Educational Research

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DR. MARINAH AWANG

What is Educational Research?
Educational research is “critical enquiry aimed at informing educational
judgements and decisions in order to improve educational action” (Bassey,
1999, p. 39).
The traditions within educational research “vary over a broad spectrum
that includes ethnographic works, case studies, psychometric approaches,
experimental approaches and survey methods” (Lewin, 1990, p. 46).
“Penyelidikan pendidikan ialah pengkajian yang mengaplikasikan kaedah
saintifik untuk menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah pendidikan…” (Ghazali
Darusalam & Sufean Hussin, 2016, hal. 36).

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Approaches to Educational Research (1/2)
The varying traditions provide educational researchers with a range
of approaches to choose from when planning their studies.
Carr (1995) observes that these choices are never neutral –
educational research can never be value-free.
The approach chosen is always underpinned by the particular set of
educational values it sustains.
 The Choice of Approaches in Educational
Research (2/2)
Guba and Lincoln (2005), posit that the choice of approaches
in educational research is based upon three conceptual
underpinnings:
◦ontology (what is reality?);
◦epistemology (what is knowledge?) and
◦methodology (what are the appropriate methods that facilitate
understanding of the knowledge about the reality?).
 • General assumptions regarding social reality, the What,
Who, When, Why and How
ONTOLOGY • It seeks the classification and explanation of entities.
• Concerns about the nature of being and existence.

• derived from the Greek epistēmē (“knowledge”) and logos

(“reason”) sometimes referred to as the theory of
EPISTEMOLOGY knowledge.
• WH q - What is K, the source, the reality, the benefit, the
value, the truth

• ‘a contextual framework' for research, a coherent and logical

scheme based on views, beliefs, and values, that guides the choices

METHODOLOGY researchers [or other users] make"

• may be visualized as a spectrum from a predominantly quantitative
approach towards a predominantly qualitative approach.
 What philosophical stance informs
What theory of knowledge is
the methodology and provides a
embedded in the theoretical
context for the process and grounds
perspective and methodology?
its logic and criteria?

FUNDAMENTAL
QUESTIONS IN A
RESEARCH

What strategy, plan of action, process

or design lies behind the choice and What techniques or procedures are
use of particular methods and links used to gather and analyse data
the choice and use of methods to the related to the research questions?
desired outcomes?
Questions that Lead to Conceptualizing A Research
The ontological that we perceived – what is there in the reality, proof and evidence. What is
the perspective?
The epistemological stance we adopt—whether it is objectivism, constructionism, or
subjectivism—influences how we do our research and present the outcomes.
It bears heavily on our philosophical stance or theoretical perspective which provides
assumptions with regard to the choice of our research methodology.
The research methodology or strategy adopted should be consistent with the theoretical
assumptions and appropriate to the research questions under investigation.
It is also important to connect the research strategy or design to the techniques or
procedures we intend to use in data collection in a coherent and explicit manner.
 In a nutshell !
Relationship between
Ontology-epistemology-
methodology
Research Onion

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 Conceptualizing Educational Research

Habermas (1972) suggested three ways to

conceptualize educational research:
◦empirical-analytical;
◦historical or hermeneutical; and
◦critical
 Empirical-analytical Approach (1/2)
This is underpinned by the positivist assumptions that there are
universal laws that govern social events, and uncovering these laws
enables researchers to describe, predict, and control social
phenomena.
It asserts that social reality exists independent of people and can be
objectively investigated by employing valid and reliable
measurements.
The purpose of the research is to describe and understand this
reality, and present understandings in the form of generalisations.
 Empirical-analytical Approach (2/2)

In this approach the claim is that both the researcher and

research are objective and value-neutral.
Furthermore, it is assumed that it is possible to see causal
relationships in the social world and that explanations of the
world are universally valid, irrespective of the socio-
historical political context.
HISTORICAL/HERMENEUTICAL - INTERPRETIVE (1/2)

An interpretive (historical/hermeneutical) approach argues that there is more

than one single conception of reality.
It is situated within the constructionist paradigm which holds that meaning is
constructed by human beings through their engagement with the world they
are interpreting.
Meaning is not merely inherent in the object waiting to be discovered.
Ontology and epistemology are culturally specific, historically located and
value-laden (influenced by personal opinions).
HISTORICAL/HERMENEUTICAL – CONSTRUCTIVIST (2/2)
This constructivist/social realist metaphor is concerned with reconstructing
established criteria, where validity and reliability are replaced by
trustworthiness and insight.
It focuses on social practices, and recognises the importance of subjectivity in
interpreting, understanding and making sense of a research.
Human actions are viewed as inseparable from a network of culturally
conditioned beliefs and practices, assumptions and pre-suppositions.
Knowledge is thus partial, perspective-bound and concerned with
interpretation, meaningful communication and illumination.
 Critical Analytical Approach (1/2)
A critical analytical approach, is derived from a belief in freedom,
justice and democracy as both an object and outcome of social
research.
It emphasises that different knowledge or research traditions are
linked with particular interests.
Critical theorists believe that research is an ethical and political act
that is more likely to benefit one group over another.
 Critical Analytical Approach (2/2)
Critical theorists view the contemporary world as shaped by
competing interests and more likely to benefit those with
access to greater economic, social and political resources.
For these theorists, not only is the situation unjust but they
also support the use of research in empowering the
powerless and transforming existing social inequalities and
injustices.
 Epistemological Perspectives
Empirical-analytical/ Interpretive/ Constructivist Critical Analytical
Positivist

