Chapter 2 Automotive Manufacturing Operations 2.1 Overall Automotive Manufacturing 2.1.1 Introduction to Vehicle Assembly Plants Automotive manufacturing has four major divisions: 1) sheet metal stamping, 2) powertrain (PT) manufacturing, 3) interior/exterior component fabrication, and 4) vehicle assembly. The first three divisions provide the parts, components, and subas- semblies to the vehicle assembly plants. Vehicle assembly puts all parts, components, and subassemblies together to create a vehicle as a final product. Therefore, automakers’ vehicle assembly plants are considered a center of the automotive manufacturing A vehicle assembly plant is a huge, complex production system. An assembly plant consists of three main vehicle assembly operations: 1) body frame, 2) body paint, and 3) general assembly (GA). All three operations are located at one site and are connected to each other. Figure 2.1 shows the Hyundai’ first plant [2-I] built in Alabama, US, in 2005. A vehicle assembly plant is a large facility with a typical footprint of two to three million square feet (185,800 to 378,700 m?). The initial investment of a new assembly plant is one to one and a half billion dollars. If operating two work shifts, a plant has three thousand people. Such a plant is capable of producing roughly 1000 vehicles in two 8-hour shifts a day, which is equivalent to 260,000 vehicles a year. The main parts and components, such as sheet metal part stamping, engine, and trans- mission, are often built on site. The part suppliers normally set up specific operation units on the sites of vehicle assembly plants. The body part stamping and power train (PT) manufacturing are normally separate divisions of automakers. A recent trend, however, shows more stamped parts and PT units that are outsourced to suppliers. While other parts, such as wheels, glasses, seats, and electronic components, are typi- cally made by suppliers. 31Chapter 2 Cicnaictas jure 2.1 The top view of a vehicle assembly plant 2.1.2 Flows in Automotive Manufacturing ‘A manufacturing system can be viewed in different ways. A good method is to check and think about the process flows, something moving along in a steady, continuous stream, in manufacturing. In general, there are five main flows in the vehicle manufac- turing environment, though some of them may not be physically visible: 1. Flow of Process (and Work in Process): This flow is most often referred to when talking about manufacturing as it is visible. In most cases, a person can follow parts through an entire manufacturing process, workstation by workstation, which may be the best way to understand the manufacturing operations. For vehicle assembly manufacturing, in addition, the overall flow of process is fixed in terms of path. However, the parts in the process, or work in process, do not necessarily follow the exact same paths when there a buffer or a bank between the assembly lines. 2. Flow of Information: The information in manufacturing can be divided into three categories: 1) control, 2) directive, and 3) information. Control information is the command center for all operations, such as part moves, robot operations, and equipment shutdown. Obviously, control is the brain of manufacturing, The second type is directive, which provides direction for the operations, for example, production schedules. The third category is real-time informative data. They include production status monitoring and quality warning. The operations management and engineering personnel need such information to make decisions. It is interesting that the information may not be visible all the time or not obviously in a flow format. 32Automotive Manufacturing Operations 3. Flow of Incoming Materials and Parts: It can be impressive how the transfer and delivery of incoming materials and parts are executed at a shop floor. The incoming material and part movements and its management are called inbound logistic, which is a supporting function for vehicle assembly manufacturing. The inbound logistic deals with locations, distances, routes of part moves, part container types and sizes, transfer equipment of carts, forklifts, and AGVs (automated guided vehicles). They will be discussed separately. 4, Flow of People and their operations: In vehicle assembly operations, the people are moving in many different ways. A production worker may need to walk back and forth or around a vehicle to complete the assigned work tasks. When a worker is standing still, he or she still moves their arms for the work. Time, safety, and ergonomic studies shall be conducted by corresponding engineers for the movements of production workers. 5. Flow of Engineering Activities: Engineering efforts at the shop floor focus on the problem solving on product quality, production throughput, and new model launch support. Normally, the action flows are clearly defined and followed. A simple example is the Six Sigma problem solving define-measure-analyze- improve-control (DMAIC). 2.1.3 Process Flows of Vehicle Assembly The overall process flow of vehicle manufacturing is illustrated in Figure 2.2. Vehicle assembly (the focus of this book) is the core manufacturing business for automakers. A vehicle assembly plant consists of three main operations (often called shops). They are body weld framing (body shop), body paint (paint shop), and GA (GA shop). Body Body pats Framing [-Y] Paint Figure 2.2 Overall vehicle manufacturing operations. 33Chapter 2 34 In the body shop, hundreds of pieces of metal of various shapes and sizes are assembled via joining processes: welding, gluing, applying rivets, etc. The general structure of the body shop is serial assembly lines with vehicle subassemblies that are fed in at key points. At the end of the body shop, vehicle bodies are completely framed. Then in the paint shop, vehicle bodies go through six main processes: 1) cleaning and phos- phate, 2) electrodeposition coating, 3) sealing, 4) primer coating, 5) color coating, and 6) finally clear coating. Coming out of the paint shop, the painted vehicle bodies continue receiving more components installed in the third main operation, called GA. The GA shop is normally broken down into chassis, trim, and final lines. After the final assembly lines, the last stage of vehicle GA is the various testing at the functions and quality of the built vehicles. 