1

Physics of Ultrasound
J. Anthony Seibert

Imaging systems using ultrasound have attained a large contraction of the crystal surface by an external power
presence as point-of-care (PoC) devices across many source introduces energy into the medium as a series of
clinical domains over the past 10 years. The success compressions and rarefactions, traveling as a wave front
of ultrasound for this purpose is attributed to several in the direction of travel, known as a longitudinal wave,
characteristics, including the low cost and portability as shown in Fig. 1.1.
of ultrasound devices, the nonionizing nature of ultra-
sound waves, and the ability to produce real-time Wavelength, Frequency, Speed
images of the acoustic properties of the tissues and tis- The wavelength (λ) is the distance between any two
sue structures in the body to deliver timely patient care, repeating points on the wave (a cycle), typically mea-
among many positive attributes. An understanding of sured in millimeters (mm). The frequency (f) is the num-
the basic physics of ultrasound, in addition to hands-on ber of times the wave repeats per second (s), also defined
training, practice, and development of experience are of in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s. Frequency identi-
great importance in its effective and safe use. This chap- fies the category of sound: less than 15 Hz is infrasound,
ter describes the characteristics, properties, and produc- 15 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20 kHz) is audible sound, and
tion of ultrasound; interaction with tissues, acquisition, above 20 kHz is ultrasound. Medical ultrasound typi-
processing, and display of the ultrasound image; the cally uses frequencies in the million cycles/s megahertz
instrumentation; achievable measurements, including (MHz) range, from 1 to 15 MHz, with some specialized
blood velocity; and safety issues. ultrasound applications beyond 50 MHz. The period is
the time duration of one wave cycle and is equal to 1/f.
The speed of sound, c, is the distance traveled per unit
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND time through a medium and is equal to the wavelength
Sound is mechanical energy that propagates through a (distance) divided by the period (time). As frequency is
continuous, elastic medium by the compression (high inversely equal to the period, the product of wavelength
pressure) and rarefaction (low pressure) of particles and frequency is equal to the speed of sound, c = λf. The
that comprise it. Compression is caused by a mechani- speed of sound varies substantially for different mate-
cal inward deformation by an external force, such as an rials, based on compressibility, stiffness, and density
expanding and contracting transducer crystal composed characteristics of the medium. For instance, air is highly
of multiple elements in contact with the medium. During compressible and of low density, with a relatively low
transducer surface expansion, an increase in the local speed of sound; bone is stiff and dense, with a relatively
pressure at contact occurs. Contraction of the crystal very high speed of sound; and soft tissues have com-
follows, causing a decrease in pressure. The mechanical pressibility and density characteristics with intermedi-
energy imparted at the surface is transferred to adjacent ate speeds, as listed in Table 1.1. Of importance are the
particles of the medium, which travels at the speed of average speeds for “soft tissue” (1540 m/s), fatty tissue
sound through the medium. Continuous expansion and (1450 m/s), and air (330 m/s). To relate time with depth

2
 CHAPTER 1 Physics of Ultrasound 3

Contraction
Expansion Compression Wavelength, λ
(mm)

Pressure amplitude
1 cycle
Transducer Rarefaction
Fig. 1.1 Mechanical energy is generated from an expanding and contracting crystal in contact with a medium,
introducing high-pressure (compression) and low-pressure (rarefaction) variations of the constituent particles
that transfer the energy to adjacent particles as a longitudinal wave.

