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Answer: b Page: 5 Level: Medium Type: Factual
Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-4. In its study of growth, change, and stability, lifespan development takes a(n) ______
approach.

a) intuitive
b) scientific
c) social
d) environmental

Answer: b Page: 5 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-5. A professor wants to examine the effectiveness of a new teaching approach. Her 9:00 a.m.
class will be exposed to the new method of viewing teaching tapes while her 10:00 a.m. class
will be exposed to traditional lectures. She will assess the students’ progress after six sessions.
What method is the professor using to conduct her experiment?

a) intuitive
b) biological
c) environmental
d) scientific

Answer: d Page: 5 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective L01

1-6. The vast majority of lifespan development focuses on

a) nonhuman species.
b) test tube babies.
c) biological and environmental development.
d) human development.

Answer: d Page: 5 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective L01

1-7. A lifespan developmentalist whose topical focus is the body’s makeup is interested in _____
development.

a) cognitive
b) physical
c) personality
d) social

5
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Answer: b Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual
Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-8. A researcher working with college-age football players is conducting a longitudinal study to
examine an athlete’s decline in physical performance as the athlete ages. What type of
development would the researcher most likely be studying?

a) cognitive
b) personality
c) physical
d) social

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-9. ________ development involves the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities
influence a person’s behavior.

a) Cognitive
b) Physical
c) Personality
d) Social

Answer: a Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-10. Researchers in the early learning department of a university are conducting a long-term
study to see how problem-solving skills change over time as school-age students move from
elementary school to high school to college. What type of development are the researchers most
likely studying?

a) cognitive
b) personality
c) social
d) physical

Answer: a Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-11. Researchers who use intellectual (IQ) testing as part of their research project with
elementary age students are likely to be researching _________ development.

a) personality
b) cognitive
c) social
d) physical

6
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Answer: b Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual
Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-12. ________ development involves the ways that the enduring characteristics that
differentiate one person from another change over the life span.

a) Cognitive
b) Physical
c) Personality
d) Social

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-13. A student reads a flyer on the campus bulletin board that says a researcher is searching for
students to volunteer for a long-term study. Participation includes completing testing that
measures traits such as temperament, attitudes, and adaptability, as well as being available for
follow-up for the next 10 years. The researcher who is developing this study is most likely
interested in ___________ development.

a) personality
b) social
c) cognitive
d) physical

Answer: a Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-14. _________ development involves the way in which individuals’ interactions with others
and their social relationships grow, change and remain stable over the course of life.

a) Cognitive
b) Physical
c) Personality
d) Social

Answer: d Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-15. What type of lifespan developmentalist is interested in how a person who experiences a
significant or traumatic event early in life would remember that event later in life?

a) physical
b) social
c) cognitive

7
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 d) personality

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-16. A researcher is interested in conducting a study to determine whether people who

experienced a devastating event, such as a house fire where the family lost everything, suffer
lasting effects from such devastation early in life. This researcher is interested in the ________
development of the subject(s).

a) personality
b) social
c) cognitive
d) physical

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-17. Lifespan developmentalists typically look at which of the following areas?

a) a particular family
b) a particular age range
c) a particular town/city
d) a particular country

Answer: b Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-18. A developmental researcher who is interested in studying what senses are used most often
by a child or what the long-term results of premature birth are would be studying ___________
development.

a) social
b) physical
c) personality
d) cognitive

Answer: b Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-19. If a developmental researcher is studying what the earliest memories that can be recalled
from infancy are, or what the intellectual consequences of watching television are, in what
developmental area is the researcher interested?

a) social
b) physical

8
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 c) cognitive
d) personality

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-20. A shared notion of reality that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at
a given time is/are called

a) topical areas of lifespan development.

b) social construction.
c) age ranges.
d) social development.

Answer: b Page: 6 Level: Difficult Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-21. The concept of childhood as a special period did not exist during the ________ century.

a) sixteenth
b) seventeenth
c) nineteenth
d) twentieth

Answer: b Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-22. Which period is considered a social construction and does not have a clear-cut boundary?

a) infancy begins with birth

b) adolescence starts with sexual maturity
c) middle adulthood ends with retirement
d) preschool period ends with entry into public school

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-23. In Western culture, what age is considered young adulthood?

a) 16
b) 18
c) 20
d) 21

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

9
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1-24. Walter is a college student who is about to graduate from college. At what age would he
say a substantial change is occurring in his life?

a) when he finished his junior year of high school at age 17

b) when he turned 20 years of age
c) when he leaves college and enters the workforce at age 22
d) when he turns 26 years old

Answer: c Page: 6 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L01

1-25. When discussing developmental diversity, what characteristic of good parenting do Mayan
mothers consider essential?

a) laying their infants down

b) constant contact between themselves and their infant children
c) constant nourishment of their children
d) allowing their infants to cry

Answer: b Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-26. Race is what kind of a concept?

a) cognitive
b) cultural
c) biological
d) social

Answer: c Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-27. When Allison was completing her medical forms in the doctor’s office, she was asked to
indicate her race. What may be an appropriate reason(s) for the question on the forms?

a) to establish her skin color

b) to establish her ethnic/cultural heritage
c) to establish her religion
d) to establish biological factors

Answer: d Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-28. A group of people who are born around the same time in the same place is called a(n)

10
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 a) race.
b) cohort.
c) ethnic group.
d) normative group.

Answer: b Page: 9 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-29. The concept of race is exceedingly imprecise for all of the following reasons EXCEPT

a) depending upon how it is defined, there are between 3 and 300 races.
b) no race is genetically distinct.
c) the question of race seems comparatively insignificant because 99.9 percent of
humans’ genetic makeup is identical.
d) names can best reflect different races and ethnic groups.

Answer: d Pages: 8 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-30. People who lived in New York City during the 9/11 terrorist attack on the World Trade
Center experienced shared challenges due to the attack that are called ________ effects.

a) biological
b) environmental
c) cohort
d) Millennial Generation

Answer: c Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-31. Biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age
group, regardless of where they are raised, are called ______influences.

a) age-graded
b) history-graded
c) biological
d) environmental

Answer: a Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-32. Biological and environmental factors that are associated with a certain historical event,
such as the bombing of Pearl Harbor, can be considered

a) age-graded influences.
b) history-graded influences.

11
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 c) sociocultural-graded influences.
d) non-normative life events.

Answer: b Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-33. __________ is an example of a biological universal event that occurs at relatively the same
time throughout all societies.

a) Young adulthood
b) Puberty
c) Adulthood
d) Death

Answer: b Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-34. Alice’s symptoms of menopause include hot flashes and cessation of her monthly
menstrual cycle. Alice’s doctor tells her she is experiencing a(n)

a) non-normative life event.

b) age-graded influence.
c) history-graded influence.
d) sociocultural-graded influence.

Answer: b Page: 8 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-35. When social and cultural factors affect an individual at a particular time and include
variables as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership, these factors are called

a) age-graded influences.
b) non-normative life events.
c) history-graded influences.
d) sociocultural-graded influences.

Answer: d Page: 9 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L02

1-36. In ___________, development is ________, with achievements at one level building on

those of previous levels.

a) discontinuous change; distinct

b) continuous change; gradual
c) discontinuous change; gradual
d) continuous change; distinct

12
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Answer: b Pages: 10 Level: Difficult Type: Factual
Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-37. In ____________, each stage is _______________.

a) discontinuous change; distinct.

b) continuous change; distinct.
c) distinct change; discontinuous.
d) distinct change; gradual.

