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BIOSPHERE

Biosphere

Part of earth which supports life and sustains various life forms. It comprises of all the living entities and their interactions
It is a zone of interaction between Atmosphere, Lithosphere and Hydrosphere
Extent of Biosphere: Birds fly above Mt. Everest (bar headed geese) and microbes are found in the Mariana Trench

Components

Living Organisms: Producers + Consumers + Decomposers

Non Living Organisms: Energy, Nutrients, Water, Gases

Biomes

Areas on earth with similar climate, plants and animals. Biomes are the world’s major biotic communities, classified according to predominant vegetation and characterised by adaptations of
organisms to that particular environment.

14 terrestrial biomes: Tundra, Boreal, Deserts, Montane grasslands, etc.

12 aquatic biomes: Continental shelf, pelagic zone, etc.

What affects distribution of biomes?

Temperature and Sunlight

Water and Precipitation
Wind Patterns and Ocean Currents
Rocks and Soil

Ecosystems

Interactions of living communities with the physical environment through which energy and nutrients essential for life flow and cycle.
Ecosystem is the basic unit in ecological studies. May be as small as a pond or as large as oceans
Homeostasis: Ability of ecosystem (or other complex entities) to maintain complexity and stability
Flow of energy through the components of an ecosystem leads to
Defined trophic structure
Biotic diversity
Exchanges between biotic-biotic or biotic-abiotic

Attributes of an Ecosystem

Structure
Abiotic Components: Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere
Biotic Components: Producer, Consumer, Decomposer
Linked by flow of energy and flow of nutrients
Function: Exchange of matter (biogeochemical cycles) and energy (food web) between abiotic and biotic components
Complexity: Results from high level of biological integration. Influenced by both composition and interactions
Interaction and Interdependency
Spatial Dimensions
Temporal Change: Successional stages in biotic communities

Abiotic Factors
Conditions: Variable environmental factors which cannot be depleted. e.g. Temperature, Acidity, Pressure etc.
Resources: Factors which can be depleted by use. e.g. Food, Nutrients, etc.
Water can function as both a condition and a resource — It is a resource for plants, but in the form of rainfall it can also be a condition

Light

Primary source of energy in all ecosystems, being the energy that drives photosynthesis
Quality of light is often a limiting factor in aquatic ecosystems, as different wavelengths get absorbed differently. Plants absorb blue and red light.
Some algae have pigments that can absorb other colours as well.
Light intensity varies according to latitude and season
Photoperiodism: Relative lengths of daylight and darkness that affect the physiology and behaviour.
Short day plants: Flower if nights are longer than a critical length.
Long day plants: Flower if nights are shorter than a critical length
Day Neutral plants: Flowering is not influenced by day length.
Phototaxis: Movement of whole organism in response to a light source
Phototropism: directional growth in response to light. Stems/shoot show positive phototropism, Roots show negative phototropism
Photokinesis: Light intensity determines the locomotory activity. e.g. Fishes adjust swimming speed according to light
Photonasty: Movement of parts of plant in response to light.

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Heliophytes: Plants that grow well in bright light.
Sciophytes: Plants which grow well in shade.

Temperature

Occurrence or non-occurrence of frost limits distribution of plants — plants cannot prevent their tissues from freezing
Opening if flowers is controlled by temperature differences between day and night
Some fruit trees need a cold period so that they can blossom in spring
Cacti flower at night and are pollinated by nocturnal insects
Hibernation and Aestivation
Seasonal Migration (birds and butterflies)
Homeostasis — Endothermic animals
Behavioural regulation of temperature — Exothermic animals

Water

Hydrophytes: Plants which grow in water

Mesophytes: Average Water Requirement
Xerophytes: Grow in dry environments where they experience a shortage of water

Water Requirements of animals

Body covering limit water loss — chain covering in insects, scale of reptiles, feathers of birds, hair of mammals
Tissues of animals may be tolerant to water loss
Insects are able to absorb water in the form of water vapour directly form the atmosphere

Air (Atmosphere)

Major gases: Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide

Winds cause pollination and seed dispersal
Also remove and redistribute top soil

Soil

Soil texture varies from clay to sand.

Loam soil: Mixture of sand and clay
Clay: Badly aerated but good water holding capacity. Rich in nutrients
Sandy: Well aerated but bad water holding capacity. Poor in nutrients
Soil Temperature reduces with depth. Activity of microorganisms is low in reduced soil temperatures.
Soil Water
Hygroscopic water: Thin film of water around each soil particle
Capillary Water: Water held in small spaces between particles
Gravitational Water: Drains downward through the soil.
Soil Solution — Decaying remains of plants and animals + excretory products together form humus. Increases the fertility of soil
pH influences biological activity
Physiography — altitude, slope and aspect

Autotrophs — Produce organic compounds from Carbon Dioxide as a carbon source, using light and reactions of inorganic chemical compounds as a
source of energy,
Photo-autotrophs: Use light. e.g. Plants and Algae. Chlorophyll acts as a transducer that changes light to chemical energy.
Chemo-autotrophs: Use oxidation of organic compounds as an energy source
Insectivorous plants use flesh diet to augment their nitrogen supply, but they are still autotrophic.
Biotic Factors
Heterotrophs — Requires organic substrates to get its carbon for growth and development (obtains carbon from organic carbon)
Decomposers — Break down organic materials to gain nutrients and energy. Decomposition is a natural process, but decomposers accelerate it.
Releases raw nutrients that can be used by plants.
Greatly increases the nutrient load of an ecosystem allowing for greater biodiversity
Convert organic carbon into carbon dioxide which can be used by plants.

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Types of Ecosystems

Marine Freshwater Terrestrial Domesticated

Continental Shelf Tundra

Lentic: Standing Water
Upwelling Zones Boreal Agro Ecosystems
Lotic: Running Water
Deep Sea Rainforests Plantations
Wetlands
Estuaries Desert

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Between polar ice cap and taiga tree line - Siberia, Canada
Very restricted in the Southern Hemisphere as most of it is covered by ocean
High mountains above the tree line (Himalayas, Andes, Alps)
Tundra
Snow/sleet. Very low mean annual temperature
Moss, Lichen. No true trees. Hardy grasses in coastal area. Salix, Betula (Birch)
Reindeer, Polar Bear, Wolves. No reptiles/amphibians. Large body size and short extremities (Allen’s Rule)

South of Tundra biomes (below tundra biomes in altitudinal zonation)

Summers are brief and warm. Winters are long and cold
Rainfall evenly distributed. Summer maximum. Snow in winter
Thin podzol soils. Low pH - alkaline cations are leached and cannot neutralise the humid acids
Leaf litter is not rich in nutrient. Rock weathering is slow
Taiga
Humus content is low as leaves barely fall
Negligible undergrowth due to poor soil conditions, absence of sunlight
Evergreen Coniferous Forest (Spruce, Fir, Pine). Thick bark to protect from cold. Sloping branches (to prevent accumulation of snow),
Needle like leaves (reduce transpiration)
Lynx, Wolf, Squirrel. Amphibians are found

NW Europe (under moderating effect of North Atlantic Drift), NZ (East Australian warm current)
Moderate summer and winter
Rainfall throughout the year with winter maxima
Temperate Deciduous
Podzol soils, but deeper than Taiga
Trees shed leaves in winter - protection against winter snow and frost
Oak, Elm, Birch, Fir, Poplar

NW America, southern Chile, NZ

Temperate Rainforest Big coniferous trees and epiphytes (Douglas fir, Red Cedar, Hemlock), Epiphytes
Grizzly Bears

South Africa, East China, SE USA, E Australia

Warm moist summer, cool dry winter
Sub Tropical Deciduous Strong maritime influence
Uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year
Evergreen broadleaf and deciduous trees

