Module 2- Indian Literature, Culture, Tradition, and

Practices
The script is a written symbolization of speech. Throughout the ages, the evolution of writing from
the image of pictograms and then later on inscriptional images were inspired by calligraphic
strokes.
Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.

List of Ancient Indian Scripts

Some of the most momentous developments in Indian epigraphy took place in the 1830s. A list
of Ancient Indian Scripts is discussed in brief below:

Brahmi Script
Brahmi is the originator of most of the present Indian scripts, including Devanagari, Bengali,
Tamil, and Malayalam, etc. It developed into two broad types in Northern and Southern India, in
the Northern one is more angular and the Southern one being more circular. It was
deciphered in 1838 by James Prinsep. The best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-
cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to 250–232 BCE.
Many scholars support that Brahmi probably derives from Aramaic influence and others
support that the Brahmi language can have some Indus script influence.
The Brahmi script confirms to the syllabic writing system and was used more for writing
Prakrit, the language spoken by ordinary people initially and later Sanskrit also was written
in this script.
According to the epigraphers- All Indian scripts are derived from Brahmi. There are two main
families of scripts:
1. 1. Devanagari, which is the basis of the languages of northern and western India: Hindi,
Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, Dogri, Panjabi, etc.
2. Dravidian which shows the formats of Grantha and Vatteluttu.
Kharosthi Script
It is the sister script and contemporary of Brahmi. It was written from right to left. It was used in
the Gandhara culture of North-Western India and is sometimes also called the Gandhari Script.
Its inscriptions have been found in the form of Buddhist Texts from present day Afghanistan and
Pakistan.
Gupta Script
It is also known as the Late Brahmi script. It was used for writing Sanskrit in the Gupta period. It
gave rise to the Nagari, Sarada and Siddhamatrika scripts which in turn gave rise to the most
important scripts of India such as Devanagari, Bengali etc.
Nagari Script
It was an Eastern variant of the Gupta script. It is an early form of the Devanagari script. It branched
off into many other scripts such as Devanagari. It was used to write both Prakrit and Sanskrit.
It is the main script at present to write standard Hindi and Nepali. It is also used presently to write
Sanskrit and is one of the most used writing systems in the world. It is composed of Deva meaning,
God and Nagari meaning city, which meant that it, was both religious and urbane or
sophisticated.
It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within
squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line that runs along the top of full letters. In
a cursory look, the Devanagari script appears different from other Indic scripts such
as Bangla, Oriya or Gurmukhi, but a closer examination reveals they are very similar except for
angles and structural emphasis.

Sarada Script
The Sarada or Sharada script of the Brahmic family of scripts, developed around the 8th century.
It was used for writing Sanskrit and Kashmiri. Originally more widespread, its use became later
restricted to Kashmir, and it is now rarely used except by the Kashmiri Pandit community for
ceremonial purposes. Sarada is another name for Saraswati, the goddess of learning.

Siddhamatrika script (Kutila)

This script was prominent in eastern India in 6th century AD leading to subsequent evolution of
Gaudi script. This Eastern Nagari script or Bengali-Assamese script defines the unified usage
of Bengali script and Assamese script thought minor variations within. Its usage is associated with
the two main languages Bengali and Assamese.
Western India

Landa script
The Laṇḍa scripts, meaning “without a tail”, is a Punjabi word used to refer to scripts in North
India. Landa is a script that evolved from the Sarada script during the 10th century. It was used to
write Punjabi, Hindi, Sindhi, Saraiki, Balochi, Kashmiri, Pashto and various Punjabi dialects.

Gurmukhi script
Gurmukhi is an alphabetic developed from the Landa scripts and was standardized during the 16th
century by Guru Angad, the second guru of Sikhism. The whole of the Guru Granth Sahib is
written in this script, and it is the script most commonly used by Sikhs and Hindus for writing
the Punjabi language.

Modi script
Modi is a script used to write the Marathi language, which is the primary language spoken in the
state of Maharashtra in western India. Modi was an official script used to write Marathi until the
20th century when the Balbodh style of the Devanagari script was promoted as the standard
writing system for Marathi. Although Modi was primarily used to write Marathi.

Gujarati script
The Gujarati script, which like all Nagari writing system is a type of alphabet, is used to write
the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. It is a variant of Devanagari script differentiated by the loss of
the characteristic horizontal line running above the letters and by a small number of
modifications in the remaining characters. The Gujarati script is also often used to
write Sanskrit and Hindi.
South India

Grantha Script
It is one of the earliest Southern scripts to originate from Brahmi. It branched off into Tamil and
Malayalam scripts, which are still used to write those languages.
It is also the predecessor of the Sinhala script used in Sri Lanka. A variant of Grantha called
Pallava was taken by Indian merchants in Indonesia, where it led to the development of many
South-East Asian scripts. It was used in Tamil Nadu to write the Sanskrit Granthas and hence, was
named Grantha.
The Grantha script was widely-used between the sixth century and the 20th centuries by
Tamil speakers in South India, particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, to write Sanskrit, and is still
in restricted use in traditional Vedic schools. It is a Brahmic script, having evolved from
the Brahmi script in Tamil Nadu. The Malayalam script is a direct descendant of Grantha.

Vatteluttu Script
It was a script derived from the Brahmi and was used in the Southern part of India. It was used to
write Tamil and Malayalam. It removed those signs from Brahmi, which were not needed for
writing the Southern languages. Presently, both Tamil and Malayalam have moved on to their own
Grantha derived scripts. Vatteluttu is one of the three main alphabet systems developed
by Tamil people to write the Proto-Tamil language, alongside the ancient Granthi or Pallava
alphabet and the Tamil script.