Answer: a Page: 10 Level: Difficult Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-38. Consider a situation where a woman comes down with a case of rubella (German measles)
in the eleventh week of pregnancy, as opposed to the thirtieth week of pregnancy. The
difference in the way rubella would affect the unborn child at these two times is an example of

a) continuous change.
b) discontinuous change.
c) critical period.
d) sensitive period.

Answer: c Page: 10 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-39. Development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about
behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages is called
_________ change.

a) discontinuous
b) continuous
c) critical
d) natural

Answer: a Page: 10 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-40. A specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences
and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to
proceed normally is called

a) discontinuous change.
b) continuous change.
c) critical period.

13
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 d) natural change.

Answer: c Page: 10 Level: Difficult Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-41. Early developmentalists focused their attention on

a) infancy to preschool years.

b) preschool to adolescence.
c) infancy and adolescence.
d) adolescence and adulthood.

Answer: c Page: 10 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-42. In a ______, organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their
environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible
consequences.

a) sensitive period
b) continuous change
c) critical period
d) discontinuous change

Answer: a Page: 10 Level: Difficult Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-43. What issue has dominated much work in lifespan development?

a) Which area(s) of lifespan development is/are the most important?

b) How much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically-determined nature and
how much is due to nurture?
c) What are the historical roots of developmentalists and lifespan development?
d) How are developmental research studies developed?

Answer: b Page: 11 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-44. “Nature” refers to

a) traits, abilities and capacities inherited from parents.

b) biological forces within the environment that affect change.
c) how people’s growth and change are affected at the cellular level.
d) socioeconomic surroundings that affect people’s growth and change.

Answer: a Page: 11 Level: Medium Type: Factual

14
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-45. The predetermined unfolding of genetic information is known as

a) nurture.
b) influences of the physical and social environment.
c) maturation.
d) conception.

Answer: c Page 11 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-46. Environmental influences that shape behavior are referred to as

a) nurture.
b) maturation.
c) nature.
d) social evolution.

Answer: a Page: 11 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-47. Wilma used both cocaine and alcohol during her pregnancy. This __________
environmental influence is known as ________.

a) biological; nurture
b) biological; nature
c) biological; maturation
d) social; nature

Answer: a Page: 11 Level: Medium Type: Applied

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-48. Genetically-determined traits not only directly influence a child’s ______, but also
indirectly shape the child’s _________.

a) behavior; environment
b) environment; behavior
c) maturation; circumstances
d) circumstances; personality

Answer: a Page: 11 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L03

1-49. According to the textbook, which statement best reflects how many researchers view the
nature-nurture question?

15
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 a)nature is clearly dominant in most cases
b)nurture is clearly dominant in most cases
c)both sides should be considered because most behaviors fall somewhere in between
d)neither side should be considered because most behaviors are not explained by either
factor
Answer: c Page: 11 Level: Medium Type: Factual
Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L04

1-50. According to the textbook, which statement best reflects how many researchers view
development?
a) limited to infancy and early childhood
b) limited to infancy, childhood, and adolescence
c) limited to adolescence and young adulthood
d) occurring throughout the lifespan

Answer: d Page: 11 Level: Easy Type: Factual

Module 1.1: Beginnings Learning Objective: L04

1-51. Broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest are
called _________________ and provide a framework for understanding the relationships among
an unorganized set of facts or principles.

a) concepts
b) hypotheses
c) theories
d) perspectives

Answer: c Page: 12 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L05

1-52. Advocates of the __________ perspective believe that much of behavior is motivated by
inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control.

a) psychodynamic
b) psychosocial
c) behavioral
d) psychosexual

Answer: a Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L05

1-53. Freud proposed a theory that suggests that unconscious forces act to influence personality
and behavior. This is called the ______ perspective.

a) psychosocial

16
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 b) psychosexual
c) psychoanalytic
d) behavioral

Answer: c Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L05

1-54. The psychodynamic perspective is closely associated with

a) Freud.
b) Erikson.
c) Skinner.
d) Piaget.

Answer: a Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L05

1-55. Sigmund Freud is responsible for revolutionary ideas and the __________ theory.

a) behavioral
b) psychoanalytic
c) phallic
d) reality

Answer: b Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L05

1-56. Which of the following answer choices suggests that unconscious forces act to determine
personality and behavior?

a) psychosexual development
b) pleasure principle
c) reality principle
d) psychoanalytic theory

Answer: d Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L05

1-57. Freud believed that the _________ contains infantile wishes, desires, demands, and needs
that are hidden from conscious awareness because they are disturbing.

a) superego
b) id
c) ego
d) unconscious

17
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Answer: d Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual
Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-58. The approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts
that are generally beyond peoples’ awareness and control is called the

a) clinical approach.
b) investigative approach.
c) psychodynamic perspective.
d) analytical perspective.

Answer: c Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-59. According to Freud, which part of everyone’s personality operates according to the
“pleasure principle”?

a) unconscious
b) ego
c) superego
d) id

Answer: d Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-60. Freud believed that the goal of the pleasure principle was to

a) reduce satisfaction and maximize tension.

b) maximize satisfaction and reduce tension.
c) reduce inhibition and maximize unconscious awareness.
d) increase inhibition and reduce unconscious awareness.

Answer: b Page: 13 Level: Difficult Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-61. Freud believed that the _____ is the part of the personality that is rational and reasonable.

a) id
b) superego
c) conscious
d) ego

Answer: d Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-62. Freud believed that the ego operates on the

18
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
 a) unconscious.
b) reality principle.
c) pleasure principle.
d) conscious.

Answer: b Page: 15 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-63. If a child develops into a person who integrates into society and maintains a good
awareness of safety, Freud may say that person has a well-developed

a) id.
b) superego.
c) consciousness.
d) ego.

Answer: d Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-64. The ________ is Freud’s representation of incorporating the distinction between right and
wrong.

a) ego
b) id
c) superego
d) unconscious

Answer: c Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Factual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-65. To Freud, “superego” and ________ are interchangeable terms.

a) conscience
b) ego
c) unconscious
d) conscious

Answer: a Page: 13 Level: Medium Type: Conceptual

Module 1.2: Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objective: L06

1-66. Freud believed that the ______ begins to develop around age five or six and is learned
from significant authority figures.

a) id
b) superego

19
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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(1797-1850), a wealthy banker, who had come to him for instruction
in astronomy, and who erected in 1829 an observatory near his villa
in Berlin, where pupil and tutor pursued their studies.

In 1830 Mädler, with Beer’s assistance, commenced a great

trigonometrical survey of the surface of the Moon. The observations
of Beer and Mädler were made with no larger instrument than a 3¾-
inch refractor. They ascertained the positions of 919 lunar spots, and
measured the height of 1095 mountains. Their great chart of the
Moon—which was afterwards followed by a smaller one—was issued
in four parts during 1834-36. “The amount of detail,” wrote 69
Proctor, “is remarkable, and the labour actually bestowed upon
the work will appear incredible.” The chart has neither been revised
nor superseded, and it remains to this day one of the standard
works on the subject.