Pustaz (Hungary), Prairies (N America), Pampas (Argentina, Uruguay), Veld (tropical Bush Veld in north SA, temperate High Veld in
south SA), Canterbury (NZ), Downs (Murray-Darling basin)
Extremes of temperature. Continental climate
Temperate Grassland Treeless and shorter grasses (more nutritious)
Increase in precipitation polewards gives rise to wooded steppes
Low animal diversity
Panicum virgatum, Andropogon gerardi, Spartina pectinata

Temperate Deciduous
(Mediterranean) Around Mediterranean Sea, West USA, West Australia
Warm summer, moist winters
Small broad leaf trees of short height

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Fires are common. Plants have adapted to regenerate quickly after being burnt. Xerophytic properties

Distinct wet and dry climate associated with reversal of winds - summer, winter, rainy
Tropical Deciduous
(Monsoon) Floods in wet season and drought in dry season
Teak, Neem, Bamboo, Sal

Central Africa, Central India, North Australia

Alternate wet and dry season. Low annual rainfall and no distinct rainy season (rains in summer)
Tall grass. Less nutritious and coarse
Savanna Short trees (trees are deciduous). Trees have broad trunks
Merges into thorny scrub on the desert side
Large herbivores and carnivores
Adansonia, Euphorbias, Palm

Uniform temperature throughout the year

Heavy rainfall, distributed evenly throughout the year
Tropical Rainforest Dense canopy (Selvas of Amazonian basin), Stratified into layers
Arise due to the ITCZ
Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood, Aini, Mangroves in coastal regions

Hot Deserts - Sahara, Atacama (driest), Arabian, Iranian, Kalahari, Namib

Temperate Deserts - Gobi Desert, Ladakh, Turkestan, Takla Makan, Kyzl Kum (Continentality), Patagonia (rain shadow)
Desert Very dry, rains < 25cm/y
Xerophytic and drought resistant vegetation - cacti, acacias, thorny bushes
Long roots, leaves are waxy, leathery and needle shaped. Thick tough skinned seeds

Aquatic Ecosystems

Freshwater - Running Water (lotic), Standing Water (lentic)

Marine - marine plant communities form 3/4 of the earth surface. Include diatoms, green flagellates, micro flagellates and
algae
Brackish Water

Estuaries

Ecotone between freshwater and marine habitats

Strongly influenced by tidal actions and saline water
Sea weeds, sea grasses, marsh grasses, benthic macrophytes, phytoplankton

Marine Communities

Limnetic Zone - Well lit surface water away from the coast (main photosynthetic zone)
Profundal Zone - Below the thermocline where temperature drops rapidly
Littoral Zone - Close to shore, on the continental shelf
Pelagic Zone - Deep seas

Neuston Floating plants Live in the air-water interface

Periphyton Sessile Algae Remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants emerging above the bottom mud

Microscopic floating organisms

Plankton Algae, diatoms, protozoans, larvae Includes both phytoplankton and zooplankton
Distribution is controlled by currents as they cannot swim

Nekton Swimming insects to Blue Whale Strong swimmer

Bottom of water mass

Benthos
Mostly carnivorous
Limiting Factors in Aquatic Ecosystems
Depth to which light penetrates determines extent of plant distribution - photic and aphotic
Turbidity limits light penetration
Sunlight
Photic zone - Light is 1% upto intensity of the incident light at surface. Both photosynthesis and respiration take place
Aphotic zone - Light and plant growth are restricted. Only respiration

More soluble in warm water —> hence warm water enhances decomposition
Oxygen Winterkill - Ice layer on top of water body can cut off light and stop photosynthesis. If water body is shallow, oxygen gets depleted and the fish
die

Temperature Aquatic organisms have narrow temperature tolerance limits (because temperature changes in water bodies are not significant)
Wetlands
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Waterlogged soil, hydrophytic vegetation, hydric soils (not enough oxygen)

70% wetlands in India under paddy cultivation
Wetland Lake

Residual lakes, crop lands, flood plains, estuaries, backwater Tectonic, Fluvial, Geomorphic, Rise in water table
Permanent or temporary Permanent
Larger than lakes Smaller
No thermal stratification Thermal Stratification
Vertical mixing is wind regulated Vertical mixing is thermally induced
Macrophytes are dominant producers Phytoplankton are dominant producers
Detritus pathway is dominant Grazing pathway is dominant
High productivity Low productivity
Mostly eutrophic Oligotrophic, Mesotrophic or Eutrophic

Human Modified Ecosystems

Highly unstable
Low species diversity and poor nutrient cycling
Food chains are short and simple and change frequently
Species susceptible to disease, soil erosion and soil degradation

Mostly monocultures
Attract weeds, susceptible to disease (especially high yielding species - smut of sugarcane, rust of wheat)
Agro systems Soils are poor and deficient in nutrients — need fertilisers, artificial irrigation — leading to land degradation and ground water depletion
Leads to loss of native biodiversity, including genetic diversity of crop plants
Run offs into water bodies causes contamination and eutrophication

Monoculture
Fast growing trees which are commercially important
Plantation Can be planted even on lands not suitable for agriculture
Highly susceptible to pathogens
Plantation also raised to improve soil fertility and prevent erosion

Commercially important aquatic species - fish, molluscs, plants - in artificial water bodies
Fish farming - Rearing in controlled environment and harvested when they reach desired size
Fish ranching - fish are kept in captivity for first few years and released. Captured again when they return for spawning
High yield in small volume of water
Aquaculture
Scientific management of fish leading to improved qualities
Loss of native aquatic biodiversity
Large amount of fish wastes pollute water bodies
Maintaining high population density increases susceptibility to diseases

Changes in Ecosystems

Natural
Seasonality: Temperature, Rainfall, Wind Pattern (can be instantaneous)
Geological Timescales: Glaciation
El Nino: Shorter timescales, death of coral reefs in many parts of the pacific, lowers fish productivity, affects rainfall pattern, causes floods and forest fires
Forest Fires: Semi arid regions of Australia
Continental Drift: Creates and destroys landscapes
Evolution: Creates new life forms
Man made
Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation: Breaking up of a larger ecosystem into smaller units as a result of which smaller ecosystems don’t function the same way.
Conversion of natural systems to agro systems or grazing lands
Climate Change and Global Warming
Ozone Depletion
Pollution
Unsustainable use of biota e.g. Overfishing, Hunting — leading to 6th mass extinction
Invasive species

FLOW OF ENERGY

Food Chain: Movement of organic matter and energy from the producer level through various consumer levels.
Food Web: Food chains overlap and interconnect to form a food web. Complicated food webs lend more stability. e.g. In absence of ungulates, tigers in Sunderban eat crabs and fish.
Being able to operate at different trophic levels gives an advantage.

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Food Chain Food Web

Straight single pathway through which energy travels Number of interconnected feeding chains
Higher trophic level feeds on Trophic level immediately below Can feed on organisms of any of the lower trophic levels
Separate/Isolated food webs cause instability Complicated food webs increase stability, adaptability and competitiveness

Pathways of Energy Flow

Grazing Pathway: Primary consumer feeds on living plants. More energy flows in grazing pathway than detritus pathway in aquatic ecosystems
Producer (Grass) — Primary Consumer/Herbivore (Deer) — Secondary Consumer/Carnivore (Tiger)
Detritus Pathway: Primary consumer feeds on dead matter. More energy flows in detritus pathway than grazing pathway in terrestrial ecosystems
Dead matter — Earthworm — Sparrow — Hawk

Only about 10% of energy is incorporated into the body of an organism, in the immediately higher trophic level
90% is in compounds that cannot e broken dow or are lost as heat during transfer from one trophic level to a higher trophic level.
Therefore, few food chains extend beyond 5 members. Energy available at the higher most trophic levels are too little to sustain consumers above them.