Kadamba Script
It is a descendant of Brahmi and marks the birth of the dedicated Kannada script. It led to the
development of modern Kannada and Telugu scripts. It was used to write Sanskrit, Konkani,
Kannada and Marathi. The Kadamba script was developed during the reign of the Kadamba
dynasty in the 4th-6th centuries. The Kadamba script is also known as Pre-Old-Kannada script.
This script later became popular in what is today the state of Goa and was used to write Sanskrit,
Kannada, Konkani and Marathi.
Tamil Script
It is the script used to write the Tamil language in India and Sri Lanka. It evolved from Grantha,
the Southern form of Brahmi. It is a syllabic language and not alphabetic. It is written from left
to right.

Kannada script
Kannada script is widely used for writing Sanskrit texts in Karnataka. Several minor languages,
such as Tulu, Konkani, Kodava, Sanketi and Beary, also use alphabets based on the Kannada
script. The Kannada and Telugu scripts share high mutual intellegibility with each other, and
are often considered to be regional variants of single script.

Telugu script
The Brahmi script used by Mauryan kings eventually reached the Krishna River delta and would
give rise to the Bhattiprolu script found on an urn purported to contain Lord Buddha’s relics. The
Bhattiprolu Brahmi script evolved into the Telugu script by 5th century C.E.

Malayalam script
The Malayalam script, also known as Kairali script is a Brahmic script used commonly to
write Malayalam, which is the principal language of Kerala, India. Malayalam script is also widely
used for writing Sanskrit texts in Kerala.
Malayalam was first written in the Vatteluttu alphabet, an ancient script of Tamil.
However, the modern Malayalam script evolved from the Grantha alphabet, which was originally
used to write Sanskrit. Both Vatteluttu and Grantha evolved from the Brahmi script, but
independently.
Medieval and Modern scripts

Urdu script
The Urdu alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Urdu language. It is a modification of
the Persian alphabet, which is itself a derivative of the Arabic alphabet.
The standard Urdu script is a modified version of the Perso-Arabic script and has its origins in
13th century Iran. It is closely related to the development of the Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic
script.
Urdu script in its extended form is known as Shahmukhi script and is used for writing
other Indo-Aryan languages of North Indian subcontinent like Punjabi and Saraiki as well.

Santali script
Santali is a language in the Munda subfamily of Austroasiatic languages, related
to Ho and Mundari. Till the nineteenth century Santali remained an oral language.
A recent development has been the creation of a separate Ol Chiki script for Santali by Pt.
Raghunath Murmu in the 1970s which is used exclusively by the Santali speaking people of the
Singhbhum Jharkhand and Odisha.

Harappan Script (Indus Script)

After the pictographic and petroglyph representations of early man the first evidence of a writing
system can be seen in the Indus valley civilization. The earliest evidence of which is found on the
pottery and pot shreds of Rahman Dheri and these potter’s marks, engraved or painted, are
strikingly similar to those appearing in the Mature Indus symbol system.
Later the writing system can be seen on the seals and sealings of Harappan period. Most
inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short (5 symbols), making it difficult to judge
whether or not these symbols constituted a script used to record a language, or even symbolize a
writing system.
The long inscriptions are found in Gujarat particularly Dholavira where we find slabs of
stone inscribed with inscriptions which might represent name plates of the houses with 24 to 34
symbols.
The characters are largely pictorial but include many abstract signs. The inscriptions
are thought to have been written mostly from right-to-left (because there are several instances of
the symbols being compressed on the left side, as if the writer is running out of space at the end of
the row there), but they sometimes follow a boustrophedonic (sarphalekhana) style. The number
of principal signs is about 400. Since that is considered too large a number for each character to
be a phonogram, the script is generally believed to instead be logo-syllabic.

The Vedas
The Vedas, meaning “knowledge,” is the oldest texts of Hinduism.
There are four types of Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. One of the
best sources of Ancient Indian History is Vedic literature. Vedas have formed the Indian
scripture. The ideas and practices of Vedic religion are codified by the Vedas and they also
form the basis of classical Hinduism.
The Vedas are structured in four different collections containing hymns, poems, prayers, and
religious instruction.
Four Vedas Name and Features
The four Vedas and their features, in brief, are given in the table below:

Types of Vedas

Name of the Veda Key Features of the Veda

Rig Veda It is the earliest form of Veda

Samaveda The earliest reference for singing

Yajurveda It is also called the book of prayers

Atharvaveda The book of magic and charms

Vedas in Detail
Rigveda:
The oldest Veda is the Rigveda. It has 1028 hymns called ‘Suktas’ and is a collection of 10
books called ‘Mandalas.’ The features of Rigveda are given in the table below:

Features of Rigveda

It is the oldest form of Veda and oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text(1800 – 1100 BCE)

The meaning of the word ‘Rigveda’ is Praise Knowledge

It has 10600 verses

 Out of 10 books or mandalas, book number 1 and 10 are the youngest ones as they were written later
than books 2 to 9

Rigvedic books 2-9 deal with cosmology and deities

Rigvedic books 1 and 10 deal with philosophical questions and also talk about various virtues including
a charity in the society

Rigvedic books 2-7 are the oldest and shortest also called family books

Rigvedic books 1 & 10 are the youngest and longest

1028 hymns deal with deities including Agni, Indra and are attributed and dedicated to a sage rishi

The ninth Rigvedic book/mandala is solely dedicated to Soma

The meters used to form hymns are Gayatri, Anushtubh, Trishtubh and Jagati (Trishtubh and Gayatri
are most important)

Samaveda:
Known as the Veda of melodies and chants, Samaveda dates back to 1200-800 BCE. This Veda
is related to public worship. The key features of Samaveda are given in the table below:

Features of Samaveda

There are 1549 verses (except 75 verses, all have been taken from Rigveda)
 There are two Upanishads embedded in Samaveda – Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad

The Samaveda is considered as the root of the Indian classical music and dance

It is considered as the storehouse of the melodious chants

Though it has lesser verses than Rigveda, however, its texts are larger

There are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda – Kauthuma, Raṇayaniya and Jaimaniya

Samaveda is categorised into two parts – Part-I includes melodies called Gana & Part-II includes three
verses book called Archika.

Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical score sheet that must be heard

Yajurveda:
Stands to mean ‘Worship Knowledge’, Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE; corresponding
with Samaveda. It compiles ritual-offering mantras/chants. These chants were offered by the priest
alongside a person who used to perform a ritual (in most cases yajna fire.) The key features of
Yajurveda are given below:

Features of Yajurveda

It has two types – Krishna (Black/Dark) & Shukla (White/Bright)

Krishna Yajurveda has an un-arranged, unclear, motley collection of verses

Shukla Yajurveda has arranged and clear verses

 The oldest layer of Yajurveda has 1875 verses mostly taken up from Rigveda

The middle layer of the Veda has Satapatha Brahmana which is a commentary of Shukla Yajurveda

The youngest layer of Yajurveda consists of various Upanishads – Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Isha
Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the
Maitri Upanishad

Vajasaneyi Samhita is the Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda

There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – Taittiriya saṃhita, Maitrayani saṃhita,
Kaṭha saṃhita, and Kapisthala saṃhita

Atharvaveda:
Stands to mean a tatpurusha compound of Atharvan, an ancient sage, and knowledge
(atharvan+knowledge), it dates back to 1000-800 BCE. The key features of Atharvaveda are given
the table below:

Features of Atharvaveda

The daily procedures of life are very well enumerated in this Veda

It has 730 hymns/suktas, 6000 mantras, and 20 books

Paippalada and the Saunakiya are two surviving recensions of Atharvaveda

Called a Veda of magical formulas, it includes three primary Upanishads – Mundaka Upanishad, the
Mandukya Upanishad, and the Prashna Upanishad

The 20 books are arranged by the length of hymns they contain

Unlike Samaveda where hymns are borrowed from Rigveda, hymns of Atharvaveda are unique except a
few

This Veda contains hymns many of which were charms and magic spells which are meant to be
pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his
or her behalf

Upanishad
• The Upaniads are ancient Indian literature that were written orally in Sanskrit
between 700 BCE and 300 BCE.
• There are thirteen main Upaniads, several of which are thought to have been written by
different writers and are written in a variety of styles.
• The Upaniads were written in a ritual context as part of a larger group of texts known as
the Vedas, but they mark the beginning of a reasoned inquiry into a number of perennial
philosophical questions concerning the nature of being, the nature of the self, the
foundation of life, what happens to the self at the time of death, the good life, and ways of
interacting with others.
• As a result, the Upaniads are sometimes regarded as the cradle of India's later rich and
diversified intellectual heritage.
• The Upaniads contain some of the earliest discussions about key philosophical terms
like atman (the self), brahman (ultimate reality), karma, and yoga, as well as sasra
(worldly existence), moksha (enlightenment), purua (person), and prakti (nature), all
of which would remain central to the philosophical vocabulary of later traditions.
• The oldest is the Rig Veda, from which the Sama Veda and Yajur Veda draw directly,
while the Atharva Veda takes a different path.
• However, all four have the same vision, and the Upanishads for each of them address the
topics and concepts conveyed.
• The principal 13 Upanishads, which related to the vedas are as follows:
o Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
o Chandogya Upanishad
o Taittiriya Upanishad
o Aitareya Upanishad
o Kausitaki Upanishad
o Kena Upanishad
o Katha Upanishad
o Isha Upanishad
o Svetasvatara Upanishad
 o Mundaka Upanishad
o Prashna Upanishad
o Maitri Upanishad
o Mandukya Upanishad

Difference between Vedas and Upanishads is explained here in detail.

The Vedas are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic
Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of
Hinduism.
The Upanishads are late Vedic Sanskrit texts of religious teachings and ideas still revered in
Hinduism. The Upanishads played an important role in the development of spiritual ideas in
ancient India, marking a transition from Vedic ritualism to new ideas and institutions
The major differences between Vedas and Upanishads are:

Vedas Upanishads

Vedas were composed over a time period The Upanishads were written over a time period
ranging from 1200 to 400 B.C.E ranging from 700 to 400 B.C.E

Vedas focused on ritualistic details, uses and Upanishads focused on Spiritual enlightenment.
traditions.

Vedas means knowledge in Sanskrit. It is known Upanishad is derived from the words upa (near) and
as “Apauruseya” meaning not of man. shad (to sit). It is derived from the concept of sitting
near the feet of the teacher.

There are 4 different Vedas – Rigveda, More than 200 Upanishads have been discovered.
Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda. Each Upanishad is associated with a certain Veda.
There are 13 Upanishads which are most well
known or most important – Katha, Kena, Isa,
Mundaka, Prasna, Taittiriya, Chhandogya,
Brihadaranyaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki,
Svetasvatara and Maitrayani.
 All the 4 Vedas are compositions of different Upanishads are in the last section of any Vedas.
texts. Upanishads are a subcategory of a Veda.