2.2 Vehicle Assembly Operations 2.2.1 Body (Weld) Framing 2.2.11 Overview of Vehicle Body Assembly: Vehicle body framing is the first main operation of the vehicle assembly. The aim of body framing is to precisely join all body parts together. The main manufacturing process in a body shop is welding. Hence, the body framing assembly is called “body weld” by some automakers. The floor of a body shop may be 700,000 to 800,000 ft? (65,000 to 74,300 m’), including material logistics areas of 100,000 ft? (about 9300 m:). Table 2.1 shows an example of the elements of a vehicle body assembly for mass production models, and Figure 2.3 shows a workstation in a body shop [22]. ac PAS eo Element ern) Production operators ‘Weld spots Material handling robots Welding tobots eS Sealing robots Stud welding robots MIG welding robots Robotic vision inspection Robot seventh-axis slides Pedestal sealer Pedestal stud welderAutomotive Manufacturing Operations Figure 2.3 Vehicle body assembly operation (Used with permission from Audi). The incoming materials of a body shop are hundreds of stamped sheet metal parts, panels, and subassemblies. Other materials include consumables like sealants, adhesives, welding wires, and fasters. The output of a body assembly system is vehicle bodies. Then, the vehicle bodies are transferred to the next shop—paint operation. Welding is the main joining process for sheet metal parts. Common welding processes include resistance spot welding, arc welding, and laser welding. Adhesive bonding is another joining process, which has been increasingly applied in the body assembly recently. The various processes of welding, adhesive bonding, and other types of mechanical joining will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. 2.2.1.2. Process Flow of Body Assembly: The process flow of a body shop largely depends on the body architectures. The most common architecture is called unibody, which is the short term of unitized body. In such an architecture, a vehicle body is framed asa single structure unit in design and build. All panels are jointed, contributing to the overall structural integrity of the vehicle body. For the vehicle bodies in the unibody architecture, the main subassemblies are one underbody and two body sides. They are first built individually and then are joined in precise geometry, with roof supporting bows, to form a vehicle body structure. A roof panel subassembly is then added on. At that stage, the framed vehicle body is call body in white (BIW). Then, vehicle closure panels, such as doors, fenders, lift gate or deck lid, and hood, are installed to the framed bodies. The framed bodies with closure panels 35Chapter 2 are called BIW complete, sometimes just BIW. The completed BIWs are sent to the paint operation of a vehicle assembly plant. Figure 2.4 illustrates the overall process flow of a vehicle body assembly with the unibody architecture. Body-side To Paint Lal mew fof om fo dob Figure 2.4 Typical assembly flow of vehicle unibody. The process flow varies with body designs. For example, body sides can be designed as two subassemblies, or body-side outer subassembly and body-side inner subassembly. An assembly process is designed to put them together as complete body sides. Then, they join an underbody to frame a vehicle body, like the process discussed above. The other way is to first frame a vehicle body with body-side inners and underbody. Then, the body-side outer subassemblies are added onto the framed bodies. In this case, the assembly flow can be shown in Figure 2.5. Such two-step framing processes can give the vehicle body better structural integrity and stiffness, which is important for SUVs. The corresponding assembly systems and processes of the two-layer body structure are more complex. Body-side Outer \_[Poarace ‘ Inner L > y v Framing Framing ToPaint lames = Inner =Outer [>| _Root_ [>] Closure F > operation * * _y|Boayside Liner R 1g] Body-side Outer R Figure 2.5 Another assembly flow of vehicle unibody. 36Automotive Manufacturing Operations Ifa vehicle body is designed as another type of architecture, say body on frame, then the corresponding overall process is significantly different. 2.2.2 Paint Operation 2.2.2.1 Overall Painting Flow: The second major operation of vehicle assembly is body painting. A paint shop is 800,000 to 900,000 ft? (74,322 to 83,613 m?). Vehicle bodies travel about four miles (6.44 km) on multiple segments of conveyor systems through the entire paint shop and take 10 to 12 h to complete all paint processes. Paint is a substance that is applied over the surfaces of vehicle bodies. The paint provides a thin coating for decoration and increases the durability, corrosion resistance, and chip prevention over years of usages. In addition to the appearance and color of a vehicle, paint provides protection against corrosion and enhances vehicle performance, such as noise, vibration, and harshness (NVF). To outsiders, the operations in a paint shop seem straightforward, much like a manual paint process for furniture or house. In fact, the operations of vehicle painting are much more complex because of the characteristics of process automation, high speed, quality sensitivity to customers, energy consumption, and environmental concerns. A vehicle paint shop normally consists of six main processes briefly detailed in Table 2.2. For some vehicle models, an addition layer between the base coat and clear coat is added. For such a three-stage painting, sometimes called tri coat, there is another paint process before the clear coat. Moreover, there are several quality inspections and repair processes because of the significant requirements of paint quality to the ultimate customers. Each process in a paint shop has multiple stages, as shown in Figure 2.6. Seared Applying sealant for NVH performance, water leak, and corrosion prevention ‘Applying primer for preventing chipping and delamination Apply specific color(s) coat 37Chapter 2 38 FeerehY >| Clean [>] Phosphate | —>] Rinse 41, Phosphate Ls canon > E-coat >| Rinse > Cure 2. Electro-coat LS sete Lf cas LL atin FL 252 Lo fsestir’ 2 sear Lo} Primer | > cue f-—»/"pecmor! 