Ecological Pyramid

Representation of an ecological parameter (number, biomass, energy) across various trophic levels (producer at base, carnivores at top).

Mostly upright but can be inverted or specific shaped.

Higher trophic level depends on lower trophic levels for food, so their number is generally smaller.
Aquatic Ecosystem: Pyramid is upright (phytoplankton — zooplankton — fish — bigger fish)
Forest Ecosystem: Pyramid is spindle shaped (Tree — Rodents — Birds)
Parasite System in Trees: Pyramid is inverted (Tree — Rodents — parasites)
Pyramid of Numbers

More realistic in natural systems as it takes into account the biomass instead of the number.
Terrestrial Ecosystem: Upright (grasses — herbivores — carnivores)
Aquatic Ecosystem: Inverted (Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Larger fish)

Pyramid of Biomass

More accurate than pyramid of number/biomass.

Always upright

Pyramid of Energy

Limitations

Assume that food chains are simple — cannot accommodate food webs
Single species may operate at two or more trophic levels
No place for Detritus food chain

Grasslands
Cover 20% of earth’s surface. Found in all continents except Antarctica
Transitional ecosystems between forests and desert
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Praire - N America, Pampas - S America, Veld - Africa, Downs - Australia, Steppe - Asia
Soil forms a vital link between biotic and abiotic elements.
Temperate grasslands have warm summers and cold winters.
Producers: Grasses, Shrubs, Mosses, Lichens
Herbivores: Mice, Sheep and Deer
Carnivores: Reptiles, Birds
Herbivorous ungulates dominate as grass is plentiful
No cover for protection from predators. Must be able to out run them. Therefore, similar animals have evolved to inhabit grasslands around the
world
Grasses have their point of growth very near the surface of the ground. They cn survive fires due to underground buds and stems. Trees and
Grass dynamics are controlled by fires.

Largest reservoir of nutrients is in the sediments

Pond Very small fraction is dissolved in the water
Dynamics in the pond ecosystem is controlled by rate of release of nutrients, solar input, temperature cycles

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Circulation of essential elements of the Biosphere from environment and organisms and back to the environment.
It is a circuit/pathway through which molecules move through biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.
Sink: Places where the element is held for relatively long periods in course of the biogeochemical cycle (Mostly abiotic)
ExchangePools: Places where elements are held for relatively short time (Mostly biotic)
Gaseous Cycle: Reservoir is in atmosphere/hydrosphere
Sedimentary Cycle: Reservoir is in crust of earth

CARBON CYCLE

Atmosphere

Carbon occurs as Carbon Dioxide. Minor amounts as Methane and CFCs

Out of atmosphere
CO2 its taken up by plants during photosynthesis
Some CO2 dissolves into ocean water and forms HCO3- which is taken up by marine calcareous organisms.
Into the atmosphere
CO2 is released when coal is burnt, respiration by animals and decomposition of dead matter, volcanic eruptions

Biosphere

Carbon forms the building blocks of organic life

Photosynthesis fixes CO2 into usable forms of carbon.
Carbon cycles through different biotic components in the food chain
Burning of biomass, respiration and decomposition release CO2 back into the atmosphere.
Trees form a reservoir of carbon as well.

Hydrosphere

Ocean upwelling releases CO2 into atmosphere.

Ocean downwelling transfers CO2 to oceans from atmosphere.
Carbonate and Bicarbonates form sediments and shells of calcareous organisms

Lithosphere

Dead and decayed remains sometimes form coal, which are vast reserves of carbon
When biomass based fuels are burnt, CO2 is released.
Agricultural activities also release CO2 stored in soils

Anthropogenic Activities have altered the carbon cycle drastically. Atmospheric CO2 levels have increased by 30% since Industrial Revolution.

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NITROGEN CYCLE

Atmosphere: N2, NOx, N2O

Biosphere: Amino acids, Proteins
Lithosphere: Ammonium ions, Nitrites, Nitrates

Nitrogen Fixation

Process of conversion of Nitrogen in atmosphere to Nitrates and Ammonia

Atmospheric Fixation: N2 — lightning —> NO2 — rainfall —> Nitrates on earth
Industrial Fixation: under high temperature and pressure, atmospheric Nitrogen and Hydrogen can be combined to form Urea (Haber Process).
Biological Fixation: By microorganisms which can convert free nitrogen to nitrates
Free Living Nitrogen Fixers, Aerobic: Anabaena, Nostoc, Azotobacter, Azomonas
Free Living Nitrogen Fixers, Anaerobic: Clostridium, Methanococcus, Methanobacterium
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers, Non leguminous: Frankia, Acetobacter, Nostoc, Anabaena
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers, Leguminous: Rhizobium

At each stage of the food chain (trophic levels), metabolism produces organic nitrogen compounds (excretion, dead matter)
By products of metabolism are converted into ammonia
Nitrification: Ammonia — Nitrite — Nitrate (Process achieved by Nitrifying bacteria)
Ammonia can be taken up by plants directly, but most plants obtain nitrogen in the form of nitrates
Denitrification: Nitrate to Nitrogen gas (Bacillus denitrificans)
Anammox Reaction (Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation): Nitrate and Ammonium are converted directly into Nitrogen gas (Plantomycetes)

Leaching and Weathering

Small amount of nitrate is leached to the ground water causing pollution. The situation is aggravated by indiscriminate use of nitrogenous fertilisers
Excess nitrate reacts with Haemoglobin to form Methaemoglobin which impairs oxygen transport (Blue Baby Syndrome)
Weathering of rocks releases Nitrogen ions into soil

Anthropogenic Impact

Increased groundwater contamination with nitrates due to overuse of fertilisers.

Agriculture/Industries/Vehicles: More NO2 in air: contributes to acid rain and ozone depletion
NO: Tropospheric Ozone formation
Higher nitrogen viability favours the growth of nitrogen demanding grasses: Changes dynamics of ecosystems, especially grasslands

PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE

Slowest cycling time among the various elemental cycles

Forms a part of DNA molecules, energy molecules ATP and ADP, Phospholipids, building block of bones and teeth.
Phosphorous is not found in air.

Phosphorous Cycling

Main source of phosphates is weathering of rocks. Addition of fertilisers also adds to the phosphate pool in soil

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Plants take up Phosphorous in the form of Phosphates from soil. Present in organic compounds as phosphates
Wastes of animals (such as Bird Guano) are rich in phosphates (returned to soil)
Decomposition of waste matter also releases phosphates, which can again be taken up by plants.
Over geological time scales, the phosphates accumulated in the soil are exposed once again to weathering by rain

SULPHUR CYCLING

Sulphur enters biosphere through plants. Plants assimilate sulphates from amino acids present in dead organic matter.
Inorganic sulphates can be reduced to S or H2S by Anaerobic bacteria. Bacteria can also oxidise H2S to S
Sulphur in atmosphere comes from decomposition/combustion of organic matter, combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions (mostly in the form of Sulphur Dioxide, SO2)
SO2 combines with oxygen to form SO3. Forms Sulphates when dissolved in rain water, washed into the soil to be taken up by plants.
Atmosphere also has H2S, which come from water logged soils, lakes etc.
Sulphur can be precipitated in the form of cations like Fe and Ca into FeS, Fe2S3, CaSO4.