Vedas are subclassified into 4 major text types – Upanishads is one among the 4 major text types of
Samhitas (Mantras), Aranyakas (Texts on rituals, Vedas. Upanishads are texts on spiritual knowledge
sacrifices, ceremonies), Brahmanas (it gives and philosophy. Upanishads originated from each
explanation of sacred knowledge, it also branch of Vedas. Upanishads deals with the
expounds scientific knowledge of Vedic Period) philosophical aspects of life
and the 4th type of text is Upanishads. The 3
types of texts dealt with ritualistic aspects of life.

The Ramayana
The word Ramayana literally means the journey of Rama. It is a story of the triumph of good over
evil that is shown through the victory of Rama who defeated the demon Ravana who had abducted
his wife. Rama is perceived as the ideal man in Hindu culture. He is portrayed as loyal, dutiful,
righteous, courageous, wise, strong, and even handsome.
Rama was born as the eldest of the sons of the King of the Kosala Kingdom. However, due to
turmoil in family relationships, he was exiled for fourteen years. As a dutiful son, he willingly
went on exile with his wife, Sita, and his younger brother, Lakshmana. During the exile, Sita was
abducted by Ravana, the demon king of Lanka (present-day Sri Lanka). In his search for Sita,
Rama befriended Hanuman, a monkey-human god, who was a great help to the prince.
Finally, they were able to defeat Ravana through a fierce battle and save Sita. However, this was
not the end of the story as Sita had to prove her chastity by walking through fire before Rama was
willing to take her back. Fortunately, with the help of the gods, she was able to do so and remained
unharmed.

The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is essentially the story of the rivalry between two bands of brothers in the
Hastinapura Kingdom, which culminates in a great battle.
The Pandavas are the five sons of Pandu, the rightful king of the Hastinapura Kingdom. His eldest
two sons were Yudhistira and Arjuna. On the other hand, the Kauravas are the one hundred sons
of Dhritarashtra, who is Pandu's blind elder brother. The eldest of the Kauravas is Duryodhana,
who is the main antagonist in the story. Duryodhana lives against dharma (moral order) and is
portrayed as greedy, jealous, and evil.
In the story, Duryodhana invited the Pandavas to a game of dice where the Yudhistira staked
everything and lost. Consequently, the Pandavas then had to go on exile for a total of thirteen
years, during which they prepared themselves for war. At the end of their exile, the Pandavas and
the Kauravas gathered their allies and went to war against each other.
 Puranas
The different works known by the name of Puranas are evidently derived from the same religious
systems as the Ramayana and MahaBharatha are from the mythological stage of Hindu belief.

It appears that the Purana works are of evidently of different ages and they have been complied
under different circumstances their precise nature can be imperfectly conjectured from internals
evidence and from the history of religious in India.

The Puranas unanimously offer a definition that it should consists of Five Characters
(Pancalakshna) they are:

1. Sarga : Primary creation or cosmogony;

2. Pratisarga : Secondary Creation or the Destruction and renovation of worlds, including

chronology;

3. Vamsa : genealogy of gods and patriarchs;

4. Manvatara : Reigns of Manus or periods called Manvataras;

5. Vamsanucharitam: History or such particulars as have been preserved of the princes of the Solar
and Lunar races and of their descendents to modern times. The Theogony and cosmogony of the
Puranas may probably be traced to the Vedas.

The Puranas are of two kinds –Viz Maha Puranas and Upa Puranas. The MahaPuranas, which are
in eighteen in number, are generally considered to be main and more authoritative than the latter.
The same in number are the UpaPuranas or Subsidiary Puranas.

In the enumeration of eighteen Mahapuranas, there are only two or three variations. The Devi
Bhagavatha state them as follows:

1. Markendeya Purana

2. Matsya purana

3. Bhagavatha Purana

4. Bhavisya Purana

5. Brahmanda Purana

6. Brahma Purana

7. Brahma Vivarta Purana

8. Vishuna Purana

9. Varaha Purana

10. Vamana Purana

11. Vaayu Purana

12. Agni Purana

13. Narada Purana

14. Padma Purana

15. Linga Purana

16. Garuda Purana

17. Kurma Purana

18. Skanda Purana

The Kurma Purana omits Agni Purana and substitutes the Vayu Purana. The Vayu Purana omits
the Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana and inserts the Vayu Purana and Narsimha Purana.

The Devi Bhagavata Purana lists out the Upa Puranas in the order

• Sanatkumara

• Narasimha

• Naradiya

• Siva

• Durvasa

• Kapila

• Manava

• Ausasana

• Varuna
• Kalika

• Samba

• Nandi

• Saura

• Parasara

• Aditya

• Maheswara

• Bhagavata

• Vasistha

Generally the Bhagavata mentioned in the Mahapurana in considered as genuine Mahapurana as

it is include in the ‘Sattivik’ class of Puranas known as Vaisnavite.
Buddhist And Jain Literature in

Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrit And Sanskrit,

• The first Buddhist works were written in Pali, the language spoken in Magadha and South
Bihar.
• It is said that Lord Buddha delivered his sermons in Pali, and they have been recorded
in the same language.
• The use of common language (Pali) to explain the doctrines aided in the spread of the
religion as well. This was due to the Brahmanical religion's use of Sanskrit, which was not
the language of the masses.
• Buddhist works are classified as either canonical or non-canonical.
• 'Triptikas,' or baskets, make up the Canonical literature (of knowledge). The three are:
o Vinaya Pitaka - It contains the rules and regulations that Buddhist monks must
follow.
o Sutta Pitaka – It contains the Buddha's dialogues and speeches on morality and
righteous dharma.
o Abhidhamma Pitaka - It focuses on philosophy and metaphysics. It also includes
discussions on various topics such as ethics, knowledge theory, and psychology.
• The Jatakas are the best example of non-canonical Buddhist literature. These are a
collection of stories from Buddha's previous incarnations.
• These Jatakas also discuss the stories of the Bodhisattva or the (future) Buddha.
• Despite the fact that these stories promote Buddhist religious doctrines, they are available
in Sanskrit and Pali. Each story about the Buddha's birth corresponds to a Jataka tale.
• Before being born as Gautama, Buddha was said to have had 550 births.
 • These stories combine folklore, ancient mythology, and socio-political conditions in North
India between 600 BC and 200 BC.
• Another example of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit is Aswaghosha's great
epic Buddhacharita (78 A.D.).

The Arthashastra by Kautilya

• Kautilya (also Chanakya) was the chief adviser of Chandragupta Maurya. The Arthasastra
by Kautilya is another important source which throws a good deal of light on the Mauryan
period. As Kautilya (or Chanakya), was directly concerned with the Mauryan government,
his book gives a very valuable information regarding the political condition of India during
the Mauryan period arid the Mauryan administration.

• Arthashastra is a unique book on the subject of politics and art of government in the
literature of ancient India. This book is a huge work and has fifteen parts, each dealing with
some aspects of the art of government.

• The Chanakya Niti of Kautilya is still very popular and some of the principles of Chanakya
Niti are still practiced by some top corporate houses.

1. About the King and his Ideals

According to Kautilya the king should be all powerful and there should be no checks on his powers.
But he should consult his ministers and respect the Brahmans. A king must be a highly educated
and a cultured person, should have full control over his senses. He should save himself from his
enemies, which are lust, anger, greed, vanity, haughtiness and love of pleasure. Service of the
people should be the chief ideal of the king.

Another ideal before the king should be to save his people from external invasions and internal
revolts. He should maintain a powerful army and a full treasury. He should be cunning as a fox,
clever as a crow and brave as a lion.

2. About the King’s Ministers

A king should appoint ministers both for assistance and consultation. It is difficult to run the
government single-handed as single wheel cannot run a cart. These ministers should be men of
high character and should be loyal, wise and brave. The king should consult his ministers, but he
should not be a puppet in their hands, rather he should use his own judgment. The ministers should
have team spirit and they should maintain perfect secrecy. Their meeting should be held at such a
place where even the birds should have no access. A state’ which cannot keep its secrets cannot
last long.

3. About the Provincial Administration

From Kautilya we come to know that the Mauryan Empire was divided into many provinces, each
province was further divided into many districts and each district had many villages in it. Each
province was under the charge of a governor who generally belonged to the royal family.
4. About the Administration of Towns

The administration of the capital and other big towns of the Mauryan Empire were carried on in a
very systematic way. Pataliputra, the capital of Chandragupta Maurya, was divided in four zones.
Each zone was put in the control of a “Sthanik” who was assisted in the discharge of his duties by
a large number of junior officers.

5. About the Espionage System

Kautilya lays a great emphasis on the espionage system. He is in favour of keeping a large number
of spies by the king, because they are very necessary for the stability and progress of the state. The
king could keep his hand on the pulse of the nation only if he knew what was going on in his
empire. These spies could also help him in keeping a strict watch over the activities of the state
officials. The king should keen spies in his neighboring countries too, because by doing this he
can save his country from foreign attacks. According to Kautilya, women can prove better spies
than men.

6. About Shipping

Another important information that we get from Kautilya’s Arthashastra is about Indian shipping.
At each port a special officer was appointed whose main job was to control the movements of the
ships and boats and to charge taxes from the merchants, travelers and fishermen. Generally all the
ships and ferries belonged to the Government and shipping formed one of the chief sources of
income of the Government.

7. About the Economic Condition of the People

Kautilya enjoins his king to improve the economic condition of his people because poverty is the
chief cause of restlessness and rebellious spirit among them. So, whenever the king sees the signs
of poverty he should at once take steps to root it out.

In this way we find that Kautilya’s Arthashastra not only corroborates the information received
from Megasthenes’s ‘Indika’ but it also gives other useful information of great value.

Dravidian Literature
Dravidian Literature contains works in four major Dravidian languages: Tamil, Kannada, Telugu,
and Malayalam. Tamil is thought to be the oldest of these four languages, and it is said to be very close
to Sanskrit, particularly in terms of grammar and word borrowing. The classical works, or Sangam
literature, are the most well-known in Tamil.

Tamil (Sangam) Literature

• 'Sangam' means a fraternity, and this literature was extremely popular among the general
public.
 • This literature is a collection of works that includes approximately 2381 poems attributed
to 473 poets, as well as a corpus of literature written by 102 poets who remain anonymous.
• Men and women from various social classes were among the poets.
• The literary tradition was so popular that the period between 300 BC and 300 AD, when
the majority of these were composed and compiled, is commonly referred to as the Sangam
period.
• There are two major schools of Sangam literature:
o Aham/agam – It is the 'inner field,' which focuses on the abstract discussion of
human aspects such as love, sexual relations, and so on.
o Puram – It is the 'outer field,' which discusses human experiences such as social
life, ethics, valor, and customs, among other things.
• This literature is known as 'Sangam' because the kingdom of Pandya organized
assemblies to which poets, bards, and writers from all over South India would flock.
• These gatherings were known as 'Sangamas,' and the literature produced during these
gatherings was known as Sangam literature.
• Over a 600-700-year period, three Sangams were organized.