TABLE 1.1 Density, Speed of Sound, In a homogeneous medium, ultrasound frequency

and Acoustic Impedance for Tissues and and speed of sound are constant. When higher ultra-
Materials Relevant to Medical Ultrasound sound frequency is selected, the wavelength becomes
shorter, giving better detail and spatial resolution along
Material Density (kg/m3) c (m/s) Z (rayls)*
the direction of propagation. For instance, in soft tis-
Air 1.2 330 3.96 × 102 sue with a speed of 1540 m/s, a 5-MHz frequency has a
Lung 300 600 1.80 × 103 wavelength in tissue of λ = c / f ; 1540 m/s ÷ 5,000,000/s =
Fat 924 1450 1.34 × 106 0.00031 m = 0.31 mm. A 10-MHz frequency has a wave-
Water 1000 1480 1.48 × 106 length = 0.15 mm (Fig. 1.2). Although higher frequen-
“Soft tissue” 1050 1540 1.62 × 106 cies provide better resolution, they are also more readily
Kidney 1041 1565 1.63 × 106 attenuated, and depth penetration can be inadequate for
Blood 1058 1560 1.65 × 106 certain examinations, such as for the heart and abdomen.
Liver 1061 1555 1.65 × 106 Intensity
Muscle 1068 1600 1.71 × 106
The amount of ultrasound energy imparted to the
Skull bone 1912 4080 7.8 × 106 medium is dependent on the pressure amplitude vari-
PZT 7500 4000 3.0 × 107 ations generated by the degree of transducer expan-
*Acoustic impedance is the product of density and speed of sion and contraction, controlled by the transmit gain
sound. The rayl is the named unit, with base units of kg/m2/s. applied to a transducer. Power is the amount of energy
Acoustic impedance directly relates to the propagation charac- per unit time introduced into the medium, measured in
teristics of ultrasound in a given medium and between media.
milliwatts (mW). Intensity is the concentration of the
power per unit area in the ultrasound beam, typically
expressed in mW/cm2. Signals used for creating images
interactions in the patient, medical ultrasound devices are derived from ultrasound interactions in the tissues
assume a speed of sound of 1540 m/s, despite slight dif- and the returning intensity of the produced echoes.
ferences in actual speed for the various tissues encoun- Absolute intensity depends on the method of ultrasound
tered. Changes in the speed of sound can affect how production and can result in heating or mechanical dis-
ultrasound travels through the tissues and may result ruption of tissues, as discussed later in this chapter.
in unexpected artifacts (see Chapter 2 on speed artifact
and refraction artifact). The product of the density and INTERACTIONS OF ULTRASOUND WITH
speed of sound is known as the acoustic impedance. This
characteristic of the tissues is intrinsic in the generation TISSUES
of ultrasound echoes, which return to the transducer to Interactions of ultrasound are chiefly based on the acous-
create the ultrasound image. More detail is in the next tic impedance of tissues and result in reflection, refrac-
section on ultrasound interactions. tion, scattering, and absorption of the ultrasound energy.
4 SECTION 1 Principle of Ultrasound