Anthropogenic Impact

Similar to nitrogen cycle, impacted by industrial and automobile exhausts

Acid rain impacts water quality and soil quality (vegetation and microbial community)

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological Succession is the process by which a natural community moves, through a sequential change in structure and composition, from a simple level of organisation to a more
complex community.
It is a long term, directional and mostly predictable process of natural development of different communities at the same site, in a definite sequence
May occur as a result of environmental change or induced by intrinsic properties of the community itself.
Succession continues till a community develops maximum equilibrium with the environment
Sere: Characteristic sequence of developmental stages

Based on Driving Factor

Autogenic Succession
Developmental changes in structure of the community caused by the species themselves.
Plants produce changes in the habitat initially to favour their own growth but when the changes move beyond the optimum, the habitat becomes more suited to a different
community.
The original community is displaced by this more suited community
Allogenic Succession
Habitat is changed by action of outside factors like change in climate, leaching of soil nutrients, changes in salt content of the soil.
Habitat then becomes unsuitable for the colonisers and favours the growth of a new set of plants
Induced Succession
Humans have controlled succession in a way to maintain a certain state for agriculture.
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A young successional stage is maintained by various kinds of inputs and protective measures

Based on Habitat Factor

Primary Succession
Succession on a previously bare area
Slow process, mostly autogenic
Secondary Succession
Occurs on a site that has become bare secondarily due to destruction of original vegetation.
Area is biologically fertile and favourable for reappearance of plant life. Mostly allogenic

Based on Dominant Trophic Pattern

Autotrophic Succession
Appearance and continued dominance of green plants
Begins on a medium having little organic matter, but rich in inorganic substances.
Slowly the organic content in the substrate increases.
Heterotrophic Succession
Occurs in an area rich in organic matter.
Dominated by microbes, actinomycetes, fungi, detritivores and other animals
Usually occurs in a microhabitat like dead plant and animal matter

Based on Sequence of Events

Linear Succession: Seral stages in a linear predictable manner. Each serial stage is replaced by the next till a climax community is reached
A—B—C—D
Deflected Succession: Does not proceed through all the expected stages
A — B — C — C’ — D
Cyclic Succession: Pattern where the climax community is destroyed and a similar pattern of secondary succession repeats itself every time.

Based on Moisture

Xerearch: Initiated under extremely dry conditions like bare rock, wind blown sand etc.
Lithosere: Succession that originates on rocky areas
Psammosere: Succession that originates on sandy areas
Hydrarch: Succession beginning in water or wetland.

Features of Succession

Orderly sequence of changes in the vegetation of a previously bare area — Directional and Predictable
Fundamentally biological process. Rate of change, pattern of change and limits of change are determined by the alteration brought about in physical environment by the existing
community.
Produces a stable climax community which is in dynamic equilibrium with the climate. Climax community has maximum heterogeneity and biomass and minimum productivity.
Succession beginning similarly, in similar climatic conditions leads to similar climax communities
Resource availability changes over the course of succession. Different species compete better at different stages.
e.g. Early stages are mostly dominated by r selected species: Good colonisers because of high fecundity, dispersal mechanisms, can colonise newly disturbed areas
At the climax stage, the species can continue to maintain itself. They remain in place until the climate changes or a better competitor arrives, or the community is catastrophically
destroyed.

Changes associated with succession

Soil: Maturation of soil and development of soil profile

Organic Matter increases
Nutrient exchanges: increases in significance
Niche specialisation: Broad to narrow
Stability: Increases
Species composition: Changes rapidly in the beginning, becomes stable later on
Species Diversity: Increases in beginning, declines later on
Number of heterotrophs: Increases and then becomes stable
Food chains become more complex and form food webs
Net productivity decreases
Stratification: Poor to organised.

Process of Ecological Succession

Nudation: Creation of bare area by climatic or biotic agents (erosion, elevation or subsidence)
Migration: Arrival of gemmule in a new area. Depends on mobility, agent, distance and topography
Colonisation: Occupation of bare area by colonisers
Ecsesis: Establishment of plants in a new region (Germination — Growth — Reproduction). Most critical period is the seedling stage as it faces predation from animals and an adverse
environment.
Aggregation: Increase in numbers of colonising individuals. In the beginning, the pioneers are mostly far from each other. They produce gemmules which spread into the open areas.

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Competition: May be interspecific or intraspecific. Occurs after the aggregation reaches certain levels. Infraspecific competition is generally more acute because of similar
requirements and similar adaptations of individuals of the same species.
Reaction: Change brought about by colonisers. e.g. Binding of soil particles, Retardation of wind, Humus in soil. This may invite other colonisers.
Stabilisation: After a long time, some individuals arise which are in complete harmony with the climate of the area.
Retrogression: Reversion to some earlier stage of succession because of adverse factor influence

Theories of Climax

Monoclimax Theory: All vegetation in the region will converge to the same vegetation type. Succession is inherent and progressive
Polyclimax Theory: Number of different micro climax, depending on microclimate and soil characteristics
Climax Pattern Theory: Succession results in a continuum of climax types varying along environmental gradients.
Non Equilibrium: Climax is rare as disturbance is too frequent.
Informational Climax: Climax is the stage with highest biomass and energy
Shifting Mosaic Steady State: Vast majority of sites in a landscape are changing but there is a constant portion of landscape at each stage. This is because various factors that determine
climax (climate, edaphic, biotic) keep on changing, hence there is no absolute climax

Succession in Aquatic Ecosystems

Phytoplankton stage

Algal spores are brought in the body of water.

Simple forms of life like bacteria, algae, phytoplankton and zooplankton are the pioneer colonizers.
Organisms add large amount of organic matter and nutrients due to their various life activities and after their death, they settle at the bottom of pond to form a layer of muck

Submerged stage

When a loose layer of mud is formed on the bottom of the pond, some rooted submerged hydrophytes begin to appear on the new substratum
Submerged aquatic vegetation develops in the regions of ponds or lakes where water depth is about 10 ft or more.
These plants form tangled mass
When these plants die their remains are deposited at the bottom of the ponds or lakes.
The eroded soil particles and other transported materials are also deposited at the bottom.
Body of water becomes more and more shallow, consequently the habitat becomes less suited for the submerged vegetation but more favourable for other plants.

Floating stage

Submerged vegetation starts disappearing from its original place and then the floating plants make their appearance gradually
Submerged and floating plants grow intermingled but in the course of time the submerged plants are replaced completely
Most tolerant species in the area are able to reproduce and perpetuate
Broad leaves floating on the water surface check the penetration of light to deeper layer of water

Reed-swamp stages

Ponds and lakes become too shallow

Habitat is changed so much that it becomes less suited to the floating plants
Floating plants start disappearing gradually and their places are occupied by amphibious plants -- can live successfully in aquatic as well as aerial environment
The foliage leaves of such plants are exposed much above the surface of water and roots are generally found either in mud or submerged in water
Foliage leaves form a cover over submerged and floating plants and thus cut off light from the plants underneath them -- neither submerged nor floating plants can survive.

Sedge Marsh or Meadow stage

Marshy soil which may be too dry for the plants of pre-existing community
Modify the habitats in several ways -- absorb and transpire a large quantity of water and also catch and accumulate plant debris and wind and water borne soil particles.
Dry habitat results which may be totally unfit for the growth of normal hydrophytes.
Mesophytes start appearing and after some time the sedge vegetation is totally replaced by them

Woodland stage

Shrubs and later medium sized trees form open vegetation or woodland.
Produce more shade and absorb and transpire large quantity of water. Render the habitat more dry.
Shade loving herbs may also grow under the trees and shrubs

Climax forest

After a very long time the hydrosere may lead to the development of climax vegetation.
As the level of soil is raised much above the water level by progressive accumulation of humus and soil particles, the habitat becomes drier and certainly well aerated.
Trees are dominant and they have control over the entire vegetation

Succession in Xeric habitats

Lichen Stage: Rhizopus, Rinsadia, Parmelia

Moss Stage: Tortula, Funaria, Sphangum

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Herbaceous Stage: Annual weeds, Biennial weeds, perennial grass. Nematodes, Insects
Shrub Stage: Acacia, Prosopis, Caparis, Zizyphus
Climatic Forests: Consists of thorny, drought tolerant shrubs and trees.