4. Primer o> Base oat Lfpereron 5. Base coat 19] Clearcoat | cue bo al }[ rumen ~> Ree 6. Clear coat Figure 2.6 Vehicle paint process flow. 2.2.2.2 Main Painting Processes: The first stage in the paint process is phosphate treatment. The vehicle bodies arriving from the body shop need be cleaned to remove stamping compounds, oils, dirt, and other contaminants. The cleaning begins with deluge washing, followed by pressured rinsing and an immersing bath with cleaning agent formulations at a certain temperature. The bodies need to be conditioned in order to allow the optimal result for phosphate coating. The immersion cleaning ensures that all surfaces and sections are thoroughly cleaned. After cleaning, a vehicle body is rinsed using warm water to eliminate the residual cleaner detergent. The phosphate stage is a chemical treatment process to add the required foundation for the paint processes and optimizes paint adhesion and corrosion protection in the event of the paint film being broken. The phosphate coat is a microcrystalline layer formed on the metal surface of a vehicle body. The phosphate actually grows a crystal cover onto the surfaces of the metal and effectively seals them. Sometimes, the phosphate process is called conversion coating because the metal surfaces of a vehicle are converted through chemical reactions and covered by a zinc phosphate inorganic layer. The phos- phate process is also an immersion process because all the surfaces and sections should be phosphate coated, as shown in Figure 2.7. Following the phosphate process, water rinsing is performed again.Automotive Manufacturing Operations Figure 2.7 Vehicle body entering an immersion process (Used with permission from FCA). Electrodeposition coating (E-coat) is the next process, which uses the electrodeposi- tion principle to apply a primer coat layer on top of the phosphate layer. The E-coat application is for performance and economic benefits. Similar to the phosphate process, a vehicle body is fully immersed into an E-coat tank [2-3]. Thus, all the interior and exterior surfaces of the vehicle bodies are covered by the primer coat. After the E-coat application, the bodies are sent through an oven to cure the coating film for optimum durability and become ready for the next paint layer. The heating of curing ovens can be gas-firing or infrared radiation. Figure 2.8 shows a cure oven [2-4]. The curing process is material dependent and may run up to 360 °F (182 °C) for about 30 min After E-coat, the next process is normally sealing. The sealing processes in a paint shop may be designed as double sealing on top of the sealing performed in the body shop. Primarily, the sealing processes in a paint shop are to cover the welds and edges under- neath of vehicle bodies. For example, sealant materials are applied on most of the UB areas for added protection against water leaks and corrosion. The hemmed flanges of all closure panels should be sealed for corrosion prevention, as well. 39Chapter 2 40 Figure 2.8 A cure oven (Courtesy of and copyright by Durr System AG). Then, the vehicle bodies will receive three more layers of coating, that is, primer, base coat, and clear coat. The primer, usually powder based, ensures consistency on the surface of vehicle bodies before being painted. The powder process requires no solvents, has about 95% material transfer efficiency, and better spray quality. Therefore, powder coating is often preferred over liquid primer for primer application. As a foundation, the primer layer often has two colors: one is light gray and the other dark gray or black. The primer color is determined by the top color. A lighter top coat uses the lighter primer. The next phase of the paint process is base (color) coat. The base coat is a highly pigmented color coat that is applied. The base coat is applied to vehicle bodies by robots. The following process is to apply a transparent coating (clear coat) over the base coat to achieve high gloss and depth of image finish. In addition, the clear coat protects the color from outside elements and ultraviolet light damage. The clear coating process is primarily for the vehicle exterior surface and is performed by robots or “bell-” shaped spray heads in paint booths, as shown in Figure 29 [2-5]. For high-end vehicle models, there is often addition paint layer, mica layer, between the base coat and clear coat. More detailed paint processes are discussed in chapter 4. Painting operations in the paint shops can be fully automatic and/or robotic. A typical paint shop uses about 80 robots. On the other hand, quality inspection, sealing opera- tions, corresponding repair, and touch ups are often performed manually. Therefore, the required manpower to operate a paint shop may be more than that of a body shop.Automotive Manufacturing Operations Nae Figure 2.9 Robotic spray in vehicle paint operation (Courtesy of and copyright by Darr System AG). 2.2.3 General Assembly 2.2.3.1 Process Flow of General Assembly: GA is the last major operation for vehicle assembly. Ina GA shop, many components and subassemblies (modules) are installed onto a painted body to complete a vehicle. Accordingly, GA is often subgrouped into trim, chassis, and final segments, as well as final tests and inspections. Each assembly segment may be broken down into several assembly lines because of the quantity of assembly tasks. For example, in Mercedes-Benz Tuscaloosa Assembly Plant, there are six trim lines and four final lines. The typical processes of the four main operations are shown in Figure 2.10, where system buffers are marked with ‘B’. The brief descriptions of the main processes can be found in Table 2.3. In the table, the subareas can be a worksta- tion, but most of them are a subsystem or line. 4Chapter 2 aed Trim Electrical wiring Interior trim Front suspension Body-PT connection/secure Brake Fluid fill Doors on Body fit Wheel alignment Headlamps aim Road test 42 Harness routing, brackets, modules (e.g., antenna), subassemblies (e.g., horn), corresponding tests, etc. Grab handle, cowl trim, sill plates, panel assemblies, NVH pads, audio kit, corresponding tests, etc. Front suspensions, spring over shock modules, hoses, steering pump lines, shafts, wheel alignment, etc. Fuel tank, fuel filler, Fuel tube, cap, wiring harness, etc. Front suspension cradle and engine to body Pedal, wiring, brake lines, tubes/hoses, part brake For brake, power steering, AC, coolant, transmission, windshields, gas, etc. Belt retractors, front seats, rear seats, seat strikers, seat cushion, wiring (for heated ones) Front and rear doors, door strikers to body, electrical connection, door fit adjustment, etc. Inspection and adjustments Inspection and adjustments. Head lamps, tail lamps, plastic grommets, aiming Multiple items on-road performance and customer satisfactionAutomotive Manufacturing Operations Surreal fg) J inerer] Li i “Panton | [8 Nase ET tant | “tama [EP] S| Tm | BP] Him . Fa Rr Fuad By) RESELL ae Hf eas al es . Final Door |__,[Eecical Body Se | fais Hat foe L___ =F LJ Rot || [Wheel |_,fWatorLeal] 1-7 [Headiamp| Other | _,[Shipping|__ To Tea | “Wanmenl—LTes | Ekin" | *petemaned“Watnnoatrsip Test L preety T Test Figure 2.10 Typical vehicle GA process