between two tissues that have a difference in acoustic

impedance (Fig. 1.3A). The fraction of incident inten-
sity Ii reflected back to the transducer (Ir) is the intensity
λ = 0.77 mm
2 MHz reflection coefficient, RI, calculated as
( )2
Ir Z2 ‐ Z1
RI = =
Ii Z2 + Z 1
The subscripts 1 and 2 represent tissues that are prox-
5 MHz
λ = 0.31 mm imal and distal to the boundary. The intensity trans-
mission coefficient, TI, is defined as the fraction of the
λ = 0.29 mm Fat
incident intensity that is transmitted across an inter-
face, equal to TI = 1 – RI. For a fat–muscle interface, the
intensity reflection and transmission coefficients are cal-
λ = 0.15 mm
culated as
10 MHz
2
Ir 1.71 − 1.34
RI, Fat → Muscle = = = 0.015 ;
Ii 1.71 + 1.34
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
TI, Fat → Muscle = 1 − RI, Fat → Muscle = 0.985
Distance (mm)
Fig. 1.2 Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional,
A high fraction of ultrasound intensity is transmit-
determined by the speed of sound in the medium. For soft tissue,
with an average speed of 1540 m/s, the wavelength is directly ted at tissue boundaries for tissues that have similar
calculated as the speed of sound divided by the frequency in acoustic impedance. For tissues with large differences
cycles/s. As frequency remains constant in different media, wave- of acoustic impedance, such as air-to-tissue or tissue-
length must change. Shown is the wavelength for a 5-MHz fre- to-bone boundaries, most of the intensity is reflected,
quency in fat (red line), with a speed of sound of 1450 m/s.
with no further propagation of the ultrasound pulse. At
a muscle–air interface, nearly 100% of incident intensity
Acoustic Impedance is reflected, making anatomy unobservable beyond an
Acoustic impedance, Z, is a measure of tissue stiffness air-filled cavity. Acoustic coupling gel placed between
and flexibility, equal to the product of the density and the transducer and the patient’s skin is a critical part of
speed of sound: Z = ρc, where ρ is the density in kg/m3 the standard ultrasound imaging procedure to ensure
and c is the speed of sound in m/s, with the combined good transducer coupling and to eliminate air pockets
units given the name rayl, where 1 rayl is equal to 1 kg/ that would reflect the ultrasound. For imaging beyond
(m2s). Air, soft tissues, and bone represent the typical lung structures, avoidance of the ribs and presence of
low, medium, and high ranges of acoustic impedance a “tissue conduit” are necessary to achieve propagation
values encountered in the patient, as listed in Table 1.1. of the pulse. When an ultrasound pulse is incident on a
The efficiency of sound energy transfer from one tissue tissue boundary at an angle other than 90 degrees (nor-
to another is largely based on the differences in acoustic mal incidence), the reflected ultrasound echo is directed
impedance—if impedances are similar, a large fraction away from the transducer and does not generate a signal.
of the incident intensity at the boundary interface will
be transmitted, and if the impedances are largely dif- Refraction
ferent, most will be reflected. In most soft tissues, these Refraction is a change in direction of the transmitted ultra-
differences are typically small, allowing for ultrasound sound pulse when the incident pulse is not perpendicular
travel to large depths in the patient. to the tissue boundary and the speeds of sound in the two
tissues are different. The frequency does not change, but
Reflection the ultrasound wavelength changes at the boundary due to
Reflection occurs when a beam is traveling perpendicu- the speed change, resulting in a redirection of the transmit-
lar (at normal incidence or 90 degrees) to the boundary ted pulse, as shown in Fig. 1.3B. The angle of redirection
 CHAPTER 1 Physics of Ultrasound 5

A Normal incidence B Nonnormal incidence

θi =θr

θi θr
Reflection Reflection
(echo return to (echo away from
transducer) transducer)
z1 = p1c1
Boundary
z2 = p2c2
Direction Refraction
c2 >c1
unchanged
Transmission θt
c2 <c1
c2 = c1
Fig. 1.3 A boundary separating two tissues with different acoustic impedances demonstrates (A) perpendic-
ular (normal) incidence of an ultrasound wave with reflection of an echo back to the source (transducer) and
transmission to greater depths in a straight line and (B) incidence of the wave at a nonperpendicular angle,
with the incident angle measured relative to the normal incidence and the reflected echo at an angle opposite
but equal to the incident angle. The transmitted ultrasound wave is refracted if the speed of sound is differ-
ent in the two tissues, with the angle of refraction also referenced to the normal direction. Refraction angle
depends on the relative speed differences and the change in the wavelength at the boundary.

is dependent on the change in wavelength; no refraction Boundary interactions

occurs when the speed of sound is the same in the two tis-
sues or with perpendicular incidence. Because a straight-
line propagation of the ultrasound pulse is assumed,
misplacement of anatomy can result when refraction
occurs. See Chapter 2 on ultrasound artifacts for further
discussion and manifestation of this type of artifact.