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

Ecological Community is an assemblage of species populations that interact with one another. Ecological function and dynamics of this group of species is interdependent.

Competitive interactions and feeding relationships

Reliance of plants on animals for pollination and seed dispersal

Qualitative Characteristics of a Community

Identity of all plant species in a community

Floristic Composition
Indicators of soil, altitude, micro-climatic conditions

In a natural forest community, trees, shrubs and herbs appear to be differentiated into several storeys, layers of strata.
Stratification Each of these strata generally is composed of a specific groups of species
E.g. Typical rainforest has Dipterocarpus as top storey

Recurrence of vital processes like photosynthesis, growth, pollination, reproductive processes, development of leaves, flowers, dissemination of
Periodicity seeds and elongation of shoots.
Depend upon inheritance and various physiological and environmental factors.

General condition of the plant and its capacity to reproduce and complete its lifecycle.
Vitality Perennial Plants are mostly well developed
Ephemeral plants occasionally appear from seeds and do not increase in number

Proximity among members of a community towards one another.

Depends upon the uniformity of environmental factors.
Sociability Do the species grow singly or in groups?
Groups of species may be small or in scattered tufts
Species may form large stands of nearly pure population.

Interactions within Ecosystems

Neutralism (0/0)
Direct Competition (-/-)
Resource Competition (-/-)
Amensalism (-/0)
Commensalism (+/0)
Predation (+/-)
Interspecific relations
Parasitism (+/-)
Protocooperation (+/+): Not obligatory
Mutualism (+/+): Obligatory

In the evolution and development of ecosystems, negative interactions tend to be minimised in favour of positive interactions
Recent interactions are more likely to be negative

Phenotype influenced by genotype and environment

For e.g. influence of temperature
Megatherms: Constant and high temperature throughout the year
Life Form
Mesotherm: Can tolerate low temperature for longer/shorter part of a year (tropical/subtropical regions)
Microtherms: Grow well under low temperatures and cannot tolerate high temperatures (temperate regions)
Hekisotherms: Require constant low temperature. Grow in Alpine and Arctic regions

Passage of energy (and 90% loss with each passage) across trophic levels.
Energy Flow
Decomposer make nutrients available to plants from excreta and decaying matter, so that the cycle can continue.

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Zonation Random: No factor strongly influences distribution
Regular: Doesn’t exist in nature
Clumped: Clumping of resources. Release of inhibitors may also prevent occupation of vicinity (allelopathy)

Quantitative Characteristics of a Community

PD = Individuals in a species/Area
Density is governed by light availability, precipitation, soil, resources etc.

Population density helps to know

Relative importance of each species in a community

Population Density
Effect of reseeding
Effect of burning
Effect of Spraying
Effect of successional changes

Area covered by foliage, steams and inflorescence of plants as seen from above
Cover
Leaf Area Index = Total Leaf Area / Unit ground area
If LAI = 2, for every square meter of ground, there is 2 meter square of leaf area above it.

Abundance and dominance of each species

Communities can be compared based on species similarities and differences
Relative spatial arrangement of species within a community

Species Richness (S)

Number of species

Species Evenness

Distribution of number of individuals within the species

Maximum evenness when all species have same number of individuals
For e.g. site A has 2 lions and 2 deer, while site B has 2 lion and 10 deer. Both have the same species richness (2), but different species evenness

Species Diversity

Function of both richness and evenness

Shannon Index (H):

α Diversity: Number of species in the ecosystem
ß Diversity: Change in species diversity between two ecosystems (Species found in one but not the other)
Species Composition ß = (S1 - c) + (S2 - c), S1 and S2 are the numbers of species, c is number of species common to both
Sorensen’s Similarity Index

γ Diversity: Overall diversity for different ecosystems within a region

γ = S1 + S2 - C

Simpson’s Diversity Index

Presence

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Calculated by means of Quadrat methods
Gives an idea about uniformity of distribution

Degree to which species is restricted to its particular community

Accidental species: Strangers in a community
Companion species: No preferences for a community
Fidelity
Preferential species: Insufficient numbers in several communities
Selective species: Prefer some but are never found in others
Exclusive species: Restricted to a particular type of community.

One or more species are found in large numbers

Dominance
e.g. Pinus in a Pine Forest

ECOTONES

Ecotone is an area or zone of transition between two ecosystems (each with their own ecological communities)
Ecotone might be a sharp boundary line (Forest/agro-ecosystem) or a gradual blending of the two communities over a broad area (Forest/Grassland)
The ecotone contains several species belonging to the adjacent communities, as well as certain unique species not found in either of the two communities
Edge Effect: Number of species and density of species is higher in the Ecotone region than in adjacent ecosystems.
Ecotones provide opportunities for mobile animals as they can now exploit two different habitats, thereby expanding their niche. For e.g. many wetland species come to land to
lay eggs but forage in water. Birds use forested parts for breeding and grasslands for feeding
A community with many edges has greater species diversity than a community with less number of edges.

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Diversity of song birds is higher in estates which have mixed habitats
Human activities have modified many habitats and created edges
Forest fires are more common on edges because of increased dessication
Edges support invasive and exotic species better
Human expansion is increasing the prevalence of edge habitats

Importance of Community Ecology in Forestry

In attempting to manage species, it is important to understand variety of inter specific and intra specific interactions that can be potentially
modified.

Description, classification and identification of forest communities

Resource partitioning
Understand interactions between species, in case of multi cropping
Biodiversity and ecosystem functions

POPULATION ECOLOGY

Population is the smallest unit for ecological analysis.

It is a group of inter breeding and interacting individuals of the same species inhabiting the same area at a given point of time.
Population characteristics: Number, Density, Age distribution, Spatial distribution, Sex Ratio, Population growth, Fecundity

Population Parameters

Number for large organisms (population census)

Biomass for smaller organisms

Capture-Recapture Method

Size
Used to estimate the size of a population, by extrapolating results from a sample
If population size is N, and M animals are captured and tagged.
The animals are allowed to mix for a sufficient time in the population and then recaptured. Suppose out of n animals, m are tagged. Then, actual
population is extrapolated as n/N = m/M
Assumes that the populations are completely homogeneous and cover a large area

Size of population per unit space (area/volume)

Density Crude Density: Population/Geographical Area
Ecological Density: Population/Habitable area within total area.

Random

Relatively uniform pattern of resource and conditions distribution

Indifference among members
Broad range adaptation

Uniform

Uniform pattern of resources and conditions distribution

Repulsion among members of the population
Broad range distribution

Spatial Distribution Clumped

Non uniform pattern of resource distribution

Attraction among members of the population
Narrow range distribution

Aggregated

Only one patch or clump of population in the entire ecosystem

Non uniform resource distribution
Narrow range adaptation
Common threat to all animals from a predator

Sex Ratio

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Fewer females may lead to slow population growth
Population growth is also slow when males are limited in their ability to inseminate more than one female

Different patterns of present age distributions lead to different future population compositions
Age classes can be divided as Pre Reproductive, Reproductive and Post Reproductive
Age-Surviviorship relation: Shows mortality at different ages

Type I: K selected species

High survival in early and middle life and most deaths occur at a later stage
Invest resources of reproduction in a few individuals, because infant mortality is low
Age distribution
e.g. Humans, Large mammals

Type II

Uniform mortality across different age groups

Face similar mortality pressures across their life span
Invest resources in a larger number of individuals, as infant mortality is somewhat higher
e.g. Birds

Type III: r selected species

Highest mortality early on in life, low rates of death for those surviving this bottleneck.
Invest resources in a huge number of offspring, in anticipation that a small percentage of these survive to reproductive age
e.g. Insects, Small mammals

Growth is given by (Fecundity - Death) + (Immigration - Emigration)

Exponential Growth

Simplest case of population growth that occurs when there exists no limitations on growth within the environment.
Intrinsic Growth Rate: Rate of growth of population under ideal conditions (no competition, abundant resources)
Observed when a population initially colonises a new area, or when a population is recovering after a catastrophic decline in numbers.
In most cases, such a rate of growth cannot be sustained for an extended period of time due to competition, scarce resources, diseases etc.