flow. 2.2.5.2 General Assembly Operations: The operations in a GA shop vary in terms of complexity and time. Some operations are simple. For example, various labels are applied, such as air bag warning labels, emission label, fuel label, occupant classification label, and quality test labels. Other operations are more time consuming. For example, body wiring may take 40 to 50 detailed steps to complete. For such operations, the assembly operations are assigned to multiple workstations. The operations in trim assembly lines are the installation of many interior components and parts. They include seats, safety restraints, electric wiring and harnesses, instru- ment panels (I/Ps), radiator, etc. For installing interior components inside vehicle and for installing parts in doors, the first operation of the trim line is called “doors off,” removing the doors from the painted vehicle bodies. There are dedicated lines for door details assembly. Chassis lines are the assembly operations for suspension, axles, engine, transmission, exhaust, brakes, steering, wheels, etc. The chassis lines receive various subassemblies, which can be either provided by outside suppliers as completed modules or transferred from on-site subassembly operations. The picture in Figure 2.11 displays an example of vehicle body and PT system to be integrated together [2-6]. Because of various vehicle options and drive train units, the vehicles need to be placed into the assembly line in the correct sequence. The carriers on a conveyor, such as overhead electrified monorail system, stop at the correct engine display. An assembly operator lowers the carrier and hooks up the engine on the carrier cart on a floor conveyor. An alternative is a PT unit on a floor conveyor, which is lifted to marry the vehicle body at a higher position. 43Chapter 2 44 Figure 2.11 GA example: body and chassis marriage (Used with permission from FCA). In the final assembly lines, all remaining components and modules are installed, including “doors on,” for the entire vehicle. The final stage of a GA shop has various inspections and tests to be performed. Most of them are required for every vehicle. For example, wheel alignment and front highlight aim adjustment are required for all vehicles. The water leak test, taking three to five minutes, is performed on all the vehicles, as well. After the water test, trained inspectors poke and prod all around the inside of the cars and check front light units for possible water leaks. Some automakers do road tests (in a few miles of track) on all of their vehicles before shipping out, while others do with certain samples. An on-road track simulates typical driving conditions, such as various ramps, potholes, railroad ties, waterholes, and steep hill climbs. 2.2.5.5 Characteristics of General Assembly: The assembly operations can be either automatic or manual. For example, front and rear glass installation is typically performed by robots. Other relatively simple operations, such as loading batteries, front seats, and spare tires, can be fully automatic. For a high-volume production and in developed countries, some operations in the vehicle GA shop are robotic, even in “old” plants. For example, Mizushima Assembly Plant in Japan opened in 1943 and began producing automobiles in 1946. The assemblyAutomotive Manufacturing Operations operations in the plant are highly automatic; many components are installed roboti- cally. They include headlamps, I/Ps, shift levers, front and rear struts, tires, quarter window glass, front and rear glass, floor plug, side step seal, VIN tag, spare tire pad, battery, bumpers, and seats. In addition, engine oil, transmission fluid, window washer fluid, power steering fluid, clutch oil, radiator fluid, and brake fluid are filled robotically. Supported by sophisticated sensing and automatic logic, the robots can select from up to ten types and sizes of wheels and tires for installation Compared with the body shop and paint shop discussed, a GA shop has more manual operations. The picture in Figure 2.12 shows workers installing the upper part of the two-section lithium-ion battery pack into an electric vehicle [2-7]. As another instance, front/rear shock module installations, as well as body and chassis marriage, may involve manual operations, as well. Figure 2.12 GA example: Installation of lithium-ion battery pack (Used with permission from Ford). An installation process involves several steps, performed either manually or by robots. For example, an assembly plant receives I/P modules from an outside supplier. When it is moved into its vehicle position, the I/P is positioned centrally on a pin ina vehicle body. Then, the I/P module is bolted in with two fasteners through an A-pillar of the vehicle body per side. The outer nuts are designed to start to turn first. The I/P module turns out toward the A-pillars until it appropriately rests to the sheet metal. Then 45Chapter 2 46 the inner nuts tighten and secure the I/P module in place. All operations should be completed in the station cycle time, which is about 45 to 50 s for mass production. The overall process flow and individual operations of a vehicle final assembly is driven by the vehicle design and composition. A conventional car has a gas engine, transmis- sion, exhaust system, and fuel tank. In contrast, a battery electric vehicle (BEV) has a battery pack, electric motor, gearbox, and on-board charger, as well as power electronics. Accordingly, the final assembly is different in processes related to the PT modules and components. Obviously, the tests in the final assembly are different for the BEVs. 2.3. Automotive Part Manufacturing 2.3.1 Sheet Metal Stamping 2.3.1.1 Overall Stamping Operation: Sheet metal forming provides the parts for vehicle body assembly. Coils and flat blanks of sheet metal are introduced in press shops where the forms of parts for the contours of vehicle are created. It is a common practice that automakers do major part stamping internally and outsource small parts. The basic stamping operations include the following: * cutting, eg, blanking, trimming, and piercing * forming, eg, bending and drawing * coining or surface displacement * piercing holes In the press lines, the operation is fully automatic. The metal parts are transported from die to die for each operational step. At the end of the line, unloading the stamped parts can be done either robotically or manually. In addition, random quality checks may be needed before shipping. High-speed operation is a unique characteristic of stamping. Thus, stamping