BASIC SET THEORY

DEFINITION: A set is a collection of well-defined

objects.

A set may be presented by actually listing its

members. E.g

1 The numbers: 1, 3, 7, and 10.

2 The vowels of the English alphabets: a, e, i, o, u.

3 The names of students: Bola, Amanda and Smith.

4 The even integers: 2, 4, 6, …

Also, a set may be presented by stating properties or

rules which decide whether or not a particular object

is a member of the set.

Synonyms: “collection”, “family”, “aggregate”.

SET NOTATION

A set will usually be denoted by a capital letter, such

as: A, B, C, . . .

Where lower case letters, a, b, c, x, y, z, will usually

be used to denote the elements of the sets.

The goal of set theory is to formalize intuitive

concepts so that we can extend good sense of

reasoning to more complex situations.

AXIOMATIC SET THEORY

This is based on hand-full of “axioms”; basic

statements from which we can deduce the properties

of sets.

THEOREMS: Are implied rules which require

proofs.

AXIOMS: Are statements in which theorems are

based.

ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF SETS

1 MEMBERSHIP: If A is a set, 𝑥∈𝐴 if x belongs to

set A.

⟹𝑦∉𝐴 i.e y is not an element of A.

 2 SPECIFICATION

There are 3 methods of specification:

i. DESCRIPTION: A set of English alphabets.

Specify: {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 }.

ii. SPECIFICATION: To state the properties that

characterize the elements of the set: those properties

held by members of the set but not by non-members.

This is called the set- builder form.

Example: The expression

𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 > 0}. Or

𝐵 = {𝑥∣𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 > 0}.

Which reads: “B is the set of x, such that x is an

even integer and x > 0”.

This denotes the set B whose members are positive

integers.

𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, …,}.

Here, a letter usually 𝑥, is used to denote a typical

member of the set. The colon or slash is read as

“such that” and the comma is read as “and”.

Two sets A and B are equal, written as A=B, if every

element which belongs to A also belongs to B and

vice versa i.e they have the same elements.

Two sets A and B are not equal, written as A≠B, this

is the negation of A=B.

The representation, 𝑝∈𝐴, reads: “p belongs to A” or

“p is an element of A”.

The representation,𝑝∉𝐴 is the negation of 𝑝∈𝐴.

We describe a set by listing its elements only if the

set contains few elements; otherwise, we describe a

set by the property which characterize its elements.

iii.ENUMERATION

For example: 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑒, }.

OPERATIONS ON SET

1. INCLUSION: If A and B are two given sets,

then A is a subset of B (or A is included in B or B is

a super set of A).

If every element 𝑥∈𝐴 (that is 𝑥 is contained in A) i.e

𝑥∈𝐴⟹𝑥∈𝐵.

We write 𝐴⊂𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴⊆𝐵(A is included in B). If an

element 𝑦∈𝐴⟹𝑦∉𝐵, then 𝐴⊈𝐵.

Example,

𝑃 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑔, 𝑘, 𝑓}, 𝑄 = {𝑘, 𝑎, 𝑓, 𝑟, 𝑔, 𝑏, 𝑡 }

Every 𝑥∈𝑃⟹𝑥∈𝑄. This means, 𝑃⊆𝑄

𝐴 = {1, 7, 8, 9}, 𝐵 = {1, 3, 9, 7, 10, 12}.

Since 8 is an element of A i.e.

8∈𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8∉𝐵⟹𝐴⊈𝐵.

NOTE: The null (empty) set is included in every set

⟹ϕ⊆𝐴.

2. UNION

The set of all objects belonging to at least one of a

number of sets is called the union of such sets. We

write for two sets A and B,

𝐴∪𝐵 = {𝑥∣𝑥∈𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥∈𝐵}

𝐴∪𝐵∪𝐶∪𝐷 = {𝑥∣𝑥∈𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥∈𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥∈𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑥∈𝐷}.