The chart was succeeded in 1837 by a descriptive volume entitled

‘Der Mond.’ In this work Beer and Mädler did much for the progress
of lunar astronomy. Their observations led to a change of opinion
regarding our satellite’s physical condition. Herschel, Schröter,
Olbers, and other astronomers seem to have considered the Moon a
living world. Mädler declared that it was a dead world. He believed it
to be destitute of life of any kind, and the changes observed by
Schröter and other observers were put down as illusions. ‘Der Mond’
was the end of Mädler’s work in lunar astronomy, for, receiving an
appointment at Dorpat, he went there in 1846, and retained his post
until within a few years of his death, which took place at Hanover on
March 14, 1874.

Mädler’s successor in the field of lunar astronomy was Johann

Friedrich Julius Schmidt (1825-1884), who was born at Eutin in
Lübeck in 1825. At a very early age he gave indications of a taste for
astronomy. Fortunately his father possessed a small hand 70
telescope, with which young Schmidt commenced his lunar
studies. Appointed assistant at Bonn and Olmütz and director at
Athens successively, he kept up his persistent study of the surface of
the Moon for over forty years. In 1839, when fourteen years of age,
he began the valuable series of observations which were destined to
form the basis of his great chart of the surface of the Moon.
Between 1853 and 1858, when employed at Olmütz, Schmidt made
and calculated no fewer than 4000 micrometrical measures of the
altitudes of lunar mountains. Before 1866 Schmidt had found no
fewer than 278 “rills,” and his discoveries were the means of
augmenting the number of these curious objects to nearly a
thousand.

In a word, it may be said that Schmidt drew out a lunar geography,

and the result of his labours, together with those of Schröter and
Mädler, is that in a sense we now know the features of the Moon
better than those of the Earth. For instance, astronomers see the
whole surface of the Moon spread before their eyes, while
geographers can never have a similar view of the terrestrial features:
we have never seen the poles of the Earth, while the lunar poles are
well known to astronomers. For twenty years after his 71
appointment at Athens, Schmidt worked at fixing the positions
of lunar objects, measuring the heights of mountains and the depths
of craters. An idea of his enthusiasm in constructing his great chart
may be gained from the fact that he made almost a thousand
original sketches.

Mädler’s dogmatic assertion that the Moon was entirely a dead world
was generally believed until Schmidt made observations to the
contrary. From 1837 to 1866 the popular opinion was that our
satellite was an absolutely dead world. Consequently there was little
progress in lunar astronomy during those thirty years. Although
Mädler’s view was much nearer the truth than the opinions of his
predecessors, it was also too positive. His confident assertion, which
was received without hesitation, was never questioned until Schmidt
came upon the scene. To Schmidt the Moon was not entirely dead,
and it was he who brought forward indisputable evidence as to the
existence of changes on its surface. In October 1866 he announced
that the crater Linné had lost all appearance of such, and that it had
become entirely effaced. Lohrmann and Mädler had observed it
under a totally different aspect, as also had Schmidt himself 72
from 1840 to 1843. There was great excitement in the
astronomical world on Schmidt’s announcement, and many
astronomers denied the change, although Schmidt’s observation was
confirmed by Secchi and Webb. The evidence in favour of it
preponderated, and very few observers now consider the Moon’s
surface to be absolutely changeless.

In 1865 Schmidt had begun to arrange his observations on the Moon

into the form of a chart. At first he decided to have a chart of six
feet diameter, divided, like that of Mädler, into four sections. But in
April 1868, on making an estimate of the value of such a chart, he
was dissatisfied, and determined to construct a map of the same
size divided into twenty-five sections instead of four. He began the
work in 1868, and after six years the great map was completed.
After some delay the German Government undertook to issue the
chart at their expense, and it was published in 1879, after fourteen
years of preparation. It contained no fewer than 30,000 objects, and
its completed diameter was six feet three inches—more than double
the size of any previous map of the Moon. Indeed, it was probably
the greatest contribution ever made to lunar astronomy. Schmidt
lived only a few years after the publication of his great chart. 73
He died at Athens, in his fifty-ninth year, February 8, 1884.

Schmidt’s announcement of the change in the appearance of Linné

was followed in 1878 by a statement by Hermann Joseph Klein (born
1842) of Cologne, to the effect that a new crater had been formed
to the north of the well-known lunar crater, Hyginus. The change in
this case, however, is by no means so certain as in that of Linné. It
will be observed that the majority of the students of the Moon were
Germans. In England the study was not taken up until 1864, when a
Lunar Committee of the British Association was appointed. Some
good lunar work was done by the well-known astronomer, Thomas
William Webb (1807-1885), while the study was popularised by
James Nasmyth (1808-1890), the famous engineer, who published,
in 1874, in conjunction with James Carpenter of Greenwich
Observatory, a beautifully-illustrated volume entitled ‘The Moon.’ This
was succeeded, in 1876, by the larger work of Edmund Neison (now
Nevill), Government Astronomer of Natal. About this time several
English astronomers, devoted to the study of the Moon, formed
themselves into the Selenographical Society. After a few years, 74
however, the society came to an end, and the enthusiasts
formed themselves into the lunar section of the British Astronomical
Association, on the foundation of that society in 1890. Chief among
those English selenographers was Thomas Gwyn Elger (1837-1897),
whose observations of the Moon and drawings of the various craters
were of the utmost value. Two years before his death, in 1895, Elger
published his important work, ‘The Moon,’ along with an exhaustive
chart of the visible face of our satellite.

Herschel and Schröter firmly believed in the existence of a lunar

atmosphere, the latter believing that he had actually observed the
Moon’s atmospheric envelope. Early in the nineteenth century it was
soon observed, however, that on the Moon passing over and
occulting stars, these stars disappeared suddenly behind the Moon’s
limb, instead of gradually, as they should have done, had an
atmosphere of any density existed. Accordingly astronomers gave up
believing in a lunar atmosphere. On January 4, 1865, Huggins
observed with his spectroscope the occultation of a small star in
Pisces. There was not the slightest sign of absorption in a lunar
atmosphere; the entire spectrum vanished at once.

Lunar photography was introduced as long ago as 1858 by 75

Lewis Morris Rutherfurd (1816-1892), the well-known
American astronomer; but for years very little was done in this
matter, although Rutherfurd secured fairly good photographs.
Rutherfurd, De la Rue, and the older astronomical photographers
took photographs of the entire Moon, but this plan was abandoned
in favour of what Miss Clerke calls “bit by bit photography.” About
1890 this method was introduced, and has been followed with
success by Maurice Loewy (born 1833), and his assistant, Pusiex, at
the Paris Observatory; by Ladislas Weinek at Prague; by the
astronomers of the Lick Observatory; and by William Henry Pickering
(born 1858), the distinguished astronomer of Harvard, whose
discoveries and investigations have created quite a new interest in
lunar astronomy. These investigations were commenced in 1891 at
Arequipa, on the slope of the Andes, in Peru. An occultation of
Jupiter, witnessed by W. H. Pickering on October 12, 1892, gave
support to the view that a very tenuous lunar atmosphere does
exist. In 1900 he established, near Mandeville, Jamaica, a temporary
astronomical station, where he obtained many excellent
photographs. Totally he secured eighty plates. These appeared, as
the first complete photographic lunar atlas ever published, in 76
his work ‘The Moon’ (1903), in which he sums up all his
observations since 1891, and concludes that “the evidence in favour
of the idea that volcanic activity upon the Moon has not yet ceased
is pretty strong, if not fairly conclusive.”