Scattering Specular (smooth) Nonspecular

Scattering arises from objects and interfaces within a tis- reflection (diffuse) reflection
sue that are about the size of the ultrasound wavelength Fig. 1.4 Specular and nonspecular reflection boundaries are
or smaller. At low frequencies (1–5 MHz), wavelengths chiefly dependent on wavelength of the ultrasound beam
and therefore frequency. Higher-frequency operation gener-
are relatively large, and tissue boundaries appear smooth
ates shorter wavelengths that are about the same size as the
or specular (mirror-like). A specular reflector is a smooth boundary variations, leading to nonspecular interactions and
boundary between two media. At higher frequencies diffuse reflection patterns.
(5–15 MHz), wavelengths are smaller, and boundaries
become less smooth, causing echo reflection in many another result in corresponding brightness changes on
directions. A nonspecular reflector represents a bound- the ultrasound display. In general, the echo signal ampli-
ary that presents many different angles to the ultra- tude from a tissue or material depends on the number
sound beam, and returning echoes have significantly of scatterers per unit volume, the acoustic impedance
less intensity (Fig. 1.4). Many organs can be identified differences at interfaces, the sizes of the scatterers, and
by a defined “signature” caused by intrinsic structures the ultrasound frequency. Higher scatter amplitude
that produce variations in the returning scatter intensity. tissues are called hyperechoic, and lower scatter ampli-
Scatter amplitude differences from one tissue region to tude tissues are called hypoechoic relative to the average
6 SECTION 1 Principle of Ultrasound

background signal. Scattered echo signals are more prev- Ultrasound attenuation
alent relative to specular echo signals when using higher µ ≅ 0.5 dB/cm per MHz
1
ultrasound frequencies. 0.9
0.8
Absorption and Attenuation

Relative intensity
0.7
Attenuation is the loss of intensity with distance trav- 0.6
eled, caused by scattering and absorption of the incident 0.5
beam. Scattering has a strong dependence on increasing 0.4
ultrasound frequency. Absorption occurs by transferring 0.3 2 MHz
energy to the tissues that result in heating or mechanical 0.2 5 MHz
disruption of the tissue structure. The combined effects 0.1 10
MHz
of scattering and absorption result in exponential atten- 0
0 5 10 15 20
uation of ultrasound intensity with distance travelled as Depth of tissue (cm)
a function of increasing frequency. When expressed in Distance traveled = 2 x depth
decibels (dB), a logarithmic measure of intensity, atten- Fig. 1.5 Attenuation and relative intensity of ultrasound remain-
uation in dB/cm linearly increases with ultrasound fre- ing as a function of depth for 2-, 5-, and 10-MHz beams.
quency. An approximate rule of thumb for ultrasound
attenuation average in soft tissue is 0.5 dB/cm times the TABLE 1.2 Attenuation Coefficient μ (dB/
frequency in MHz. Compared with a 1-MHz beam, a cm-MHz) for Tissues*
2-MHz beam will have approximately twice the attenu-
ation, a 5-MHz beam will have five times the attenuation, Tissue μ (1 MHz)
and a 10-MHz beam will have ten times the attenuation Air 1.64
per unit distance traveled. Therefore higher-frequency Blood 0.2
ultrasound beams have a rapidly diminishing penetration Bone 7–10
depth (Fig. 1.5), so careful selection of the transducer fre- Brain 0.6
quency must be made in the context of the imaging depth Cardiac 0.52
needed. The loss of ultrasound intensity in decibels can Connective tissue 1.57
be determined empirically for different tissues by mea- Fat 0.48
suring as a function of distance travelled in centimeters
Liver 0.5
(cm) and is the attenuation coefficient, μ, expressed in
Muscle 1.09
dB/cm. For a given ultrasound frequency, tissues and
Tendon 4.7
fluids have widely varying attenuation coefficients chiefly
resulting from structural and density differences, as indi- Soft tissue (average) 0.54
cated in Table 1.2 for a 1-MHz ultrasound beam. Water 0.0022
*For higher-frequency operation, multiply the attenuation coef-
ficient by the frequency in MHz.
THE ULTRASOUND SYSTEM
PoC ultrasound systems are available from many ven-
dors and come with different features and options, Ultrasound Transducer Operation and Beam
which depend on acquisition capabilities, number of Properties
transducer probes, durability, software functionality, size Ultrasound is produced and detected with a transducer
and weight, battery longevity for handheld units, power array, composed of hundreds of ceramic elements with
requirements, and other considerations. Although all electromechanical (piezoelectric) properties. Ultrasound
ultrasound systems have unique instrumentation, soft- transducers for medical imaging applications employ a
ware, and user interfaces, common components include synthetic piezoelectric ceramic, lead–zirconate–titanate
transducer probes, pulser, beam former, scan converter, (PZT), with a crystal structure that generates a sur-
processor, display, and user interface for instrumenta- face charge of either negative or positive polarity when
tion adjustments and controls. its thickness is expanded under negative pressure or
 CHAPTER 1 Physics of Ultrasound 7