SPECIAL PROPERTY OF UNION

An element 𝑥 belongs to the union

𝐴∪𝐵 𝑖𝑓 𝑥∈𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈𝐵
Hence, every element in

𝐴∈𝐴∪𝐵; 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐵∈𝐴∪𝐵 i.e.

𝐴⊆𝐴∪𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵⊆𝐴∪𝐵

3. INTERSECTION

The set of all objects which belong to all the

members of sets in consideration. For 2 sets P&Q

𝑃∩𝑄 = {𝑥∣𝑥∈𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥∈𝑄}

SPECIAL PROPERTY OF INTERSECTION

Every element 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐴∩𝐵 belongs to both A and B.

Hence, 𝑥∈𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈𝐵. Thus, 𝐴∩𝐵 is a subset of A

and of B; 𝐴∩𝐵⊆𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴∩𝐵⊆𝐵

4. ASYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE

Is the difference between the sets A&B. {𝐴∖𝐵} is

defined as the set of all those elements in A but not

in B. 𝐴∖𝐵 is also the relative complement of B w.r.t.

𝐴∖𝐵 = {𝑥∣𝑥∈𝐴; 𝑥∉𝐵}.

𝐵∖𝐴 = {𝑥∣𝑥∈𝐵; 𝑥∉𝐴}.

The set 𝐴∖𝐵 is read ‘A minus B’. Some text denote

𝐴∖𝐵 as A-B or 𝐴~𝐵

 5. SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE

For any two sets, the symmetric difference is the set

of all objects which belong in A alone or B alone,

but not to both.

𝐴∆𝐵 or A⊕B reads: A symmetric difference B.

𝐴∆𝐵 = 𝐴∖𝐵∪𝐵∖𝐴
𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴)
𝐴∆𝐵 = {𝑥∣𝑥∈𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥∣𝑥∈𝐵; 𝑥∣𝑥∉𝐴∩𝐵}
Example, if

𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑘, 𝑗} ; 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑘, 𝑔, ℎ} find

i. 𝐴∖𝐵

ii. 𝐵∖𝐴

iii. 𝐴∆𝐵
iv. 𝐴∖𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑗}; 𝐵∖𝐴 = {𝑑, 𝑒, ℎ, 𝑔}

𝐴∆𝐵 = 𝐴∖𝐵∪𝐵∖𝐴
= {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑗} ∪ {𝑑, 𝑒, ℎ, 𝑔}

= {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑔, ℎ, 𝑗}
6. COMPLEMENT

𝑐
The complement of a set A, denoted by 𝐴 , is the set

of elements which belongs to 𝑈, universal set, but

which do not belong to A, i.e

𝑐
𝐴 = {𝑥∣𝑥∈𝑈; 𝑥∉𝐴}

7. UNIVERSAL SET
All sets under investigation in any application of set

theory are assumed to be contained in some large

fixed set called the universal set or universe, denoted

by 𝑈.

8. EMPTY SET

An empty set is one with no element. Φ is used to

represent empty set.

9. DISJOINT SET

Two sets A and B are disjoint if they have no

common members i.e., their intersection is empty.

𝐴∩𝐵 = Φ⟹𝑥: 𝑥∉𝐴; 𝑥∉𝐵

SOME PROPERTIES OF SET

1 Every set A is a subset of the universal set, 𝓤.

Since, by definition, all the elements of A belong to

𝓤.

The empty set 𝟇 is a subset of A.

∴𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴, ϕ⊆𝐴⊆𝑈

2 Every set A is a subset of itself; since, by

definition, all the elements of A belong to A, i.e.

𝐴⊆𝐴.

3 If every element of A belongs to set B, and every

element of B belongs to set C, then every element of

A belongs to C. If 𝐴⊆𝐵; 𝐵⊆𝐶 ∴𝐴⊆𝐶.