Pickering points out that the density of the lunar atmosphere is not
greater than one ten-thousandth of that at the Earth’s surface, and,
under these circumstances, water cannot exist above freezing-point,
which of course brings us to the subject of snow. He considers that
snow is observed on the mountain peaks and near the poles of the
Moon, and he believes his conclusion to be verified by observations
on the well-known crater, Linné. He brings forward evidence of the
probable existence on the Moon of organic life, pointing out that the
difference between the conditions of the Earth and the Moon is not
so great as that above and below the ocean on our own planet. He
has collected evidence of the existence of something resembling
vegetation on the Moon “coming up, flourishing, and dying, just as
vegetation springs and withers on the Earth.”

The first successful attempt to measure the heating power of

moonlight was made in 1846 on Mount Vesuvius by Melloni, an
Italian physicist, whose results were confirmed four years later 77
by Zantedeschi, another Italian. The most important work in
this direction was accomplished by the present Earl of Rosse (born in
1840), who in the years 1869-72 believed himself to have measured
the lunar heat; but these conclusions were not altogether confirmed
by the observations of Dr Otto Boeddicker (Lord Rosse’s
astronomer), during the total lunar eclipse of October 4, 1884.
Further investigations on this subject were afterwards made by
Samuel Pierpont Langley (1834-1906), of Alleghany, and by his
assistant, Frank Very.

The motion of the Moon and its perturbations were made the
subject of deep study by the famous Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-
1827), the contemporary of Herschel, and the worthy successor of
Newton. He devoted much attention to the secular acceleration of
the Moon’s mean motion, a problem which had baffled the greatest
mathematicians. After a profound discussion he found, in 1787, that
the average distance of the Earth and Moon from the Sun had been
slowly increasing for several centuries, the result being an increase
in the Moon’s velocity. In the third volume of the ‘Mécanique Céleste’
Laplace worked out the lunar theory in great detail, although he
calculated no lunar tables. After his death the subject was 78
taken up by Charles Theodore Damoiseau (1768-1846), and
the most important advance was made by Giovanni Antonio Amadeo
Plana (1781-1864), the director of the Turin Observatory, who
published in 1832 a very complete lunar theory. The work of Plana
was followed by that of Peter Andreas Hansen (1795-1874), whose
lunar tables were used for the Nautical Almanac, and whom
Professor Simon Newcomb considers to be the greatest master of
celestial mechanics since Laplace. The theory of the Moon’s motion
was worked out in detail by the famous astronomer Charles Eugene
Delaunay (1816-1872), who from 1870 till 1872 occupied the post of
director of the Paris Observatory. Delaunay was about to work out
the lunar tables when, in 1872, he was accidentally drowned by the
capsizing of a pleasure-boat at Cherbourg. The work accomplished in
this direction by Simon Newcomb (born 1835) is of great
importance, particularly in his correction of Hansen’s tables. John
Couch Adams (1819-1892), one of the discoverers of Neptune, while
at work on the lunar theory, had occasion to correct Laplace’s
supposed solution of the acceleration of the lunar motion. On going
over the calculation Adams found that several quantities, omitted by
Laplace as unimportant, showed that the Moon has a minute 79
increase of speed for which the theory of gravitation will not
account,—a conclusion opposed by Plana, Hansen, and
Pontécoulant, but fully confirmed by Delaunay. Delaunay suggested
in 1865 that the minute apparent increase was due to the
retardation of the Earth’s rotation by tidal friction. This brings us to
the subject of celestial evolution, which is discussed in another
chapter.

80
 CHAPTER V.
THE INNER PLANETS.

Much progress has been made during the last hundred years in our
knowledge of the planets. In fact, the study of Mercury only dates
from the commencement of the nineteenth century. Our knowledge
of the vicinity of the Sun is very limited, and Mercury is difficult of
observation. So limited, in fact, is our knowledge of the Sun’s
surroundings, that it is not yet known for certain whether there is a
planet, or planets, between Mercury and the Sun. Perturbations in
the motion of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit led Le Verrier in 1859
to the belief that a planet of about the size of Mercury, or else a
zone of asteroids, existed between Mercury and the Sun. It was,
however, obvious that such a planet could only be seen when in
transit across the Sun’s disc, or during a total eclipse. Meanwhile a
French doctor, Lescarbault, informed Le Verrier that he had seen a
round object in transit over the Sun’s disc. Le Verrier, certain 81
that this was the missing planet, named it “Vulcan,” and
calculated its orbit, assigning it a revolution period of twenty days.
But it was never seen again. Transits of “Vulcan” were fixed for 1877
and 1882, but nothing was seen on these dates. During the total
eclipse of July 29, 1878, two observers—James Watson (1838-1880),
the well-known astronomer, and Lewis Swift (born 1820)—believed
themselves to have discovered two separate planets, and ultimately
claimed two planets each, which were never heard of again. During
the total eclipse of 1883 an active watch for “suspicious objects” was
kept, but with no result. At the eclipses of 1900 and 1901
respectively, photographs were exposed by the American
astronomers, W. H. Pickering and Charles Dillon Perrine (born 1867),
but on none of these plates could any trace of “Vulcan” be found. At
the total eclipse of August 30, 1905, plates were again exposed, but
no announcement has been made of an intra-Mercurial planet; and
the prevalent opinion among astronomers is that no planet
comparable with Mercury in size exists between that planet and the
Sun.

The study of the physical appearance of Mercury was inaugurated by

Schröter, who in 1800 noticed that the southern horn of the 82
crescent presented a blunted appearance, which he attributed
to the existence of a mountain eleven miles in height. From
observations of this mountain he came to the conclusion that the
planet rotated in 24 hours 4 minutes. This was afterwards reduced
by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784-1846) to 24 hours 53 seconds.

After the time of Schröter there was no astronomer who paid much
attention to either Mercury or Venus until the arrival on the scene of
the most persistent planetary observer and one of the foremost
astronomers of the nineteenth century. Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli
was born at Savigliano, in Piedmont, in 1835, and graduated at Turin
in 1854. Called to Milan as assistant in the Brera Observatory in
1860, he became director in 1862, and there for thirty-eight years he
studied astronomy in all its aspects, making a great name for himself
in various branches of the science. In 1900 he retired from the post
of director, and pursues his astronomical researches in his
retirement.

In 1882 Schiaparelli took up the study of Mercury in the clear air of

Milan. Instead of observing the planet through the evening haze, like
Schröter and others, he examined it by day, and was enabled 83
to follow it hourly instead of looking at it for a short period
when near the horizon. At length, after seven years’ observation, he
announced, on December 8, 1889, that Mercury performs only one
rotation during its revolution round the Sun—in fact, that its day and
year coincide. As a consequence, the planet keeps the same face
towards the Sun, one side having everlasting day and the other
perpetual night; but owing to the libratory movement of Mercury—
the result of uniform motion on its axis and irregular motion in its
orbit—the Sun rises and sets on a small zone of the planet’s surface.
Schiaparelli’s observations indicated that Mercury is a much spotted
globe, with a moderately dense atmosphere, and he was enabled to
form a chart of its surface-markings.