is operated ina batch mode. After finishing a part witha certain quantity, say 5000 pieces, the press line needs to change dies for another part. Die exchange was historically time consuming, taking several hours; now the exchange is down to the minute level. A famous example of Toyota Production System is called Single-Minute Exchange of Die, invented and advised to Toyota by Shigeo Shingo in the late 1950s. 2.3.1.2. Typical Stamping Processes: The stamping operations start from blanking as the sheet metals are supplied either in coils or as flat sheets. The purpose of blanking is to cut the shape of blanks based on the final part dimensions and subsequent forming facilitation, as shown in Figure 2.13 [2-8].Automotive Manufacturing Operations Figure 2.13 Blank cutting in stamping operations (Courtesy of The FABRICATOR). As vehicle body parts have complex forms and shapes, the stamping processes need multiple stages to form the final shape of parts. There are three types of forming processes, namely, tandem line presses, transfer dies, and progressive die stamping. The tandem line is a sequence of presses (workstations). Each workstation that forms or cuts the sheet metal represents a single operation die. The part transfer between presses is performed by robots, which may allow the parts to be turned over or rotated during transfer. The main advantages of tandem lines include low cost compared with compli- cated dies and capability for more complex part geometries. However, the production rate of tandem press lines is about 15 to 20 pieces/min for large parts, which is slow compared with other stamping process arrangements. For a high-volume production, the parts are automatically transferred from one press to the next, which is sometimes called transfer die stamping. The transfer dies are not only spaced an even distance apart in a single line but also timed together. A unique part of transfer die stamping is its part traveling rails system. During a work cycle, each rail grabs a part and transfers it to the next die. Driven by servomotors, the part transfer function can be programmed to accommodate different parts, press speeds, and stroke lengths. The third type is called progressive die stamping, that is, a multistage forming process. In such a process, the final part shape is formed in sequential operations. In each work- station of a progress die line, additional forming is done. Therefore, it is important that the strip be advanced precisely so that it aligns from one workstation to the next work- station. The feeding system of a progress line pushes a strip of sheet metal (unrolled 47Chapter 2 from a coil). The common processes for a progressive stamping include drawing, trimming, and piercing, The final step is to cut the flange of the part. The trimmed edges of a part are normally within a +1.5-mm tolerance. A progressive press line can produce 30 to 40 parts/min. For mass production vehicle models, the progressive die stamping is the most commonly used because of its high production rate. However, because of the nature of progressive processing, the stamping process is often for small- and mid-sized parts. The following flow chart (Figure 2.14) illustrates an example of the stamping process for a small vehicle body part. 208 sor ae Draw }-+)Re-draw|—>) Trim [> Piercing | —+} Piercing a Flanging Figure 2.14 An example of progress stamping process flow. Conventionally, most body parts are formed at room (or cold) temperature. However, new and high-strength steels are associated with a limited “cold” formability, high processing forces, and pressures, particularly for large, complex sheet metal compo- nents, Recent studies show that using elevated temperatures, that is, heating a work piece before forming for the new steels can improve their formability. Such processes are called “warm” forming or “hot” forming, depending on whether the process tempera- ture is below or above the recrystallization temperature of materials. Obviously, the operating temperatures are material and process dependent. Normally, many experiments are conducted to find the optimal temperature window for a partic ular application. For example, the range observed was 392 °F to 482 °F (200 °C to 250 °C) for aluminum in a study [2-9]. In addition, often multiple options are available. A steel part can be “warm” formed at 1112 °F (600 °C) and “hot” formed at 1652 °F (900 °C). 2.3.1.3 Hydroforming Process: A relatively new vehicle body architecture is called space frame, which uses a tubular structure frame for the load bearing of a vehicle. The space frame architecture is increasingly used for vehicle body structures recently. For the architecture, customized tubes are its cornerstone. With asymmetrical or irregular contours, tubular parts do not lend themselves to conventional stamping. Hydroforming is a special forming process to create frame components from straight or prebent pipes. In this process, a pipe is set in a die and injected with high-pressure water. The pressurized water deforms the walls of the tube, expanding them outward until the tube fills the die cavity, as shown in Figure 2.15 [2-10]. The key in hydroforming is the counter pressure during the process. In fact, the hydro- forming process can be used for sheet metal parts, as well. Though slower, it can make more complicated shapes and thinner gauges than the conventional stamping process. The principle is schematically illustrated in Figure 2.16 [2-11].Automotive Manufacturing Operations Figure 2.15 Process flow of tube hydroforming (Courtesy of America Hydroformers, Inc.). Blank, Blankholder Ring STEP 1 ‘Ameta bank s placed on blantholder ring. _Topof press lowered and fluid chamber pressurized, Lao IP 7 ——— Finished Part STEP 3 STEP 4 Punch pushes upward forming metal bank Top of pres raised, pressure release, and agains pressure chamber punch lowered. The partis now finshed. Figure 2.16 Illustration of a sheet hydroforming process (Courtesy of Jones Metal Products Company). 49Chapter 2 50 All metals that are capable of “cold” forming can be hydroformed, including stainless steels and high strength alloys. For example, a hydroformed aluminum part, hood inner panel, is shown in Figure 2.17 [2-12]. Figure 2.17 A hydroformed sheet panel (Courtesy of Amino North America Corporation). 