Near field Far field

+V -
-V+ Beam
Electrode Applied diameter
wires on voltage
surfaces of contracts Multielement Focal zone
transducer or expands Expansion
transducer
thickness thickness excitation
Fig. 1.7 The ultrasound beam from a surface vibration has a
converging section known as the near field, a diverging section
known as the far field, and a focal zone with a minimum beam
diameter. In this situation, each transducer element is activated
Width
simultaneously. The perspective is looking down on the top
Equilibrium
edge of the transducer multielement array surface.
Height

the near field with a minimum beam diameter at the

Thickness focal zone depth and, with further travel, diverging into
the far field, as shown in Fig. 1.7. The focal zone depth
Contraction can be adjusted by introducing brief timing delays of the
individual element arrays, as discussed later.
Single-element Multielement
A PZT transducer B PZT transducers Ultrasound systems have transducer assemblies of
Fig. 1.6 (A) A single-element transducer is made of a synthetic
many shapes and sizes composed of an array of PZT
lead–zirconate–titanate (PZT ) crystal with an internal electrical elements (typically 64–512) categorized into linear and
dipole molecular structure that expands and contracts in thick- phased array operation. Common to all transducers are
ness mode under a voltage applied to the surfaces via attached a protective housing with a shield to prevent electrical
electrodes. (B) Grouped transducer elements create a surface interference, an acoustic damping block to shorten the
to expand and contract in the thickness direction of the trans-
ducer crystal to introduce mechanical energy into tissues adja-
vibrations of the piezoelectric elements, a matching
cent to the surface. layer to improve the efficiency of ultrasound wave trans-
mission to the skin by reducing acoustic impedance
compressed under positive pressure due to the internal differences, and a material to absorb backward-directed
molecular crystal polarity. Surface electrodes and wires ultrasound energy (Fig. 1.8A).
are attached to each element and multiplexed to a trans- Because the transducer array cannot simultaneously
mit/receive sensor that measures the surface charge generate and detect ultrasound, a short ultrasound pulse
variation when sensing any thickness variations. These is created in the transmit mode with a large applied volt-
same wires and attached electrodes generate mechanical age of 100 to 150 volts (V) with a duration equal to about
expansion or contraction by applying a voltage of known a millionth of a second (1 μs), causing contraction of the
polarity and amplitude from an external power source, transducer elements. Vibration of the crystal occurs at a
as illustrated in Fig. 1.6A. By varying the applied voltage natural resonance frequency dependent on its element
polarity at a known frequency, the crystal expands and thickness. A short ultrasound pulse is created by the
contracts, imparting mechanical energy into the adja- attached damping block, as shown in Fig. 1.8B, which
cent medium at the same frequency. Thus each trans- introduces a wide band of higher and lower frequencies,
ducer element functions either in an excitation mode to so that most transducers can operate at multiple trans-
transmit ultrasound energy or in a reception mode to mit and receive frequencies. Immediately after exci-
receive ultrasound energy. In practice, a subset of ele- tation, the transducer elements are switched to receive
ments in a linear transducer array, or all elements in a mode to detect the returning ultrasound echoes gen-
phased transducer array, are activated, as shown in Fig. erated by reflections from tissue boundaries. A receive
1.6B, to create an ultrasound beam. multiplexer sensor in the ultrasound unit records the
The surface vibration and interaction among the indi- voltage signals as a function of time for further pro-
vidual elements create a collimated beam converging in cessing. Once all echoes are received from the transmit
8 SECTION 1 Principle of Ultrasound