Place of
Sangam Kingdom Chairman Books
Organisation

First or Head Pandya Madurai Agastya or Shiva There is no surviving book. Grammar was Agattiyam.

Tolkappiyam was composed of approximately 2,000

Second or Initially, Agastya was in
poems. Tolkappiyam is a Tamil grammar textbook that
Middle charge, and then his
Pandya Kapatapuram explains the inflection and syntax of words and
Sangam disciple Tolkappiyar
sentences as well as the classification of habitats,
period took over.
animals, plants, and humans.

The majority of the existing Sangam literature corpus

Third Pandya Madurai Nakkirar
was written.

• It is also worth noting that in the extant Sangam literature, approximately 30,000 lines of poetry
have been arranged in eight anthologies known as Ettuttokoi. It was further divided into:
o Patinenkil Kanakku (eighteen lower collections) is the older and more historically
significant group, and Pattupattu(the ten songs).
• Thiruvallurar, a well-known and revered Tamil saint contributed the 'Kural' to Sangam
literature.
• Avvaiyar is another well-known female saint who contributed to Sangam literature.
• The Tolkappiyam was written to elaborate on the finer points of Tamil grammar and poetry.
• Like the twin Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, Tamil has two major texts written in
the sixth century AD, namely Silappadikaram (story of an anklet) written by Ilango Adigal.
• Manimekalai (the story of Manimekalai) is the second text written by Sattanar.
• These texts are about Tamil society and the economic and political changes that were taking place
at the time.
• The final turning point occurred during the early medieval period when Vaishnava Bhakti
sentiments began to pervade Tamil literature.
• Texts written between the seventh and twelfth centuries were primarily devotional.
 • Several texts were written in Tamil-speaking regions by the twelve Alvars or saint poets who
were immersed in God's devotion.
o Andal, a woman, was one of the Alvar saints.
• The Nayanars, or those who sang Shaivism's praise, were another important Bhakti group.
• Aside from these, two major poets were known as Periya Puranam and Kambaramayanam were
well-known in secular Tamil writing.

Other Relevant Links

Buddhist Literature Indian Literature

Hindu Literature in Ancient India Pali and Prakrit literature

Vedic literature Jain Literature

Sikh Literature Medieval Literature

Modern Literature secularism in india

Malayalam Literature

Malayalam Literature
• This language is most commonly spoken in Kerala and its surrounding areas.
• Although linguists argue that the language originated in the 11th century, it developed a corpus of
literature rich enough to be called an independent language within a span of four hundred years.
• Kokasandisan and Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra, are two major Malayalam
works from the medieval period.
• Ramacharitam, an epic poem written by Cheeraman in the 13th century, is another significant
literary work in Malayalam.
• Ezhuthachan, a staunch supporter of the Bhakti movement, is regarded as the father of
Malayalam literature.

Telugu Literature
Telugu Literature
• Linguists believe Nannaya (11th century) was the first Telugu poet.
• Several great works have been written in Telugu, but they reached their pinnacle during
the Vijayanagara period, also known as the golden age of Telugu literature.
• Nachana Somanatha, a well-known court poet of King Bukka I, composed one of the most
successful works during this period, titled Uttaraharivamsam.
• Not only were court poets producing exceptional literature, but kings such
as Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529) were also producing exceptional poetry
titled Amuktamalyada.
• During Krishnadevaraya's reign, his court was attended by eight learned literary figures. They
were known as ashtadiggajas.
• Some of them, in particular, deserve special attention:

Poet Work
Allasani Peddana (also known as Andhra • Manucharitam
Kavita pitamaha)

• Parijathapaharanam
Nandi Thimmana

• Panduranga Mahatmayam
Tenali Ramakrishna

• Vasucharitram
Ramaraja Bhushanudu (also known as • Narasabhupaliyam
Bhattumurti) • Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam

• Rajashekharacharitra (about the love and war of the King

Madayyagari Mallana Rajasekhara of the kingdom of Avanti)

• Ramabhyudayam
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu • Akalakathasara

Kannada Literature
Kannada Literature
• The first foray into Kannada literature was made by Jain scholars.
• The best example of a Jain-influenced text is Madhava's Dharmanathapurana, a biography of
the fifteenth Tirthankara.
• Several other scholars, including Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe about the Jain teachings
of the time.
• Kavirajamarga, written by Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I in the tenth century, is one of the
earliest recorded Kannada texts. He was also a Rashtrakuta king of great power.
• There were many great scholars in Kannada, but the 'ratnatraya' or 'three gems' were
unparalleled. The ratnatraya was made up of three poets named - Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna.
• Pampa, also known as the "Father of Kannada," wrote two of his most famous
works, Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya, in the tenth century.
• Pampa, known for his mastery of the rasa used in poetic compositions, was assigned to the court
of Chalukya Arikesari.
• The second gem, Ponna, wrote a well-known treatise called Shanti Purana, and the third
gem, Ranna, wrote Ajitanatha Purano. These two poets were attached to Rashtrakuta king
Krishna III's court.
• Although Kannada became a full-fledged language by the tenth century, the growth of Kannada
literature has been closely linked to the Vijayanagara empire's patronage.
• Sarvajna, who wrote tripadi, was given the title of people's poet.
• Even more remarkable is Honnamma, the first poetess of some renown in Kannada who
wrote Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife).
• Other major works in Kannada literature include:

Poet/Author Texts
• Harishchandra Kavya
Harishvara • Somanatha Charita
 • Harivamshabhyudaya
Bandhuvarma • Jiva Sambodhana