Logistic Growth

Growth As the population increases, each individual has access to an increasingly smaller share of resources
There is a limit to the number of individuals that can subsist on a constant amount of resources - Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity is a theoretical maximum. It may not always be attained if conditions are not favourable
Larger the population, slower the growth rate.
Thus, growth of population at a given point of time, is dependent on the population size

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

Adaptations are traits that an organism develops to survive and function optimally in a given habitat.

Physiological Adaptation: Short scale, acclimatisation of an individual to changes

Evolutionary Adaptation: Large time scales, result of NS and differential reproductive success rates.
Mammals evolved different adaptations and occupied a variety of niches when they first originated

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Burrowing/Digging habitats (for food or shelter)

Phylogenetically primitive animals — Caecilians and Limbless lizards
Body spindle shaped to offer least resistance during burrowing
Tail is reduced or vestigial
Fossorial Adaptations
Head tapers anteriorly into a snout
Eyes and external ears become vestigial
Forelimbs are broad with long claws
Scaral vertebrae fuse which gives strength to the vertebral column

Climbing habits
Tree frogs, tree snakes and lizards
Some live entirely arboreal lives (monkeys), while some live on ground but forage in the trees (rodents)
In forelimbs, humerus bone becomes elongated
Modifications for climbing
Scansorial Adaptation Adhesive pads in hindlimb (frogs)
Claws on feet (cats, squirrel)
Soles have spines and tubercles (Porcupine)
Tail is large and prehensile. In spider monkeys, the tail functions as a 5th limb
Hip bone of the Pelvic girdle becomes broadened to support Viscera during climbing of knees.
Body contour is stout. Ribs are curved and tend to be more in number.

Terrestrial adaptations for fast locomotion. e.g. Snakes, horses, dogs and leopards
Body contour is streamlined which helps in swift passage and very little air resistance
Hind limbs are very well developed
Cursorial Adaptation In some mammals, hooves are developed which are supported by cushion like pads.
Bones of the limb are raised from the ground and and supported by thick muscular pads.
Running on digits: Digitigrades
Distal elements of foot and hand show a tendency of lengthening which provides sites for muscle attachment

Adaptations for dense and moisture conservation

Skin covered with horny scales and is hygroscopic
Desert Adaptation Camels can conserve large amount of water in their stomach
Burrowing in habit to escape from extreme heat of the arid climate
Mimicry to blend in with surroundings

Flying adaptations: Flying lizards, fling squirrels, Rhacophorus frogs

Skins become folded between forelimb and hindlimb, supported by ribs to form patagium
Amphibians: Feet are webbed
Volant Adaptation Sternum is well developed and provides sites for attachment of muscles that helps in gliding
Bones are hollow and light with air filled cavities which add buoyancy during flight
Lungs have air sacs that again add buoyancy
In birds, forelimbs are modified to wings

Fishes: Paired and unpaired fins which help in locomotion

Respiration by gills
Aquatic animals that come up to the surface to breathe have much greater lung capacity that enables them to spend much longer period underwater

Aquatic Adaptations Air bladder acts as a Hydrostatic organ

Facial part of cranium is elongated into a snout
Skin is naked without hairs
Fatty layer below skin which retains heat
Cervical Vertebrae are fused to form a solid and compressed mass of bones

Below 3000m of sea level

Adaptations to darkness, food scarcity, high pressure
Frail weak bones
Deep Sea Adaptations Very large mouth with long, sharp teeth capable of devouring much larger animals
Ill developed masticatory apparatus as they mostly feed on decay
Vestigial eyes: Slender attenuations of fin to compensate loss of vision
Luminiscent organs that produce light

Cave Adaptations
Slender body with attenuated appendages
Lack pigmentation due to absence of light

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Ill developed eyes
Highly developed tactile organs, olfactoreceptors, audio receptors

Schistura larketensis (Khung Loach) - new species of eyeless fish discovered inside a cave in East Jaintia hills (lost eyes and pigments while
adapting to live in darkness of the cave)

Small size
Slow metabolism
Fast Moving Waters Synchronised breeding, all at once - Salmons
Generally lower body temperatures, because fast-moving waters are colder compared to stagnant waters
Fish are more muscular and lean

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity = Genes + Species + Ecosystems (at species, ecosystem and biome levels)

Value of Biodiversity: Food/Fuel/Fibre, Purification of air and water, Detoxification and decomposition, Moderation of climate extremes, Pollination of crops, Pest and disease control, Genetic
resources, Soil fertility and nutrient cycling

Threats to Biodiversity

Destruction of natural habitats for urbanisation, industries and agriculture

Environment degradation, pollution
Exotic and Invasive species
Global warming and climate change: destroys habitat, new diseases
Overuse of resources: deforestation, hunting, shifting cultivation
Natural Hazards

Habitat Degradation

Loss of Habitat: Conversion of forestlands to non forest purposes, mining, quarrying, shifting cultivation etc.
Fragmentation of Habitat: Leads to restriction of movements of organisms, which consequently causes inbreeding depression. e.g. Roads
divide forests
Transformation of habitat: Habitat quality changes for the worse due to changes in physical, biological and environmental characters. e.g.
Herbivores suffer when palatable grasses are lost.

Impact of Habitat degradation

Increases probability of extinction

Increases instances of human wildlife conflict
Changes ecosystem structure and function
Increase one ecosystem hazards like erosion, fire, pests, diseases, etc.
Decreases the productive and carrying capacity of forests
Adverse impacts on animals: increased mortality, stunted growth, decrease in fertility, unbalanced prey-predator dynamics

Measures

Afforestation drives
Research to better understand ecosystem dynamics
Proper background research and trials before introducing exotics

Biodiversity Hotspots

Norman Myers introduced the concept. Hotspots are designated by Conservation International

0.5% of earth’s total or 1500 species of vascular plants as endemics

Area has lost 70% of its primary vegetation

Currently there are 34 biodiversity hotspots, which occupy 2.5% of total global surface area but support 70% of biodiversity

Hotspots in India

Himalayas
Indo Burma
Western Ghats: (also includes Sri Lanka)
Sunderland: Nicobar (further includes Borneo and Sumatra)

Why is Biodiversity much higher in the tropics?

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More stable climate than temperate regions. Has not been affected by glaciations in the past that led to extinctions in the temperate
regions
Wide variations in climate, soil and biotic factors, leads to development of many niches. This facilitates adaptive radiations and
speciation
High insolation and high energy input favour high rate of mutations, which enhances speciation process
Pests and diseases are higher in tropics. Selective pressures are much stronger
High outcrossing maintains genetic variability

Endemism

Endemism is the condition of being restricted in geographical distribution to an area

The area or region can vary in size, and is defined or identified in different ways.
Endemism is an ecological classification in that it describes the range or distribution of a species (or group of species)
For e.g. Entire families of different species of birds are endemic to the island of Madagascar

Endemism vs Indigenous

Indigenous refers to where a group originated. A species can be both endemic and indigenous to an area.
Some species thrive and exceed the bounds of their original indigenous location.
This means that the species is no longer endemic, but is still indigenous to the original area.
Once a species has reached a wide-spread, global distribution it is said to be cosmopolitan. e.g. Humans

Types of Endemism

Palaeo-Endemism: Endemism that arises through a species going extinct in other regions.
Neo-Endemism: New species are always endemic to the region in which they first appear.