Schiaparelli’s conclusions remained until 1896 unconfirmed and yet

not denied, although most astronomers were sceptical on the
subject. In 1896 the subject was taken up by the American
astronomer, Percival Lowell (born 1855), who, in the clear air of
Arizona, confirmed Schiaparelli’s conclusions, fixing 88 days as the
period of rotation. He remarked, however, that no signs of an
atmosphere or clouds were visible to him. The surface of Mercury,
he says, is colourless,—“a geography in black and white.” The
determination of the rotation period by Schiaparelli and Lowell 84
is now generally accepted, and is confirmed by the theory of
tidal friction. It is only right to add that William Frederick Denning
(born 1848) in 1881 suspected a rotation period of 25 hours, but this
remains unconfirmed. In April 1871 the spectrum of Mercury was
examined by Hermann Carl Vogel (born 1842) at Bothkamp. He
suspected traces of an atmosphere similar to ours, but was not
certain. Of more interest are the photometric observations of Zöllner
in 1874. These observations indicated that the surface of Mercury is
rugged and mountainous, and comparable with the Moon,—a
conclusion supported by Lowell’s observations in 1896.

Venus, the nearest planet to the Earth, has been attentively studied
for three centuries, and still comparatively little is known regarding
it. This is due to its remarkable brilliancy, combined with its
proximity to the Sun. The great problem at the beginning of the
nineteenth century was the rotation of the planet. In 1779 the
subject was taken up by Schröter at Lilienthal. Nine years later, from
a faint streak visible on the disc, he concluded that rotation was
performed in 23 hours 28 minutes, and in 1811 this was reduced by
seven minutes; but as Herschel was unable to observe the 85
markings seen by Schröter, many astronomers were inclined to
be sceptical regarding the accuracy of the Lilienthal observers
results. Schröter also observed the southern horn of Venus when in
the crescent form to be blunted, and he ascribed this to the
existence of a great mountain, five or six times the elevation of
Chimborazo; while he observed irregularities along the terminator,
which he considered to be more strongly marked than those on the
Moon. Schröter’s opinion on this point, although rejected by
Herschel, was confirmed by Mädler, Zenger, Ertborn, Denning, and
by the Italian astronomer Francesco Di Vico (1805-1848), director of
the Observatory of the Collegio Romano. In 1839 Di Vico attacked
the problem of the rotation, and his results were confirmatory of
those of Schröter. He estimated that the axis of Venus was inclined
at an angle of 53° to the plane of its orbit. Meanwhile a series of
important observations had been made on Venus by the Scottish
astronomer and theologian, Thomas Dick (1772-1857), who
suggested daylight observations on Venus to solve the problem of
the rotation.

In 1877 the question was attacked by Schiaparelli, who commenced

a series of observations on Venus at Milan in that year. The 86
results of his studies were summed up in 1890 in five papers
contributed to the Milan Academy. He came to the conclusion that
the markings observed by Schröter, Di Vico, and others were not
really permanent, and concentrated his attention on round white
spots, which remained fixed in position. Instead of observing Venus
in the evening, Schiaparelli followed it by day, watching it
continuously on one occasion for eight hours. But the markings
remained fixed. Schiaparelli accordingly concluded that the planet’s
rotation was performed in probably 225 days, equal to the time of
revolution. One face is turned towards the Sun continually, while the
other is perpetually in darkness.

The announcement was so startling that, as Miss Clerke says, “a

clamour of contradiction was immediately raised, and a large amount
of evidence on both sides of the question has since been collected.”
Perrotin at Nice, Tacchini at Rome, Cerulli at Teramo, Mascari at
Catania and Mount Etna, and Lowell in Arizona, all in favourable
climates, confirmed Schiaparelli’s results, as also did a second series
of observations by the Milan astronomer himself in 1895. On the
other hand, Neisten, Trouvelot, Camille Flammarion (born 87
1842), and others, under less favourable climatic conditions,
arrived at a period of 24 hours. Aristarch Bélopolsky (born 1854),
from spectroscopic observations at Pulkowa, by means of Doppler’s
principle, found a period of 12 hours. Lowell, by the same principle,
found, in 1901-03, a period of 225 days, in agreement with
Schiaparelli’s results. This is the last word on the subject.
Schiaparelli’s rotation period, confirmed by the theory of tidal
friction, is generally accepted.

That Venus has an atmosphere was one of the conclusions reached

by Schröter in 1792; and in this at least he was correct, as the
atmosphere of Venus, illuminated by the solar rays, has been seen
extending round the entire disc of the planet. Spectroscopic
observations by Tacchini, Ricco, and Young, during the transits of
1874 and 1882, indicated the existence of water-vapour in the
planet’s atmosphere. Very little has been discovered regarding the
“geography” of Venus. White patches at the supposed “poles” of the
planet were observed in 1813 by Franz von Gruithuisen, and in 1878
by the French astronomer Trouvelot (1827-1895). The secondary
light of Venus, similar to the “old Moon in the new Moon’s arms,”
was repeatedly observed since the time of Schröter by Vogel, 88
Lohse, Zenger, and others. Vogel attributed it to twilight, and
Lamp, a German observer, to electrical processes analogous to our
auroræ. In 1887 a Belgian astronomer, Paul Stroobant, submitted to
a searching examination all the supposed observations of a satellite
of Venus, and was enabled to explain nearly all the supposed
satellites as small stars which happened to lie near the planet’s path
in the sky at the time of observation.

The study of our own planet can hardly be said to belong to the
realm of astronomy. Nevertheless, it is through astronomical
observation that the motion of the North Pole has been discovered.
For many years it has been a problem whether there is a variation of
latitude resulting from the motion of the pole. Euler had declared,
from theoretical investigation, that, were there such a motion, the
period must be 10 months. The question was revived in 1885 by the
observations of Seth Carlo Chandler (born 1846) at Cambridge,
Mass., with his newly-invented instrument, the “almucantar,” which
indicated an appreciable variation of latitude. This was confirmed by
Friedrich Küstner (born 1856), now director of the Observatory at
Bonn. The idea now occurred to Chandler to search through the
older records to discover if there was any trace of the variation 89
of latitude, with the result that he brought out a period of 14
months instead of 10. This aroused much interest, and many
prominent astronomers denied Chandler’s results, which were
announced in 1891. As a well-known astronomer has expressed it,
“Euler’s work had shown what period the motion must have, and any
appearance of another period must be due to some error in the
observations. Chandler replied to the effect that he did not care for
Euler’s mathematics: the observations plainly showed 14 months,
and if Euler said 10, he must have made the mistake. I do not
exaggerate the situation in the least; it was a deadlock: Chandler
and observation against the whole weight of observation and
theory.” It was now shown by Newcomb that Euler had assumed the
Earth to be an absolutely rigid body, while modern investigations
show that it is not so. Chandler’s discovery is now accepted, and
proves that the North Pole is not fixed in position, but has a small
periodic motion, though never twelve yards from its mean position.
That the small resulting variation in the position of the stars has
been noticed at all is a striking illustration of the accuracy of
astronomical observation.

