v = [(2)(9.81)(0.05)]1/2
v = 0.99 m/s
• 2]A pitot tube (Cv = 1.0) is used to measure air
speed with water in the differential
manometer and a gage difference of 75mm ,
calculate the air speed using ρair = 1.16
kg/m3.

air
1 2
y

75mm

water
 v v2 =0 air

1 2
y

75mm

E1 = E2 water Where:
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z 2 s = ρair = 1.16 kg/m3.
v12/2g = P2/γ - P1/γ ------------Eqn 1 ρwater 1000 kg/m3
s = 1.16 x 10-3
Summing up pressure head in meters of air from 1 to 2
P1/γ + (y) 1.16 x 10-3 + (0.075)(1) – (0.075) 1.16 x 10-3– (y) 1.16 x 10-3 = P2/γ
1.16 x 10-3 1.16 x 10-3 1.16 x 10-3 1.16 x 10-3
P1/γ + 64.655 – 0.075 = P2/γ
P2/γ -P1/γ = 64.58 subs. to eqn 1
v12/2g = P2/γ - P1/γ ------------Eqn 1
v12/2g = 64.58
v12 = (2)(9.81)(64.58)
v1 = 35.596m/s ---theoretical velocity (neglecting head loss)
• Solving for the actual velocity
• v = (cv)vT
• v = (1)(35.596)
• v = 35.596m/s -----actual velocity
• 3]Air (γ= 12 N/m3) is flowing through a system
shown. If oil (s= 0.827) shows a deflection of
80mm, calculate the flow rate, neglecting head
lost in li/s.

100mmФ
50mmФ
1 Air, 12 N/m3 2

80mm

Oil s =0.827
 100mmФ
50mmФ
1 Air, 12 N/m3 2
Where: v
s = = 12 N/m3. v1=0 y
9810N/m3
s = 1.22x 10-3 80mm

E1 = E2
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2
Oil s =0.827
P1/γ = v22/2g + P2/γ
P1/γ - P2/γ = v22/2g ----Eqn. 1
Summing up pressure head in meters of air from 2 to 1
P1/γ + (y) 1.22x 10-3 + (0.080)(0.827) – (0.80) 1.22x 10-3– (y) 1.22x 10-3= P2/γ
1.22x 10-3 1.22x 10-3 1.22x 10-3 1.22x 10-3
P2/γ + 54.23 + 0.08 = P1/γ
P1/γ - P2/γ = 54.15 subs. to Eqn 1
P1/γ - P2/γ = v22/2g ----Eqn. 1
54.15 = v22/2g
v22 = (2)(9.81)(54.15)
v2 = 32.595m/s ---theoretical velocity (neglecting head loss)
Q = v2(A)2
Q = (32.595)(π)(0.05)2
4
Q = 0.064 m3/s x (1000li/m3)
Q = 64 li/s
• 4] A pitot tube in the pipe in which air is
flowing is connected to a manometer
containing water as shown in the figure. If the
difference in water levels in the manometer is
87.5mm, what is the velocity of flow in the
pipe, assuming a tube coefficient, Cv = 0.99?

87.5mm
water
y

Air γ= 12 N/m3
1 2
 87.5mm
water
y

v1 =0 Air γ= 2 N/m3

1 2

E1 = E2 Where:
v12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = v22/2g + P2/γ + z2 s = = 12 N/m3.
9810N/m3
P1/γ = v22/2g + P2/γ s = 1.22x 10-3
P1/γ - P2/γ = v22/2g ----Eqn. 1
Summing up pressure head in meters of air from 2 to 1
P2/γ - (y) 1.22x 10-3 - (0.0875)(1.22x 10-3) + (0.875) (1) + (y) 1.22x 10-3= P1/γ
1.22x 10-3 1.22x 10-3 1.22x 10-3 1.22x 10-3
P2/γ + 71.634 = P1/γ
P1/γ - P2/γ = 71.634 subs. to Eqn 1
P1/γ - P2/γ = v22/2g ----Eqn. 1
71.634 = v22/2g
v22 = (2)(9.81)(71.634)
v2 = 37.489 m/s ---theoretical velocity (neglecting head loss)
• Solving for the actual velocity
• v = (cv)vT
• v = (0.99)(37.489)
• v = 37.1m/s -----actual velocity
• 5] Carbon tetrachloride having a specific
gravity of 1.6 is flowing through a pipe. The
differential gage, attached to the pitot-static
tube shows a 100mm deflection of mercury.
Assuming Cv =1.00. Find the velocity of flow.

100mm
mercury
y

s = 1.6
1 2
 100mm
mercury
y
v1 s = 1.6 v2

1 2

E1 = E2
P1/γ + v12/2g + z1 = P2/γ +v22/2g + z2
P2/γ - P1/γ = v12/2g -------- Eqn. 1
Summing up pressure head from 2 to 1
P2/γ - (y) 1.6 - (0.10)(1.6) + (0.10)(1.6) - (0.10) (13.6) + (0.10)(1.6) + (y) 1.6 = P1/γ
1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
P2/γ - P1/γ = 0.75m of carbon tetrachloride subs. to Eqn. 1
P2/γ - P1/γ = v12/2g ----Eqn. 1
0.75 = v12/2g
v22 = (2)(9.81)(0.75)
v1 = 3.84 m/s ---theoretical velocity (neglecting head loss)
• Solving for the actual velocity
• v = (c)vT
• v = (1)(3.84)
• v = 3.84 m/s -----actual velocity