2.3.2 Powertrain Manufacturing The vehicle PT commonly consists of an engine, transmission, drive shafts, and differ- entials, The suspension and exhaust systems are typically considered a part of the PT. Sometimes the PT is referred to as the engine and transmission systems, as they are the core in terms of importance to vehicle functions and technology advances. The remaining units, excluding engine and transmission, are called drivelines. They are often categorized as a front-wheel, rear-wheel, or four-wheel drive. It is also interesting, to know that PT technology evolution and revolution are a primary focus for vehicle advancements, such as electrical battery, hybrid, and fuel cells. PT manufacturing includes component fabrication and assembly operations. Except for battery manufacturing, the processes of PT manufacturing include die casting, CNC machining, heat treatment, (rigid, smalll part) assembly, and associated testes. The main processes of engines are shown in Figure 2.18. A manual assembly operation is shown in Figure 2.19 [2-13]Automotive Manufacturing Operations Hoh eessue} 4) Heat |) actnng De caig | > Teas 4 rn eo vere veman ttoylonomnrt 4) Hat Ls tinea [9] aneny [>] test > Ase ‘and Parts oe * Prant a a Treatments Figure 2.18 Typical manufacturing process flow of engine. Figure 2.19 A manual assembly operation High-pressure die casting is used for engine cylinder blocks. Aluminum ingots are melted in furnaces. The molten metal is poured into the shot cylinder and fired into the dies, and then the dies are closed at a high pressure. Once casting is complete, the dies open and the cylinder blocks are casted. For cylinder heads, die casting is a low-pressure 51‘Chapter 2 52 process. The molten aluminum is fed into the die using low-pressure air. The dies are used in conjunction with sand core inserts for internal shapes. After the cylinder heads are cooled, the sand cores are removed and the cylinder heads are formed. Then, the casted cylinder heads go to a heat treatment process to harden. The casted blocks and heads then go to various machining processes, such as cutting, milling, drilling, boring, honing, and reaming operations. After machining, the next process is assembly. That is, the machined engine blocks, cylinder heads, as well as other components are assembled. Like other complex products, the assembly process starts at subassemblies or small modules. Such subassemblies are built on site but in separate lines. Some examples are crankshafts and oil pan that are installed into the block and the springs and valves that are built into the cylinder heads. At the final stage, the assem- blies are joined to the complete engines. Similarly, the overall process flow of the transmission is shown in Figure 2.20 with a brief explanation in Table 2.4. The individual parts, such as gears, housing, shafts, as well as other parts, have different machining processes. Some parts, say seal gussets and fasteners, are normally provided by external suppliers. peice a High-pressure die casting Molting aluminum alloy above its molten points (>700 °C) Injection of melted aluminum alloy into a precise mold and quick cooling Cutting of a flow hole after the casting process Gear machining Tooth shaping: rotation of the hob cutter & gear while lifting up the cutter Heat treat for strength, hardness, impact resistance, etc. Grinding for desired tooth surface finish Assembly Final production process to assemble all components and subassemblies Assembly testsAutomotive Manufacturing Operations Gear Heat Gear 7Meers >] cuting_ [| rreatnens| >| Grnang = t Fincaring | | pe vetide was +t] 08 ectining -+|pssery Tose b> hacen {anapers| | Leste | * Plat Moctinng >, >} ring Figure 2.20 Manufacturing process flow of transmission. ‘The manufacturing processes of other PT units and components are also machining, heat treatment, and assembly. These processes and their characteristics are common with those in other industries and are already covered by many technical books. 2.4 Distinctiveness of Automotive Manufacturing 2.4.1 System Perspective on Automotive Manufacturing Systems thinking is an approach to view a subject as part of an overall system, rather than to focus on the specific parts of a system. Systems viewpoint is different from fragmented thinking, which involves thinking about some process details without considering other factors and parts. To better understand the automotive manufacturing, system view is helpful to recognize the manufacturing from different viewpoint angles, such as on the conversion, functionality, and performance. 2.4.1.1 Viewpoint of Conversion: In terms of the conversion, the entire automotive manufacturing system converts raw materials into customer vehicles, as shown in Figure 2.21. At the system level, the aim of a manufacturing system can be defined as the delivery of products (vehicles or assemblies) to its external (or internal, depending on the scope of a system) customers. The products have their desired functions and quality, at minimized resources and costs, and at the right time. In addition to the processes, automotive manufacturing systems integrate many components or subsystems, such as people, procedures, facilities, information, departments, management policies, suppliers, and technologies. All these parts affect the operations and performance of an automotive manufacturing system. In other words, a manufacturing system is larger than just the shop floor or processes. Therefore, the system viewpoint is a much larger picture with multiple factors of the manufacturing systems. 53Chapter 2 54 Inputs: Automotive [eetisese A fos ars) Manufacturing ete System Disturb. Figure 2.21 The system viewpoint on automotive manufacturing. 2.4.1.2 Functional Viewpoint: The manufacturing systems may also be viewed as a network of various well-organized value-added activities and functions to the ultimate customers. Thus, the manufacturing adds a margin of value to both the automaker and its customers. Automotive manufacturing is a complex system because its components are diverse and have intricate relationships with one another. The aggregate behaviors of a manufac- turing system are much more complex than the collective behaviors of its components. In other words, the value added by a system as a whole far exceeds the cumulative contri- bution by all individual elements. Therefore, it is interesting to study the functions of manufacturing systems. For example, an entire corporation is a system from the viewpoint of top executives for running the company and reporting to its shareholders. A vehicle assembly plant is a system where its outputs are vehicles. Figure 2.22 and Figure 2.23 show the compos- ites and organization of a vehicle assembly plant. The elements of an assembly system, including tooling, equipment, facilities, personnel, materials, process, procedures, data, documents, etc, interact with each other.Automotive Manufacturing Operations Workstation Sub-System |__(Production Line) System (Plant) Figure 2.22 The system viewpoint of a manufacturing plant. __ J) Webicle Assembly SS Plant Functional General Department Bay Stop | Paint Shop { ae Area | Maintenance |-| Production } Quality } a Framing Roof Figure 2.23 The typical organization structure of a vehicle assembly plant. 