Transducer wiring

Housing

Absorber
Damping block
Side view
Transducer array
Matching layer

Edge view
Composite structure
Ultrasound beam direction
A

Ultrasound spatial pulse length:

determined by amount of damping

B Heavy Moderate Light

Fig. 1.8 (A) The transducer is composed of a housing, electrical insulation, and a composite of active element
layers, including the PZT crystal, damping block and absorbing material on the backside, and a matching layer
on the front side of the multielement array. (B) The ultrasound spatial pulse length is based on the damping
material causing a ring-down of the element vibration. For imaging, a pulse of two to three cycles is typical,
with a broad-frequency bandwidth, whereas for Doppler transducer elements, less damping provides a nar-
row-frequency bandwidth.

pulse, the process repeats along a slightly different direc- are received from the greatest depths, the next pulse is
tion to ultimately cover the volume of interest defined by created by activating another subelement group that is
the field of view (FOV). incrementally shifted along the transducer array, and
For a given transducer, multifrequency operation the process repeats on the order of thousands of times
allows flexibility of the sonographer to interactively per second to generate a rectangular image format with
choose the appropriate frequency to emphasize the real-time video image capture. Linear arrays are typi-
spatial resolution or depth of penetration based on the cally composed of 256 to 512 transducer elements, are
examination, as shown in Fig. 1.9. of smaller form factor, and generally operate at higher
frequency ranges (5–15 MHz). Because of the higher
Transducer Arrays operating frequency and limited FOV, these transducers
Three basic transducer types for PoC ultrasound are suitable for imaging superficial structures such as the
include linear, curvilinear, and phased arrays, as shown eyes, joints, muscles, and proximal blood vessels and for
in Fig. 1.10. Linear array transducers activate a sub- performing ultrasound-guided procedures. Curvilinear
set of elements, producing a single transmit beam at array transducers have 256 to 512 elements in a convex
one location, and then listen for echoes in the receive geometry, with a subset of elements activated sequen-
mode. Within a fraction of a second, when all echoes tially, like the linear array, producing a trapezoidal
 CHAPTER 1 Physics of Ultrasound 9

General
Penetration (Center frequency) Resolution

Selective
transducer

Response
bandwidth
Overall
transducer
bandwidth

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency (MHz)
Fig. 1.9 Multifrequency transducer transmit and receive response to operational frequency bandwidths
allows the operator to select an appropriate transmit and receive frequency, depending on the type of exam-
ination, type of transducer, transducer bandwidth range, and need for penetration depth (selecting a lower
frequency) or spatial resolution (selecting a higher frequency). The transducer response shown has a select-
able frequency range of 4 to 10 MHz.

Linear Curvilinear Phased

Fig. 1.10 Linear and curvilinear array transducers activate a subgroup of transducer elements, whereas
phased array transducers activate all elements in the array to create a single ultrasound beam in the tissues.
Rectangular, trapezoid, and sector beam areas are created, respectively. Location of the beam for linear and
curvilinear operation is determined by the active element subgroup across the array, and for the phased array
operation by electronic steering of the ultrasound beam. The beam sequentially moves across the field of
view in one direction to produce one image frame and then repeats for real-time acquisition. This figure illus-
trates only a fraction of the actual number of lines acquired during acquisition.