Of all the planets Mars has been most studied during the 90
nineteenth century. Many illustrious astronomers have devoted
years to the study of the red planet, with the result that more is
known of the surface of Mars than of any other celestial body, with
the exception of the Moon. After the time of Herschel, the leading
students of Mars were Beer and Mädler, who carefully studied the
planet from 1828 to 1839. They identified at each opposition the
same dark spots, frequently obscured by mists, and they also made
the most accurate determination of the rotation period, which they
fixed at 24 hours 37 minutes 23 seconds. This estimate was
confirmed in 1862 by Friedrich Kaiser (1808-1872) of Leyden, in
1869 by Richard Anthony Proctor (1837-1888), and in 1892 by
Henricius Gerardus van de Sande Bakhuyzen (born 1838), director of
the Leyden Observatory. In 1862 Lockyer identified the various
markings seen by Beer and Madler in 1830. The other great names
in Martian study prior to 1877 are Angelo Secchi and William Rutter
Dawes (1799-1868), who studied Mars from 1852 to 1865 and
secured a very valuable series of drawings. These drawings were
used by Proctor for the construction of the first reliable map of Mars,
which was published in 1870 in his work, ‘Other Worlds than Ours.’
Proctor gave names to the various Martian features, the 91
reddish-ochre portions of the disc being named continents and
the bluish-green portions seas; and Proctor’s views on Mars found
favour for many years. In 1877, however, Schiaparelli opened a new
era in the study of Mars. In September of that year, during the very
favourable opposition of the planet, Schiaparelli, while executing a
trigonometrical survey of the disc, discovered that the continents
were cut up by numerous long dark streaks, which he called canali.
In 1879, to his surprise, he found that some of the canals had
become double; and he confirmed this in 1881 and at subsequent
oppositions. Meanwhile, as Schiaparelli was the only observer who
had hitherto seen the canals, there was much scepticism as to their
reality. In 1886, however, they were seen at the Nice Observatory by
Henri Perrotin (1845-1904), who also observed their duplication.
Since 1886 they have been observed by many astronomers,
including Camille Flammarion in France, William Frederick Denning
(born 1848) in England, Vincenzo Cerulli (born 1859) in Italy,
Percival Lowell and W. H. Pickering in the United States. In 1892 W.
H. Pickering successfully observed the canals, and discovered at the
junctions of two or more canals round black spots, to which he 92
gave the name of “lakes,” in keeping with the view that the
dark regions of the planet were seas.
In 1894 Percival Lowell erected at Flagstaff, Arizona, an observatory
for the specific purpose of observing Mars and its canals in good and
steady air. He was assisted by W. H. Pickering and by Andrew Ellicott
Douglass (born 1867). During a year’s study Douglass measured the
Martian atmosphere and discovered canals crossing the dark regions
of the planet, finally disproving the idea of their aqueous character.
Lowell recognised all Schiaparelli’s canals, and discovered many
more. He also attentively studied the south polar cap of Mars, which
disappeared entirely on October 12, 1894. Lowell noticed, also, that
as the cap melted the canals became darker, as if water was being
conveyed down; and accordingly he adopted the view put forward
by Schiaparelli, that the canals are waterways lined on either side by
banks of vegetation. His observations were published in the end of
1895 in his work ‘Mars.’ He is of opinion that the reddish-ochre
regions or “continents” are deserts, and the greenish areas marshy
tracts of vegetation. The lakes are named by him “oases,” and, as
Miss Clerke observes, he “does not shrink from the full 93
implication of the term.” He regards the canals as strips of
vegetation fertilised by a small canal, much too small to be seen, an
idea which originated with W. H. Pickering. The canals are believed
by Lowell to be waterways down which the water from the melting
polar cap is conveyed to the various oases. He considers, in fact,
that the canals are constructed by intelligent beings with the express
purpose of fertilising the oases, regarded by him as centres of
population. He remarks that water is scarce on the planet, owing to
its small size, and as a consequence the inhabitants are forced to
utilise every drop. The canal system is the result.

Lowell’s theory has not been cordially received—although it is now

gradually gaining popularity,—and several other hypotheses have
been propounded to explain the canals. Proctor, who died some
years before Lowell’s theory was given to the world, regarded them
as rivers, but this view may now be looked upon as abandoned. It
was suggested that the canals might be cracks in the surface of
Mars or meteors ploughing tracks above it: and Professor John
Martin Schaeberle (born 1853) of the Lick Observatory put forward
the view that the canals were chains of mountains running over the
light and dark regions. None of these theories, however, gained
popularity, and had to give way to a more popular theory, the 94
“illusion” hypothesis, put forward by the Italian astronomer
Cerulli, and supported by Newcomb and Maunder. On the basis of
the illusion theory, Newcomb explains that the “canaliform”
appearance “is not to be regarded as a pure illusion on the one hand
or an exact representation of objects on the other. It grows out of
the spontaneous action of the eye in shaping slight and irregular
combinations of light and shade, too minute to be separately made
out into regular forms.” Experiments were made by Maunder in
1902, and the results pointed to the truth of the theory that the
canals were really illusions. But the studies of Lowell at the
oppositions of 1903 and 1905 have seriously weakened the
hypothesis of Cerulli and Maunder, and strongly confirm the theory
of the artificial origin of the canals. In 1903 Lowell was enabled,
from a study of the development of the canals, to show the
probability of their artificial nature, and his study of the double
canals showed a distinct plan in their distribution. Finally, on May 11,
1905, several photographs of Mars were secured at the Lowell
Observatory, on which the canals appeared, not as dots of light and
shade, as on the illusion theory, but as straight dark lines. This goes
far to prove the reality of the canals,—in spite of the ridicule 95
cast on them and their observers,—and consequently the truth
of the theory of intelligent life in Mars.

Meanwhile the old-fashioned Martian observations have been

continued in less favourable climates than Arizona and Italy by
various astronomers, among them the famous Camille Flammarion,
the American astronomers James Edward Keeler (1857-1900),
Edward Emerson Barnard (born 1857), the English astronomer W. F.
Denning, and others. These conscientious and painstaking observers
have done much for Martian study in increasing the number of
accurate delineations of the Martian surface.
The spectrum of Mars was first examined by Huggins in 1867. He
found distinct traces of water-vapour, and this was confirmed by
Vogel in 1872, and by Maunder some years later. In 1894, however,
William Wallace Campbell (born 1862), the American astronomer,
observing from the Lick Observatory, California, was unable to detect
the slightest difference between the spectra of Mars and the Moon,
indicating that Mars had no appreciable atmosphere; and from this
he deduced that the Martian polar caps could not be composed of
snow and ice, but of frozen carbonic acid gas. In 1895, however,
Vogel confirmed his previous observations, and reaffirmed the 96
presence of water-vapour in the Martian atmosphere.

During the opposition of 1830, Mädler undertook an extensive

search for a Martian satellite, but was unsuccessful. In 1862 the
search was resumed by Heinrich Louis D’Arrest (1822-1875), the
famous German observer, who was also unsuccessful. Accordingly
the red planet was referred to by Tennyson as the “moonless Mars.”
In 1877 the search was taken up by Asaph Hall, the self-made
American astronomer, born at Goshen, Connecticut, in 1829, and
employed from 1862 to 1891 at the Naval Observatory, Washington.
During the famous opposition of August 1877, favoured by the great
26-inch refractor, he succeeded in discovering two very small
satellites of Mars, to which he gave the names of Phobos and
Deimos. He determined the time of revolution of Phobos at 7 hours
39 minutes, and that of Deimos at 30 hours 17 minutes,—Phobos
revolving round Mars more than three times for one rotation of the
planet on its axis. These two satellites are very small, not more than
thirty miles in diameter. After Hall’s successful search, photographs
were exposed at the Paris Observatory for other Martian satellites,
but none was discovered. No further moons have been found
belonging to the red planet, nor is it likely that any further 97
satellites of Mars are in existence.