Threats to Endemic species

Endemic species, regardless of how they came to be restricted to a particular area, experience the same threats to their existence
The smaller the region, the direr the threat towards the survival of the species.
Any action that reduces the size of the land, or divides it in any way can significantly affect the normal patterns of the endemic species.
Being endemic to a small area is often a warning sign that a species may become threatened or endangered (cosmopolitan species like
whales are also endangered)

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Goals of Biodiversity Conservation

Wise use of existing forest resources on a sustainable basis

Conservation of wildlife
Encourage and facilitate integrated management of forest
Decrease genetic erosion

In Situ Conservation: Deals with conservation of wildlife in natural habitat. e.g. NP, WLS, Biosphere Reserves
Ex Situ Conservation: Outside natural habitat. e.g. Genetic enhancement centres, Tissue Culture, Zoo and Botanical Garden, Pollen banks,
Captive Breeding Centres, In Vitro Preservation, Seed Orchards

Why conserve Biodiversity?

Each species has a function role in the ecosystem. Loss of species causes ecological imbalance
Humans must take responsibility for their actions
Judicious use of natural resources

Germ Plasm Banks

Ex Situ conservation measures which assemble different plants and genotypes in an area.
Main objective is to preserve genetic materials in the face of extinctions
Plant specimens can be propagated using tissue culture, to create multiple clones
Methods used: Electro ejaculation, Intrauterine insemination, gamete intra-fallopian tube transfer, zygote intra-fallopian tube transfer,
embryo transfer

IUCN Classification of Protected Areas

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Scientific Reserves and Strict Nature Reserves
National Parks
National Monuments and Landmarks
Managed Wildlife Sanctuary and Nature Reserves
Projected Landscapes
Resource Reserves
National Biotic Areas and Anthropological Reserves
Multiple management areas

Biosphere Reserves

Launched by UNESCO under Man and Biosphere Program

Conserve representative samples of ecosystem

Long term in situ preservation of genetic diversity
Promote applied research
Provide opportunities for educational training
Promote sustainable management of living resources
Help in maintaining viable populations of wildlife, by providing quality habitat (free from pollution) and suitable prey base.
Reduces threat from poaching
Provides vast continuous geographical areas for movement and migrations.
Can be used as a base for captive breeding and rehabilitation of rescued animals
Enhance participation of local populations in nature conservation
Promote international cooperation

BR is divided into

Core Zone: Undisturbed except for certain research

Buffer Zone: Forestry, Tourism, Agriculture, Restoration

State of Biodiversity in India

One of the 19 mega biodiversity countries

2.5% of land area, 8% of species diversity
4 global biodiversity hotspots
One of the 8 Vavilovian centres for origin and diversity of crop plants.
3% of IUCN designated threatened species are in India.
Vast repository of Traditional Knowledge
Vast heterogeneity of soil, climate and topography

Steps Taken/Legal Initiatives in India

Indian Forest Act, 1927: Management of Forests

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: WCCB, NPs, WLS, NTCA
Forest Conservation Act, 1980
Biological Diversity Act, 2002: State and National Biodiversity Authorities, BMCs at local level, Biodiversity funds at central, state and local levels
Party to Cartagena and Nagoya Protocols
Submitted report for Aichi Biodiversity Targets
Hyderabad Pledge (COP 11 of CBD): Biodiversity Conservation in India
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library: to prevent biopiracy
Party to CITES

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

Formulated at Rio Earth Summit, 1992

Conservation of Biodiversity
Sustainable use of biodiversity
Sharing the benefits from commercial utilisation of biological resources

Issues addressed

Measures and incentives for conservation and sustainable use

Regulated access to genetic resources
Access and transfer of technology
Technical and Scientific cooperation towards common goals
Education and Public awareness
National reporting on efforts to implement treaty commitments

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Biological Diversity Act, 2002

To integrate resolution of CBD into Indian legal framework

Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity

Conservation and development of areas important from the standpoint of biological diversity
Protection and Rehabilitation of protected species
Conserve and promote traditional knowledge
Sharing of benefits with local people
Involve LSG in implementation of the act
Regulate access to biological resources of the country for research and other purposes
Biodiversity Funds at Central, State and Local levels

Set up National Biodiversity Board (central level), State Biodiversity Board (state level), Biodiversity Management Committee (Local level)

NBA: deal with matters related to request of access bye foreign entities, IPR for research on biological entities sourced from India
NBA and SBA will consult BMCs for matters related to use of biological resources within their jurisdiction

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

Schedules

I and II - highest protection and highest penalties

III and IV - protection and penalties not as stringent
V - Vermin (Any animal in II to IV schedules can be declared Vermin)
VI - plants whose cultivation is restricted

Provisions

Wildlife advisory boards were set up in every state.

Advise on setting up areas as sanctuaries, national parks, conservation and community reserves
Formulate policy for protection and conservation of wildlife
Empowers State Govt. to set up areas as sanctuaries and National Parks
Prohibits hunting of wildlife (except in Schedule V) and imposes punishment. Hunting also includes capturing and trapping a wild animal
Applicable all over India (except JK, which has its own act)
Control illegal wildlife trade: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau
National Tiger Conservation Authority was set up: now monitors Project Tiger
Conservation and Community reserves to act as buffer zones or migration corridors between Protected Areas (provide a flexible way of achieving wildlife conservation without
compromising community needs)

TIGER

Project Tiger (1972)

Aims to protect tigers in specially constituted tiger reserves and maintain a viable tiger population in their natural environment. 9 TR were initially set up.
50 tiger reserves are governed by Project Tiger, administered by NTCA. Centrally Sponsored scheme
Core Buffer strategy
Core Area - free from human disturbances. Notified by State Government
Buffer Area - supplementary habitat and co-existence with tigers. Notified by State Govt. with Gram Sabha’s consultation
Intensive program of habitat protection and rehabilitation.
Tiger Protection Force has been set up to combat poachers
Villagers are relocated from core area to minimize human-tiger conflicts.
All India tiger estimation is done once in every 4 years by NTCA
Using camera traps in a statistical framework based on the approval of Tiger Task Force
NTCA - set up on recommendation of Tiger Task Force (which was set up on recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife)
Tiger Reserves occupy 2% of area of India

Achievements of Project Tiger

Saved the tiger from extinction, put it under an assured path to recovery
9 TR in 1973, 50 TR today. 1400 tigers in 2006 to almost 3000 in 2018
Radio-telemetry study
Achieved co-existence through core-buffer strategy
By conserving tiger as a keystone species, it has helped conserve large tracts of forests and other species.
Local communities benefit from eco-tourism and developmental inputs in these fringe areas
Role model for wildlife planning and management

Challenges faced by Project Tiger

Tiger habitats are disconnected — leads to low genetic diversity as the tiger populations are small: Need to identify and protect wildlife corridors connecting Protected Areas.
Depletion of tigers outside TR (which is almost 40% of total tigers) — conservation strategies are disproportionately focussed on TR
Lack of accountability of State Governments. Much of the funds for Project Tiger has not yet been released.
Shortage of staff in Forest Department
Funds are insufficient

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Lack of management of man-wildlife conflict. Retaliatory killing by villagers. e.g. Sundari tigress in Satkosia.
Lack of a streamlined data collection approach, gaps in research.
Lack of stringent measures against poaching.
Corporate eco tourism ventures are not always run in an eco-friendly manner

National Tiger Conservation Authority

Provide statutory authority to Project Tiger, so that compliance is legal

Streamline scientific modules of conservation
Develop communities as responsible shareholder
Lays down standards and guidelines for tiger conservation in TR
Tiger estimation, disease surveillance and patrolling