image format with increased FOV at both proximal and at a predetermined depth (or depths), which is oper-
distal depths. These transducers are ideal for imaging ator selectable. After excitation, beam direction, and
intraabdominal organs such as the liver, spleen, kidneys, beam formation, the phased array is placed in receive
and bladder. Lower frequencies (2–5 MHz) are used for mode to listen for echoes. The sequence then repeats
depth visualization, but spatial resolution can be lim- along a slightly different beam direction, ultimately
ited as a result. Phased array transducers with 64, 128, creating a sector-shaped image format at a frame rate
and up to 256 elements use all transducer elements in dependent on the number of lines, depth, and FOV. In
the formation of the ultrasound beam. Beam direction the receive mode, returning echoes are detected by all
is determined by relatively large incremental delays active transducer elements used in the formation of the
for sequential excitation of elements from one side of beam. Phased array transducers typically operate at low
the array to the other, effectively steering the beam in frequencies (1–5 MHz), have flexible selection of a nar-
a perpendicular direction to the excitation pattern. row to wide FOV by the operator, and provide efficient
Along a given direction, small incremental excitation two-dimensional (2D) imaging for heart and thoracic
delays in a concave pattern focus the beam diameter imaging requiring small acoustic windows.
10 SECTION 1 Principle of Ultrasound

Intracavitary array probes (not shown) have a con-

vex, small footprint and operate like a linear transducer.
Because of the proximity of the region to be imaged,
a high-frequency range is typically used (5–8 MHz),
with a wide FOV and limited range but excellent image Element
resolution. These transducers are used in transvaginal, activation
patterns
­transrectal, and intraoral applications.
Transmit beam focusing at selectable focal distances
is achieved by specific timing delays among the active
transducer elements, each with a known concave exci-
tation profile, as shown in Fig. 1.11. A focal zone close
to the transducer surface is produced by initially firing
the outer transducer elements in the active array and Selectable
incrementally firing the inner elements to the center depth
lateral
element with slightly longer delays using a concave exci- focusing
tation pattern. A more distant focal zone is achieved by
reducing the delay time differences among the trans-
ducer elements with a shallow concave excitation pat-
tern, resulting in beam convergence at a greater depth.
Fig. 1.11 Focal zones can be produced at various depths in
The beam former in the ultrasound unit controls the
tissues by controlling the excitation timing of the transducers
excitation patterns, with the focal zone depth select- in a group. Shown are three different focal zones produced by
able by the operator. On some advanced ultrasound the system “beam former” to activate the outer elements first,
systems, multiple transmit focal zones can be selected followed by successive activation of the inner elements to pro-
by repeating the excitation pattern for each focal zone duce a concave excitation of the individual ultrasound pulses.
This is achievable for the element subgroups in a linear/curvi-
and melding the information from each focal zone into a
linear array, as well as for all the elements in a phased array
composite image. This does reduce the acquisition frame transducer.
rate by a factor equal to the number of focal zones set.

Spatial Resolution
In ultrasound, the visibility of image detail is determined
by three separate factors: (1) in-plane resolution along
the direction of beam travel, known as axial resolution;
(2) in-plane resolution perpendicular to the direction of
beam travel, known as lateral resolution; and (3) out-of-
plane resolution perpendicular to the in-plane resolution, Lateral
known as elevational or slice-thickness resolution. These
constituents of spatial resolution are illustrated in Fig. 1.12. Elevational
Axial resolution represents the ability to distinctly
separate closely spaced objects in the direction of the
ultrasound beam. Returning echoes from adjacent Axial
boundaries to be resolved as separate are dependent
on the spatial pulse length (SPL), which is the average
wavelength times the number of cycles in the pulse.
Because distance travelled for a pulse-echo interacting Fig. 1.12 The three components of spatial resolution in the
between two adjacent reflectors is twice the separation ultrasound image are shown. Axial, along the beam direction,
is constant with depth. Lateral, in-plane and perpendicular to
distance, echoes to be recorded as separate signals need the beam direction, varies substantially with depth. Elevational,
a spacing just greater than one-half SPL. For example, a perpendicular to the lateral and axial directions, is the slice
5-MHz frequency pulse has a wavelength of 0.31 mm in thickness and varies with depth.