The discovery of a zone of small planets in the space between Mars

and Jupiter belongs completely to the nineteenth century, although
the existence of a planet in the vacant space was suspected three
centuries ago. In 1772 the subject was taken up by Johann Elert
Bode (1747-1826), afterwards director of the Berlin Observatory,
who investigated a curious numerical relationship, since known as
Bode’s Law, connecting the distances of the planets. If four is added
to each of the numbers—0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, and 192, the
resulting series represents pretty accurately the distances of the
planets from the Sun, thus—4 (Mercury), 7 (Venus), 10 (The Earth),
16 (Mars), 28, 52, (Jupiter), and 100 (Saturn). After the discovery of
Uranus, in 1781, it was found that it filled up the number 196. Bode,
however, saw that the number 28, between Mars and Jupiter, was
vacant, and predicted the discovery of the planet. Aided by Franz
Xavier von Zach (1754-1832), he called a congress of astronomers,
which assembled in 1800 at Schröter’s observatory at Lilienthal,
when, for the purpose of searching for the missing planet, the zodiac
was divided into twenty-four zones, each of which was given 98
to a separate astronomer. One of them was reserved for
Giuseppe Piazzi (1746-1826), director of the Observatory of Palermo.

Born in 1746 at Ponte, in Lombardy, Giuseppe Piazzi, after entering

the Theatine Order of monks, became in 1780 Professor of
Mathematics at Palermo, where an observatory was erected in 1791;
and at that observatory Piazzi worked till his death in 1826. In 1792
he commenced a great star-catalogue, and while making his nightly
observations he discovered, on January 1, 1801—the first night of
the nineteenth century,—what he took to be a tailless comet, but
which proved to be a small planet revolving round the sun in the
vacant space. The discovery was hailed by Bode and Von Zach with
much enthusiasm, and Piazzi named the planet Ceres. The little
planet was, however, soon lost in the rays of the sun before
sufficient observations had been made; but the great
mathematician, Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), came to the rescue,
and pointed out the spot where the planet was to be rediscovered.
In that spot it was found on December 31, 1801, by Von Zach at
Gotha, and on the following evening by Heinrich Olbers (1758-1840)
at Bremen.
On March 28, 1802, while observing Ceres from his house at 99
Bremen, Olbers was struck by the presence of a strange object
near the path of the planet. At first he supposed it to be a variable
star at maximum brilliance, but a few hours showed him that it was
in motion, and was therefore another planet. He named it Pallas,
and propounded the theory that the two “Asteroids”—so named by
Herschel—were fragments of a trans-Martian planet, which, through
some accident, had been shattered to pieces in the remote past.
Olbers urged the necessity of searching for more small planets. His
advice was taken. In 1804 Karl Ludwig Harding (1765-1834),
Schröter’s assistant, discovered Juno, and Olbers himself detected
Vesta, March 29, 1807.

After 1816 the search was relinquished, as no more planets were

discovered. In 1830, however, a German amateur, Karl Ludwig
Hencke (1793-1866), ex-postmaster of Driessen, commenced a
search for new planets, which was rewarded, after fifteen years, by
the discovery of Astræa, December 8, 1845. On July 1, 1847, he
made another discovery, that of Hebe. A few weeks later, John
Russell Hind (1823-1895), the English astronomer, discovered Iris.
Since 1847 not a year has passed without one or more planets being
found, sometimes as many as twenty being discovered in a 100
single year. Some astronomers have made the search for
asteroids their chief business. The principal asteroid discoverers have
been Christian H. F. Peters (1813-1890), Henri Perrotin, Paul Henry
(1848-1905), Prosper Henry (1849-1903), James Watson, Robert
Luther (1822-1900), Johann Palisa (born 1848), and Max Wolf (born
1863).

In 1891 a new impulse was given to asteroid study by the

application of photography by Max Wolf to the discovery of the
minor planets. It occurred to Wolf that the asteroid would be
represented on the plate by a trail, caused by its motion during the
time of exposure; and assisted by Arnold Schwassmann (born 1870),
Luigi Carnera (born 1875), and others, Wolf has discovered over a
hundred asteroids, and he has the whole field of asteroid hunting to
himself. Few minor planets are now discovered by the older method.
In 1901 Wolf invented his new instrument of research, the stereo-
comparator, which, on the principle of the old-fashioned
stereoscope, represents the planetary bodies as suspended in space
far in front of the stars. In this way this ingenious astronomer has
been enabled to discover asteroids at the first glance: year 101
by year fresh discoveries are announced from the Heidelberg
Observatory, until more than five hundred asteroids are now known.

Waning interest in the ever-increasing family of asteroids was

revived in 1898 by the discovery by Karl Gustav Witt (born 1866) of
a small planet, to which he gave the name of Eros, which comes
nearer to the Earth than Mars, and which is of great assistance to
astronomers in the determination of the solar parallax. For some
time prior to 1898 astronomers had considered it a waste of time to
search for new asteroids; but this idea is not now so popular, in view
of the benefit conferred on astronomy by the discovery of Eros.

Of the physical nature of the asteroids astronomers know nothing.

Only the four largest have been measured. For many years it was
supposed that Vesta, the brightest of the asteroids, was also the
largest. The measures of Barnard with the great Lick refractor in
1895, however, showed that Ceres is the largest, with a diameter of
477 miles. Pallas comes next, with a diameter of 304 miles; while
the diameters of Vesta and Juno are respectively 239 and 120 miles.
Barnard saw no traces of atmosphere round any of the 102
asteroids. It should be stated that in 1872 Vogel thought he
could detect an “air-line” in the spectrum of Vesta: he admitted that
the observation required confirmation, but it has not been
corroborated either by himself or any other observer.

103
 CHAPTER VI.
THE OUTER PLANETS.

Jupiter, the greatest planet of the Solar System, has perhaps been
more persistently studied by astronomers than any other. In the
early nineteenth century the prevalent idea was that Jupiter was a
world similar to the Earth, only much larger,—a view held by
Herschel and other famous astronomers, and put forward by
Brewster in ‘More Worlds than One.’ This view prevailed for many
years, although Buffon in 1778, and Kant in 1785, had stated their
belief in the idea that Jupiter was still in a state of great heat—in
fact, that the great planet was a semi-sun. This idea, however, was
long in being adopted by astronomers, and very little attention was
paid to Nasmyth’s expression of the same opinion in 1853. The older
view still held the field—namely, that the belts of Jupiter represented
trade-winds, and that a world similar to the terrestrial lay below the
Jovian clouds. In 1860 George Philip Bond (1826-1865), 104
director of the Harvard Observatory, found from experiments
that Jupiter seemed to give out more light than it received, but he
did not dare to suggest that Jupiter was self-luminous, considering
that the inherent light might result from Jovian auroras.