2.4.1.3. Performance Viewpoint: A simple example to view manufacturing with a system perspective may be to evaluate production performance. For vehicle assembly lines, their production speed is fixed. However, production output may be changed by adjusting production time, for example, overtime (OT) working, There are two common L-Chapter 2 56 practices in vehicle assembly manufacturing: 1) to change production time to alter production outputs based on market demand when manufacturing systems running well. 2) to use OT to recover production lost, which may be because of quality issues, machine downtime, etc. By doing so, production output could meet the quantity require- ment but with higher costs. Figure 2.24 shows a comparison between the two situations. 1. aa 14. ———_—— 13. ————_+——-_ Using oT to recover lost 1.2 Relative Unit Cost 4 10 Production output when perfect running 1 70 15 80 85 90 95 10.0 Working Hour Figure 2.24 Output and cost of production OT work. Therefore, manufacturing performance should be better measured considering, associated costs rather than simply the quality of output. The unit cost can be a good performance indicator of manufacturing operations because it considers not only the quality of production output but also the related costs. To understand the financial impact, it is important to study that several cost factors, such as materials, labor, facility, overhead, etc,, have different relationships with the production output and working, time. Then, it can be determined whether the overtime production is economically justifiable for market demand and profit margin. 2.4.1.4 Subsystems of Vehicle Assembly: A vehicle assembly plant is a huge system. It includes many assembly lines and various types of equipment and processes. As a complex system, it has multiple layers, called subsystems. It is a common practice that a system is viewed as a collection of subsystems, while a subsystem consists of subsub- system components. Such system structure can be displayed as a tree-like structure or hierarchy. The vehicle assembly operations flow from the body framing to paint to GA. Each shop has many layers in the hierarchical structure, shown in Figure 2.25.Automotive Manufacturing Operations Figure 2.25 The hierarchy of a vehicle assembly and process flow. From an operation standpoint of line supervisors, an assembly line can be viewed as a system. An assembly line is a subsystem to a large assembly operation or a shop, for the shop managers. Therefore, a system can be large or small, depending on the scope and focal points of operations management, development, and study. Thus, the definition of a manufacturing system is loose, depending on scope and focus. The key to system thinking is its holistic standpoint on all major perspectives rather than a single concentration on particular facets. Vehicle assembly can be viewed as a complex system not only by its size but also by contents. In such systems, subsystems include equipment, tooling, processes, computer systems, ete. refer to Table 2.5. To comprehend the manufacturing as a system, sophisti- cated knowledge is needed on all levels and types of the subsystems. 57Chapter 2 arsed Assembly system layouts Barcode tracking Automatic feed Capital investment Sealing equipment Flexibility style (batch versus | Robot end effectors Torque monitoring random) JPH (gross and net) Spare components Weld guns Number of operators Main transfer systems Welding types Rackdumeveappicatons || Working in automotive manufacturing can involve either development of new systems or operations management of existing systems. They are actually just two major phases in the life of a manufacturing system: development and operation. This book addresses the operations management of automotive manufacturing systems. For the develop- ment of vehicle assembly manufacturing systems, please refer to the book Manufacturing ‘System and Process Development for Vehicle Assembly. 2.4.2 Characteristics of Vehicle Manufacturing 2.4.2.1 Types of Manufacturing Processes: In general, there are four basic types of manufacturing processes: * Job Shop: Rendering a unit or lot production with varying specifications, according to customer needs. * Batch: Producing different products in groups (batches). + Repetitive: Rendering one or a few highly standardized products. * Continuous: Producing highly uniform products. In fact, the volume of production determines the type of process flow. Table 2.6 shows the relationship between the production volume and the types of process. 58Automotive Manufacturing Operations rate ee ncheceeme nae esa Ran Job shop e.g., Auto repair N/A N/A Batch < eg., Commercial NA {bakery sale : Repetitive N/A eg, Vehicle assembly Continuous |. N/A |N/A “eg, Oil refinery On process levels, the production volume plays the determining role on the major char- acteristics of manufacturing, for example, the level of process automation. Table 2.7 provides a descriptive comparison of these characteristics. routine Cost per unit Moderate Very low Equipment ‘Some special ‘Special purpose purpose Fixed costs Moderate High Variable costs Moderate Very low Labor skills Moderate Various Production Moderately Routine scheduling complex Automotive manufacturing runs in a high volume on mass production vehicles for sound economies of scale. The production volume of a vehicle family should be at the annual capacity of at least 200,000 vehicles. In other words, the production rate is about 50 jobs per hour (JPH) or higher, which is equivalent to 100,000 units per produc tion shift annually. The production rate of some popular vehicles can be 80 to 90 JPH. Therefore, the assembly processes of mass production vehicles are the repetitive type. However, high-end luxury cars are often built in a batch mode, while a few special purpose vehicles that are built in the job shop mode. Interestingly, a recent trend for mass production vehicle models is getting lower volume and higher product variety. An illustration is shown in Figure 2.26. For vehicle component production, on the other hand, it is often conducted in a batch mode. For example, the cycle time of stamping is on the second level wl le vehicle body tute level. Accordingly, a body assembly runs in a repetitive mode and the press lines of part stamping may need to change for different parts daily. A family of engine parts is assigned to a machining line based on the group technology. Machine framing is ata 59Chapter 2 60 tools and cutter tools need to switch for different sizes, shapes, and configurations of parts to be fabricated accordingly. Product Variety Continuous Production Volume Figure 2.26 The type and trend of automotive assembly manufacturing. 