Purpose Predict, control, generalize Describe, understand, Change, emancipate, empower

interpret

Types Experimental, survey, Phenomenology, ethnography, Neo-Marxist, feminist,

quasi- experimental hermeneutic, grounded participatory action research,
theory, naturalistic/ critical race theory, critical
qualitative ethnography

Reality Objective, external, out Multiple realities, context- Multiple realities, situated in
there bound political, social, cultural contexts
(one reality is privileged).
 A Fourth Perspective (Lather, 1992; 2006)

Lather adds a fourth paradigm to the existing three discussed

earlier – post-structural or postmodernism.
There is no single “truth” with a capital “T”; rather there are
multiple “truths”.
Postmodernists celebrate diversity.
By accepting the diversity and plurality of the world, no one
element is privileged or more powerful than another.
Putting the Paradigms into Practice

How would researchers from different philosophical orientations

conduct research on the topic of school safety & well-being
differently?
◦ From a positivist/empirical-analytical perspective…
◦ From an interpretive/constructivist perspective…
◦ From a critical analytical perspective…
 Qualitative Research

‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what people think,

and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and
how they say they feel. This kind of information is subjective. It
involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers’
Bellenger, Bernhardt and Goldstucker, Qualitative Research in Marketing,
American Marketing Association
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and their thoughts)
in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
 Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a
variety of empirical materials - case study, personal experience,
introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical,
interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic
moments and meanings in individuals lives.
Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping always to
get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.
EEERRRKKKK..
HEEEEEMMMM
SERIOUSLY???
WHAT CAN YOU SAY ABOUT THESE PICTURES?
 The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur
A ‘Jack of all trades or kind of professional DIY person’
Produces a bricolage, that is a pieced together, close-knit set of
practices that provide solutions to a problem in a concrete
situation
The solution which is a result of the bricoleurs method is an
emergent construction that changes and takes new forms as
different tools, methods and techniques are added to the puzzle.
 The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur
The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur uses the tools of his
methodological trade . The choice of research practices depends
upon the questions that are asked, and the questions depend on
their context, what is available in the context, and what the
researcher can do in that setting.
The Bricoleur is adept at performing a large number of diverse tasks
ranging from interviewing to observing, to interpreting personal and
historical documents, to intensive self-reflection and introspection.
 The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur
The bricoleur understands that research is an interactive process shaped
by his own personal history, biography, gender, social class, race, and
ethnicity and those of the people in the setting.
The product of the bricoleur’s labour is a bricolage, a complex, dense,
reflexive, collage-like creation that represents the researchers images,
understanding and interpretations of the world or phenomenon under
analysis.
The bricolage will connect the parts to the whole, stressing the
meaningful relationships that operate in the situations and social worlds
studied.
 The Characteristics of Qualitative Research (1/4)

Qualitative research begins with assumptions, a worldview, the

possible use of a theoretical lens, and the study of research
problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe
to a social or human problem.
Qualitative researchers use:
◦ The collection of data in a natural setting sensitive to people and places
under study
◦ Data analysis that is inductive and establishes patterns or themes.
 The Characteristics of Qualitative Research (2/4)
There are several common characteristics of qualitative research:
 Natural setting – data is collected in the field at the site where
participants’ experience the issue or problem under study.
 Researcher as key instrument – researchers collect data themselves. They
do not rely on questionnaires or instruments developed by other
researchers.
 Multiple sources of data – interviews, observations, documents, etc. are
gathered.
 Inductive data analysis – patterns, categories, and themes are built from
the “bottom-up”
 The Characteristics of Qualitative Research (3/4)

◦Participants’ meanings – the researchers keep a focus on learning

the meaning that the participants hold about the problem or
issue.
◦Emergent design – the initial plan for research cannot be tightly
prescribed and all phases of the process may change or shift after
research begins.
◦Theoretical lens – a lens is used to view studies, such as concepts
of culture, social, political, or historical contexts.
 The Characteristics of Qualitative Research (4/4)

◦ Interpretive inquiry – researchers make an interpretation of what they see,

hear, and understand.
◦ Holistic account – researchers try to develop an understandable picture of
the problem or issue under study. Researchers try to identify the complex
interactions of factors in any situation.
 Questions to ponder
What are the key
Why do researchers What is required to
characteristics of
conduct a undertake this type
qualitative
qualitative study? of research?
research?

What topics should

How do researchers
be addressed in a
design a qualitative
plan or proposal for
study?
a qualitative study?
 Conclusions
Different philosophical assumptions and beliefs lead to different research
approaches.
The choice of an approach is one of appropriateness for the research to be
undertaken and dependent on the philosophical underpinnings of the
researcher.
Qualitative study is an approach that begins with assumptions, worldviews,
possible a theoretical lens to study the research problems inquiring into the
meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
Researchers collect data in natural settings with a sensitivity to the people
under study.
 Reference
Bassey, M. (1999). Case study research in educational settings.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Carr, W. (1995). For education: towards critical educational inquiry.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: meaning and
perspective in the research process. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Lather, P. (2016). This is your father’s paradigm: Government
intrusion and the case of qualitative research in education. In N.
Denzin & M. Giardina (Eds.) Qualitative inquiry and the conservative
challenge (pp. 31-55). Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
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