In 1865 Zöllner showed that the rapid motions of the cloud-belts on

both Jupiter and Saturn indicated a high internal temperature. At the
distance of Jupiter sun-heat is only one twenty-seventh as great as
on the Earth, and would be quite incapable of forming clouds many
times denser than those on the Earth. In 1871 Zöllner drew
attention to the equatorial acceleration of Jupiter, analogous to the
same phenomenon on the Sun. In 1870 these opinions of Zöllner’s
were adopted and supported by Proctor in his ‘Other Worlds than
Ours.’ In his subsequent volumes Proctor did much to popularise the
idea, which is now accepted all over the astronomical world.
During the century many valuable observations on Jupiter were
made by numerous observers, among them Airy, Mädler, Webb,
Schmidt, and others. Much time was devoted to the accurate
determination of the rotation period, which was fixed at 9 hours 55
minutes 36·56 seconds by Denning in observations from 1880 to
1903. No really important discovery was made till 1878, when 105
Niesten at Brussels discovered the “great red spot,” a ruddy
object 25,000 miles long by 7000 broad, attached to a white zone
beneath the southern equatorial belt. This remarkable object has
been observed ever since. In 1879 its colour was brick-red and very
conspicuous, but it soon began to fade, and Riccó’s observation at
Palermo in 1883 was thought to be the last. After some months,
however, it brightened up, and, notwithstanding changes of form
and colour, it is still visible, a permanent feature of the Jovian disc.
In 1879 a group of “faculæ,” similar to those on the Sun, was
observed at Moscow by Theodor Alexandrovitch Brédikhine (1831-
1904), and at Potsdam by Wilhelm Oswald Lohse (born 1845). It
was soon observed that the rotation period, as determined from the
great red spot, was not constant, but continually increasing. A white
spot in the vicinity completed its rotation in 5½ minutes less,
indicating the differences of rotation on Jupiter.

The great red spot has been observed since its discovery by Denning
at Bristol and George Hough (born 1836) at Chicago. Twenty-eight
years of observation have not solved the mystery of its nature. The
researches made on it, in the words of Miss Clerke, “afforded
grounds only for negative conclusions as to its nature. It 106
certainly did not represent the outpourings of a Jovian
volcano; it was in no sense attached to the Jovian soil—if the phrase
have any application to the planet; it was not a mere disclosure of a
glowing mass elsewhere seethed over by rolling vapours.”

In 1870 Arthur Cowper Ranyard (1845-1894), the well-known

English astronomer, began to collect records of unusual phenomena
on the Jovian disc to see if any period regulated their appearance.
He came to the conclusion that, on the whole, there was harmony
between the markings on Jupiter and the eleven-year period on the
Sun. The theory of inherent light in Jupiter, however, has not been
confirmed. The great planet was examined spectroscopically by
Huggins from 1862 to 1864, and by Vogel from 1871 to 1873. The
spectrum showed, in addition to the lines of reflected sunlight, some
lines indicating aqueous vapour, and others which have not been
identified with any terrestrial substance. A photographic study of the
spectrum of Jupiter was made at the Lowell Observatory by Slipher
in 1904, probably the most exhaustive investigation on the subject.
The spectroscope has, however, given little support to the theory of
inherent light, and “we are driven to conclude that native 107
emissions from Jupiter’s visible surface are local and fitful,
not permanent and general.”

Herschel’s idea, that the rotations of the four satellites of Jupiter

were coincident with their revolutions, has on the whole been
confirmed by recent researches, although in the case of the two
near satellites (Io and Europa) W. H. Pickering’s observations in 1893
indicated shorter rotation periods. There is much to learn regarding
the geography of the satellites, although in 1891 Schaeberle and
Campbell at the Lick Observatory observed belts on the surface of
Ganymede, the third satellite analogous to those on Jupiter. Surface-
markings on the satellites have also been seen by Barnard at the
Lick Observatory, and by Douglass at Flagstaff.

Since the time of Galileo no addition had been made to the system
of satellites revolving round Jupiter. Profound surprise was created,
therefore, by the announcement of the discovery of a fifth satellite
by Barnard at the Lick Observatory, on September 9, 1892. The
satellite, one of the faintest of telescopic objects, was discovered
with the great 36-inch telescope, and its existence was soon
confirmed by Andrew Anslie Common (1841-1903), with his great 5-
foot reflector at Ealing, near London. The new satellite was 108
found by Barnard to revolve round Jupiter in 11 hours 57
minutes at a mean distance of 112,000 miles.
Although the existence of other satellites of Jupiter was predicted by
Sir Robert Stawell Ball (born 1840) soon after the discovery of the
fifth, much surprise was created by the announcement, in January
1905, that a sixth satellite had been discovered by Perrine, who, in
the following month, announced the discovery of a seventh. These
discoveries were made by photography, the objects being very faint.
The periods of revolution were found to be 242 days and 200 days
for the sixth and seventh satellites respectively, the mean distances
being 6,968,000 and 6,136,000 miles. It is possible that they may
belong to a zone of asteroidal satellites. In fact, the fifth moon may
belong to a similar zone, so that Jupiter may have two asteroidal
zones; but this is anticipating future discovery.

A particular charm has always attached itself to the study of Saturn,

the ringed planet. The magnificent system of rings has for two and a
half centuries been the object of wonder and admiration in the Solar
System, and accordingly they have been exhaustively studied by
many eminent observers. While observing the two bright rings of
Saturn on June 10, 1838, Galle noticed what Miss Clerke calls 109
“a veil-like extension of the lucid ring across half the dark
space separating it from the planet.” No attention, however, was paid
to Galle’s observation. On November 15, 1850, William Cranch Bond
(1789-1859), of the Harvard Observatory in Massachusetts,
discovered the same phenomenon under its true form—that of a
dusky ring interior to the more brilliant one. A fortnight later, before
the news of Bond’s observation, Dawes made the same discovery
independently at Wateringbury in England. This ring is known as the
dusky or “crape” ring.

The discovery of the dusky ring brought to the front the problem of
the composition of the ring-system. Laplace and Herschel considered
the rings to be solid, but this was denied in 1848 by Edouard Roche
(1820-1880), who believed them to consist of small particles, and in
1851 by G. P. Bond, who asserted that the variations in the
appearance of the system were sufficient to negative the idea of
their solidity; but he suggested that the rings were fluid. In 1857 the
question was taken up by the Scottish physicist, James Clerk-
Maxwell (1831-1879), who proved by mathematical calculation that
the rings could be neither solid nor fluid, but were due to an
aggregation of small particles, so closely crowded together as 110
to present the appearance of a continuous whole. Clerk-
Maxwell’s explanation—which had been suggested by the younger
Cassini in 1715, and by Thomas Wright in 1750—was at once
adopted, and has since been proved by observation. In 1888 Hugo
Seeliger (born 1849), director of the Munich Observatory, showed
from photometric observations the correctness of the satellite-
theory; while Barnard in 1889 witnessed an eclipse of the satellite
Japetus by the dusky ring. The satellite did not disappear, but was
seen with perfect distinctness. The final demonstration of the
meteoric nature of the rings was made by Keeler at the Alleghany
Observatory in 1895, with the aid of the spectroscope. By means of
Doppler’s principle, he found that the inner edge of the ring revolved
in a much shorter time than the outer, proving conclusively that they
could not be solid. This was confirmed by the observations of
Campbell at Mount Hamilton, Henri Deslandres at Meudon, and
Bélopolsky at Pulkowa.

In 1851 a startling theory regarding Saturn’s rings was put forward

by the famous Otto Wilhelm von Struve (1819-1905). Comparing his
measurements on the rings made at Pulkowa in 1850 and 1851 with
those of other astronomers for the past two hundred years, 111
he reached the conclusion that the inner diameter of the ring
was decreasing at the rate of sixty miles a-year, and that the bodies
composing the rings were being drawn closer to the planet.
Accordingly, Struve calculated that only three centuries would be
required to bring about the precipitation of the ring-system on to the
globe of Saturn. In 1881 and 1882 Struve, expecting a further
decrease, made another series of measures, but these did not
confirm his theory, which was accordingly abandoned.

The study of the globe of Saturn has made less progress than that
of the rings. The surface of the planet had been known since before
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