4 If 𝐴⊆𝐵; 𝐵⊆𝐴, then A and B have the same

elements, i.e. A=B.

𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = 𝐵, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴⊆𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵⊆𝐴, since every set is

a subset of itself.

SUBSETS:

Set A is said to be a subset of set B if every element

in set A is also an element of set B.

Given: 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5, 8, 9}, 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 5},

𝐶 = {1, 5}.

𝐶⊆𝐴, 𝐶⊆𝐵, since 1 and 5 are also elements of A and

B, 𝐵⊈𝐴 since some of its elements, 2 and 7 do not

belong to A.
PROPER SUBSET.

If 𝐴⊆𝐵, it is possible that A=B. when 𝐴⊆𝐵 but A≠

B, then A is a proper subset of B i.e some elements

in B are not in A.

Examples:

Given the set 𝑃 = {1, 2, 3, . . . .}. list the

members of the following sets.

1. 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥∈𝑃, 3 < 𝑥 < 12}.

2. 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥∈𝑃, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑥 < 15}.

 3. 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥∈𝑃, 4 + 𝑥 = 3}.

4. 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥∈𝑃, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 5}.

SOLUTION

1 Set A consists of +ve integers between 3 and 12,

not inclusive. 𝐴 = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11},

which are contained in P.

2. Set B consists of the even positive integers less

than15.

𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}.

3. The solution to 4 + 𝑥 = 3 is -1. Since x should

be contained in P, P is a set of positive integers.

 Therefore, set C is empty.

4 set D is infinite. 𝐷 = {5, 10, 15, ….}.

ALGEBRA OF SET

Sets under the operation of union, intersection and

complement satisfy various identity laws below.

1 Idempotent laws, 𝐴∪𝐴 = 𝐴 DUAL, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴

2 Association laws

(𝐴∪𝐵)∪𝐶 = 𝐴∪(𝐵∪𝐶) (𝐴∩𝐵)∩𝐶 = 𝐴∩(𝐵∩𝐶)

3 Commutative laws

𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴

4 Distributive laws(left hand) Distributive laws(right hand)

𝐴∪(𝐵∩𝐶) = (𝐴∪𝐵)∩(𝐴∪𝐶) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵∪𝐶) = (𝐴∩𝐵)∪(𝐴∩𝐶)

(𝐵∪𝐶)∩𝐴 = (𝐵∩𝐴) ∪ (𝐶∩𝐴) (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)∪𝐴 = (𝐵∪𝐴) ∩ (𝐶∪𝐴)
5 Identity laws, 𝐴∪∅ = 𝐴 𝐴∩𝑈=𝐴

6 𝐴∪𝑈 = 𝑈 𝐴∩∅ = ∅

' '
( )=𝐴
7 Involution laws, 𝐴

' '
8Complement laws,𝐴∪𝐴 = 𝑈 𝐴 ∩𝐴 = ∅

' '
9𝑈 = ∅ ∅ =𝑈

' ' ' ' '

10 (𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)' = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵

11. Laws of absorption

𝐴 ∩ (𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝐴 𝐴 ∪ (𝐴∩𝐵) = 𝐴
 𝐴∩(𝐵∪𝐶) = (𝐵∪𝐶)∩𝐴 𝐴∪(𝐵∩𝐶) = (𝐵∩𝐶)∪𝐴
Distributing intersection over union Distributing union over intersection

DUALITY

If 𝐸 be an equation of a set of algebra. The dual

*
𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 is the equation obtained by replacing each

occurrence of ∪, ∩, 𝑈, ∅ 𝑖𝑛 𝐸 𝑏𝑦 ∩, ∪, ∅, 𝑈

respectively. For example, the dual of

(𝑈∩𝐴) ∪ (𝐵∩𝐴) = 𝐴
is (∅∪𝐴) ∩ (𝐵∪𝐴) = 𝐴.

*
If any equation E is an identity, then its dual 𝐸 is

also an identity.