• Jagannathavijaya
Rudra Bhata

• Madana Vijaya or Kabbigara Kava

Andayya
(First pure Kannada text which did not have any Sanskrit word)
Kesirja • Shabdamanidarpana (Grammar book)

• Suktisudharnava
Mallikarjuna

• Tarave Ramayana
Narahari
(The first story on Rama was inspired by the Valmiki Ramayana and written entirely in Kannada.)
Lakshamisha • Jaimini Bharata

Northern Indian Languages & Literature

We have already seen how languages evolved in India right upto the early medieval period. The
old apabhramsha had taken new forms in some areas or was in the process of evolving into other
forms. These languages were evolving at two levels: the spoken and the written language. The old
Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change. The alphabets during Ashoka’s
period were uneven in size but by the time of Harsha, the letters had become of the same size and
were regular, presenting the picture of a cultivated hand. The studies have indicated that all the
scripts of present northern Indian languages, except that of Urdu, have had their origin in old
Brahmi. A long and slow process had given them this shape. If we compare the scripts of Gujarati,
Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily understand this change. As for the spoken word, there are over
200 languages or dialects spoken in India at present. Some are widely used while others are limited
to a particular area. Out of all these, only twenty-two have found their way into our Constitution.
A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha, and Avadhi
(spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila), and Rajasthani
and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant or dialect of Hindi. This
classification has been made on the basis of literature produced by great poets over a length of
time. Thus, the language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of Braj Bhasha; that
used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called Avadhi and the one used by Vidyapati has
been termed as Maithili. But Hindi, as we know it today is the one called Khadi Boli. Though
Khusrau has used Khadi Boli in his compositions in the thirteenth century its extensive use in
literature began only in the nineteenth century. It even shows some influence of Urdu.
Persian And Urdu

Urdu emerged as an independent langauge towards the end of the 4th century AD. Arabic and
Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and the Mongols. Persian remained
the court langage for many centuries. Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between
Hindi and Persian. After the conquest of Delhi (1192), the Turkish people settled in this region.
Urdu was born out of the interaction of these settlers and soldiers in the barracks with the common
people. Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formal language when
the authors started using Persian script. It was further given an impetus by its use in Bahamani
states of Ahmadnagar, Golkunda, Bijapur and Berar. Here it was even called dakshini or daccani
(southern). As time passed, it became popular with the masses of Delhi
Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote accounts of later
Mughals in Urdu. Gradually it achieved a status where literature-both poetry and prose-started
being composed in it. The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar wrote poetry in it. Some of
his couplets have become quite well known in the Hindi and Urdu speaking areas. Urdu was given
its pride of place by a large number of poets who have left inimitable poetry for posterity. The
earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau (1253-1325). He started writing as a poet in the reign
of Sultan Balban and was a follower of Nizam ud -din Auliya. He is said to have composed ninty-
nine works on separate themes and numerous verses of poetry. Among the important works
composed by him are Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-din-Khalji. Among
other well-known poets are Ghalib, Zauq, and Iqbal. Iqbal’s Urdu poetry is available in his
collection called Bang- i - dara. His Sarejahan se achcha Hindostan hamara is sung and played at
many of the national celebrations in India. No army parade is considered complete without the
army band playing this tune. In big Indian cities like Delhi these are many programmes in which
famous singers are invited to sing nazams or Ghazals written by famous poets like Ghalib, Maum,
Bulley Shah, Waris Shah besides many others. So you can imagine how rich our language and
literary culture must have been to continue till today. It has enriched our lives and is central to
people meeting and intermingling with each other. Among the best prose writers were people like
Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar, who wrote the famous Fasanah- i-Azad. Even in the early days, Munshi
Prem Chand, who is supposed to be a doyen of Hindi literature, wrote in Urdu. Urdu has given us
a new form of poem that is called a nazm. Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who
held symposiums in this language. Slowly it became quite popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu as
the state language

Development of Literature during the Mughal Period

There was a tremendous development in the field of literature during the Mughal times. Babar
and Humauan were lovers of literature. Baber was himself a great scholar of Persian. He wrote a
book known as Tuzek-e-Babari which is highly esteemed by the Turkish Literature. Humayun got
the treatise translated into Arabic. He too was a lover of learning and had establihsed a big Library.
Humayun Nama, tops the books written in his times. Akbar was very fond of leaning. ‘Akbar
Nama’, Sur Sagar, Ram Charitamanas are prominent among the books written during his time.
Malik Muhammad Jayasis Padmavat and Keshav’s Ram Chandrika were also written during the
same period. Jahangir greatly patronized literature. Many scholars adorned his court. He too was
a scholar of a high caliber and wrote his life story. During Shah Jahan’s time there was a well
known scholar named Abdul Hameed Lahori. He wrote Badshah Nama. The literary activities
suffered during Aurangzeb’s time.

As Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature produced in this period was written
in Persian. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote superb poetry in Persian. Historians like
Minhas-us-Siraj and Zia Barani and Ibn Batuta who came to India during those days wrote
accounts of rulers, important political events and incidents in this language. In the medieval period,
Persian was adopted as the court language. Several historical accounts, administrative manuals
and allied literature in this language have come down to us. The mughal rulers were great patrons
of leaning and literature. Babar wrote his tuzuk (autobiography) in Turkish language, but his
grandson Akbar got it translated into Persian. Akbar patronized many scholars. He got
Mahabharata translated into Persian. Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian
and is a unique piece of literature. It is said that Noorjahan was an accomplished Persian poetess.
Quite a fair amount of Persian literature has been produced by the courtiers of the Mughals. Abul
Fazl’s Akbarnamah and Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature. From there we get a good deal
of information about Akbar and his times. Faizi wrote beautiful Persian poetry. Several collections
of letters of the Mughal period (insha) have come down to us. Besides shedding light on Mughal
history, they indicate different styles of letter writing. Another name in prose and history writing
is that of Chandra Bhan, a writer of Shahjahan’s days. Similarly, we have a work named Tabqat -
i-Alamgïri, shedding light on Aurangzeb. Badauni was another writer who belonged during
Akbar’s time. In the twentieth century, Iqbal wrote good Persian poetry. All this has now become
a part of Indian heritage and culture.

These was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,
Marathi and Gujarati during this time. In the South, Malayalam emerged as an independent
language in the 14th century The emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of
Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through which the administrative machinery
functioned. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these regional langages by the various
saints helped in their growth and development. We have already noted the various dialects that
developed in northern and western India. Prithviraj Raso is supposed to be the first book in the
Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation several other
rasos were written. The language went on changing as the area where it was used expanded. New
words to express new situations were either coined or taken from areas coming under its influence.
Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance and Bharata’s Natyashastra was kept in
mind by Hindi writers. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there started a movement in
southern India that was called the Bhakti movement. As its influence reached the north, it started
affecting the prose and poetry that were being composed in Hindi. Poetry now became largely
devotional in nature. Some of the poets like Tuisidas wrote poetry in a language which was of that
region only, while others like Kabir, who moved from place to place added Persian and Urdu words
as well. Though it is said that Tuisidas wrote Ramcharit Manas based on Valmiki’s Ramayana, he
also alters situations and adds quite a few new scenes and situations based on folklore. For
example, Sita’s exile is mentioned in Valmiki’s version but it is not mentioned in Tulsidas’s
account. Tuisidas has deified his hero while the hero of Valmiki is a human being. Hindi evolved
during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. and the 14th C. It was
characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the Adi Kala (early period). It was
patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and poetry. The most famous figures from
this period were Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent
and a variety of literature was produced in Sanskrit. Similarly, Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in which
he talks of Krishna as an infant, a young lad indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in
dalliance with the gopis. These poets made a deep impression on the minds of the listeners. If the
festivals associated with Rama and Krishna have become so very popular, the credit goes to these
poets. Their versions became the source of inspiration not only for other poets but also for painters
in the medieval ages. They inspired Mirabai, who sang in Rajasthani language, and Raskhan, who,
though a Muslim, sang in praise of Krishna. Nandadasa was an important Bhakti poet. Rahim and
Bhushan were a class apart. Their subject was not devotion, but spiritual. Bihari wrote his Satsai
in the seventeenth century; it gives us a glimpse of shringar(love) and other rasas. All the above
mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed their sentiments essentially to satisfy their own
devotional instincts. Kabir did not believe in institutionalised religion. He was a devotee of a
formless God. Chanting His name was the be-all and end-all for him. All these poets influenced
the north Indian society in a manner that had never happened earlier. As it is easier to remember
poetry than prose, they became immensely popular. During the last 150 years, many writers have
contributed to the development of modern India literature, written in a number of regional
languages as well as in English. One of the greatest Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became
the first Indian to win the Nobel Prize for literature (Geetanjali) in 1913. However, it is only with
the beginning of nineteenth century that-Hindi prose came into its own. Bharatendu Harishchandra
was one of the earliest to produce dramas in Hindi which were basically translations of texts written
in Sanskrit and other languages. But he set the trend. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author
who wrote translations or made adaptations from Sanskrit. Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l 838 -94) wrote
novels originally in Bangla. They came to be translated into Hindi and became very popular. Vande
Mataram, our national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to
Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujarati and a scholar of Sanskrit, he advocated Hindi as a common
language for the whole of India. He started writing in Hindi and contributed articles to journals essentially
engaged in religious and social reforms. SatyarthaPrakash was his most important work in Hindi. Among
other names who have enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who switched over from
Urdu to Hindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned the orthodoxies
in society. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight issues related to women. Maithili
Sharan Gupt is another important name. Jaishankar Prasad wro te beautiful dramas.

Hindi Language Makes Progress in Modern Period

Hindi Language: The development of modern language started at the end of the 18th century.
The main writers of this period were Sadasukh Lal and Enshallah Khan. Bhartendu Harishchandra
also strengthened Hindi language. Similarly Raja Lakshman Singh translated Shakuntala into
Hindi. Hindi continued to develop in adverse circumstances as the office work was done in Urdu.

Hindi Literature: Bhartendu Harish Chandra, Mahavira Prasad Dwivedi, Ramchandra Shukla
and Shyam Sunder Das were the main among the prose writers of Hind i literature. Jai Shanker
Prasad, Maithalisharan Gupta, Sumitranandan Pant, Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Mahadevi
Verma, Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ and Haribans Rai ‘Bacchan’ made great contribution to the
development of Hindi poetry. Similarly Prem Chand, Vrindavan lal Verma and Ellachandra Joshi
wrote novels and enriched Hindi literature. If we look at the above writers, we find that they all
wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand wrote in order to reform the Hindu society and rid it of
false beliefs and social evils. Munshi Prem Chand tried to draw the attention of the society to the
miserable existence of the poor and Mahadevi Verma recipient of Padma Vibhushan, the second
highest civilian award highlighted the conditions of women in the society. ‘Nirala’ became the
pioneer of awakening of Modern India.