2.4.2.2 Discussion of Vehicle Manufacturing Processes: In addition, vehicle assembly operations appear unique. Their inputs, outputs, types of process, product variety, and automation levels are listed in Table 2.8, where the levels of operation automation and product variety are relative. Because of its decent repres ntation of automotive manufac- turing, the vehicle body framing assembly is often selected for detailed discussions in this book. Pye Reeecinieneme cuenta net Coils and Forming blanks Parts Welding Paint Body-in-white | Painted | Painting Moderate/ bodies high Components | Materials Units Various Moderate/ | High — high Pt Materials Machining | Moderate/ Moderate high Ga Subassemblies Installation | Low/ Moderate moderateAutomotive Manufacturing Operations As discussed in chapter 1, the workforce needed for vehicle assembly is a key factor for manufacturing cost and market competition. In an assembly plant, the GA manual operations are the main contributor to manpower consumption, in terms of HPV. The HPV levels of vehicle assembly operations for high volume vehicle models are also listed in the table. In addition to the main assembly processes, there are some common processes or func tions, such as material handling and quality inspections, shared in all manufacturing operations. These processes will be discussed in later chapters. There are three basic types of manufacturing system layouts: 1) fixed-position, 2) product-oriented, and 3) process-oriented. Other types of layouts include cellular, warehouse, and retail/service layouts. Automotive assembly processes are repetitive because of the large volume of production and low variety of products. Under the product-oriented layout, all pieces of equipment and assembly operations, as well as part logistics, are arranged based on product architecture, functionality, and specifications. Therefore, the system layouts for vehicle assembly manufacturing in body shops and GA shops are in the form of a product-oriented layout. For example, glass installation is assigned to dedicated workstations in a particular assembly line. With the product-oriented layout, assembly work is divided into smaller tasks. All tasks are assigned to workstations, which have balanced workloads for smooth and efficient line operations. The product-oriented layout limits manufacturing flexibility for adding product variety and volume changes. It is difficult to change the processes and equipment once they are in place. To have better manufacturing flexibility, the processes and equipment settings must be of certain levels of flexibility in the product-oriented layout design, which will be discussed in Manufacturing System and Process Development for Vehicle Assembly. Interestingly, the layout of paint shops is based on specific functional processes, such as phosphate, E-coat, sealing, primary coat, base coat, and clear coat. In the paint operation, the framed vehicle bodies go through the painting processes without assembling additional parts. Therefore, the paint shops in vehicle assembly plants are in a process- oriented layout, which is based on the process being performed at each line and workstation. In process-oriented layout design, equipment can be highly utilized and process may have high flexibility. Itcan be challenging to understand the manufacturing operations in an over one-billion- dollar factory with four thousands of people and output of a quarter million vehicles. This chapter concisely introduces such automotive manufacturing on its flows, overall operations, characteristics, and from system viewpoints. The remaining chapters will review and discuss the detailed processes, operations management, quality manage- ment, and operational continuous improvements. 61Chapter 2 62 2.5 Exercises 2.5.1 Review Questions 1 YP PNR Ae wD 10. Te 12. 13, 4. Describe the overall operation flow in a vehicle assembly plant. Describe the process flow in a body assembly shop. Review the main processes in a body weld shop. Describe the process flow in a vehicle paint shop. Review the main processes in a paint shop. Describe the process flow in a GA shop. Describe the main processes in sheet metal stamping. Describe the main processes in power-train manufacturing. ‘Compare the processes between vehicle assembly and powertrain manufacturing. Discuss automotive manufacturing in a system perspective. Define the organization layers in a vehicle assembly system (plant). Explain a basic concept of manufacturing output optimization. Discuss the characteristics of vehicle assembly as a repetitive process. Review the characteristics of automotive manufacturing operations. 2.5.2 Research Topics i 2: 3. 4. 5, 2.6 24, 22 Comparison of the vehicle assembly process flows of two automakers. . One of the current technical challengers to vehicle assembly operations. . Batch mode, instead of repetitive mode, of vehicle assembly manufacturing. . Characteristics of vehicle assembly manufacturing. New developments since BIW Assembly Manufacturing —Today and Tomorrow was written in 2003. Applications of systems engineering in automotive manufacturing improvements. Current demands, say on electrical vehicles, in the automotive market and their impacts on manufacturing, Characteristics of a manufacturing process of a low-volume vehicle model. References Google Maps. Available from: http://maps google.com. Accessed March 2016. https://www.audi-mediacenter.com/en/. Ponticel, P. “DCX Research Advances Shop Safety, Paint Processes,” Automotive Engineering International. 115(2): 57. 2007.24, 25, 27. 28, 29. 2410. 2:12. 2.13, Automotive Manufacturing Operations Diirr. “Ecopaint Oven—Modular Drying Systems for Hardening and Protection,” Available from: http://www.durr-japan.com/products/paint-systems-products. Accessed April 2015. Diirr, Available from: http://www.durr-news.com/fileadmin/_processed_/csm_ Roboter_erhoeht_BS_kleiner_433c335848 jpg. Accessed April 2015. 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