Status of Tigers in India, 2014: NTCA + WII

India has 70% of global tiger population

Rise of 30% in population from 2010
Western Ghats (Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Tamil Nadu) form the world’s single largest population of tigers
In India, Karnataka has highest number of tigers, followed by Uttarakhand
Sunderbans tiger population is not increasing due to low prey base

Methods of Tiger Estimation: Tiger Pugmarks, Tiger scratches, Fecal matter for DNA analysis, Camera Trap Surveys

LION

Gir was made a national park and sanctuary in 1960s

Only in Gir, Gujarat (Compact tract of dry deciduous forest and open grassy scrublands in southwestern part of Saurashtra region) - includes Pania sanctuary, Mitiyala
sanctuary
Number of lions increased in Gir: Rescue, Habitat Improvement, Water Management, Human Wildlife Conflict Mitigation
Canine Distemper Virus - Death of Lions in Gir
Babesiosis - condition caused by a parasite that infects RBCs, transmitted by ticks
Kuno Palampur WLS in Madhya Pradesh has been selected for relocation

Threats to Lion population

Hostility of humans: Poisoned because they attack livestock

Tribes on periphery of Gir use electrical fences against crop raiding. Lions also get trapped and get killed
Lions fall into open wells and drown
Habitat Overcrowding leading to diseases like CDV
Restricted range: danger of population being wiped out by flood, fire or disease

RHINOCEROS

Kaziranga, Pobitora, Manas, Dudhwa, Orang, Gorumara, Jaldapara

States - UP, Assam, West Bengal (Assam has 90% of rhino population) — Kaziranga has highest population, Pobitora has highest density
India has about 3000 Rhinos
Also spread in Nepal (85% in India)
Down listed from EN to VU in 2008
Main threats: Poaching and Habitat loss

Indian Rhino Vision

Partnership between the Assam Forest Development, International Rhino Foundation, The US Fish and Wild Life Service, Bodoland Territorial Council.
Goal is to have a wild population of at least 3000 greater one horned rhinos in Assam
Translocations from Kaziranga and Pobitora to Manas, Dibru-Saikhowa, Laokhowa, Orang, Buracharpori

Special Protection Force - Assam

New Delhi Declaration on Asian Rhinos

Second Asian Rhino Range Countries meeting

India, Bhutan, Nepal, Indonesia, Malyasia
Increase the population of three species of Asian rhinos - Greater one-horned Rhinoceros (VU), Javan Rhino (CR), Sumatran Rhino (CR)
Greater One Horned Rhinoceros is the largest of Asian species
Kaziranga has 50% population
Review population of Asian Rhinos every 4 years
First meeting in Indonesia - Bandar Lampung Declaration

Objectives

Strengthen protection regimes, strategic information gathering, and real time sharing of actionable information on rhino crime and its horn trade
Research on various habitat parameters including invasive species threatening the suitable habitats of Asian rhinos

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Explore possibilities of expanding rhino ranges within country or between rhino range countries
Transboundary collaboration among India, Nepal, and Bhutan for the greater one-horned rhino conservation and protection
Connectivity and corridors across international boundaries
Engagement of the local communities as stewards to secure the future of rhinos in range countries
Initiate proactive monitoring on potential adverse impacts of climate change on rhino health and their habitats in range countries
Studies on Rhino health issues & potential diseases
Strengthen wildlife forensics for the purpose of investigation

DOLPHIN

National Dolphin Research Centre - Patna on banks of Ganga (first in Asia)

Bihar has half of India's dolphin population
Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary - Bihar (India’s only sanctuary for Gangetic Dolphin)

Gangetic River dolphin

Inhabits the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh
Completely Blind
Presence of dolphins in a river system signals good health of ecosystem

Susu - Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna - India, Bangladesh (EN) - National Aquatic Animal
Baiji - Yangtze - China (CR)
Bhulan - Indus - Pakistan (EN) - Punjab’s state animal
Boto - Amazon - Latin America (EN)

Threats to freshwater dolphins

Entanglement in fishing nets

Harvest for oil
Rise in salinity in their habitat
Water Development Projects
Industrial/Municipal Waste
Noise from vessel traffic
Overexploitation of prey

ELEPHANT

Highest elephant population: Karnataka > Assam > Kerala

Karnataka also has the highest number of casualties by electrocution
National Heritage Animal of India
12 elephant range state
50% of Asian Elephant population is in India

Synchronised Elephant Population Estimation - MoEFCC

Decline in population
Increase in range - reported for the first time in Manipur, Mizoram, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
All India synchronised census for the first time
Census once in 5 years

Project Elephant (1992)

Long term survival of identified viable populations of elephants

Address man-animal conflict
Scientific plans for conservation
Protect elephants from poachers and prevent illegal ivory trade
Welfare of captive elephants

Activities under Project Elephant

Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of elephants

Scientific and planned management for conservation of elephant habitats
Mitigation of man-elephant conflict in crucial elephant habitats
Protection from poachers and unnatural causes of death
Research on elephant management related issues
Veterinary support

Asian Elephant Alliance

5 NGOs come together to secure elephant corridors

Elephant Family, International Fund for Animal Welfare, IUCN Netherlands, World Land Trust, Wildlife Trust of India

Elephant corridors are narrow strips of land that connect two large habitats of elephants. Elephants are large and wide ranging animals that require large areas for survival.
88 identified elephant corridors in India - 20 in South India, 12 in NW India, 20 in Central India, 14 in N Bengal, 22 in NE India
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Why protect elephant corridors?

Crucial to reducing animal fatalities due to accidents and other reasons

Fragmentation of forests makes it all the more important to preserve migratory corridors.
Ensure that their populations are genetically viable
Helps to regenerate forests on which other species like tigers depend
Nearly 40% of elephant reserves are vulnerable, as they are not within protected parks and sanctuaries
Migration corridors have no specific legal protection.
Forests that have turned into farms and unchecked tourism are blocking animals’ path -- increased elephant-human conflict.
Weak regulation of ecotourism is severely impacting important habitats

MIKE - Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants

Under CITES
Implemented by Project Elephant
Measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants
Determine changes in these trends over time
Determine the factors causing or associated with such changes

MIKE sites in India

Chirang Ripu - Assam

Dihang Patkai - Assam
Eastern Dooars - WB
Deomali - Arunachal Pradesh
Garo Hills - Meghalaya
Mayurbhanj - Orissa
Mysore - Karnataka
Nilgiri - TN
Shivalik - Uttarakhand
Wayanad - Kerala

Gaj Yatra

Nationwide campaign to protect elephants

Planned to cover 12 elephant range states
Led by the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI)
Create awareness about elephant corridors to encourage free movement in their habitat

E 8 ministerial meeting

India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Botswana, Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania
Represented regions with all three species - Indian elephant, African Bush Elephant, African Forest Elephant
MOEFCC + WTI launched 'Haathi mere Saathi' campaign

Singphan WLS (Nagaland) - declared as an Elephant Reserve, contiguous with Abhaypur RF of Assam

Wildlife Warden vs Komarrikal Elias Case

Ivory imported into India or ivory article is property of State Govt.

When animal is hunted in NP/WLS declared by State govt., it is treated as property of Central Govt.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Global Warming

Accelerated warming of earth’s atmosphere due to anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases

Out of 12 warmest years in Earth’s recorded history, 11 were between 1995 and 2006

Green House Effect

Certain gases allow the incoming short wave radiation to pass to the earth’s surface through the atmosphere.
But they do not allow the long wave radiation emitted by earth’s surface to pass through, trapping the radiation and causing a rise in temperature
e.g. of GHG are CO2, CH4, N2O, SF6, HFC, PFC, NF3
Natural GH effect is essential to maintain normal temperature patterns.
But of late, industrialisation, increasing number of vehicles and deforestation have led to an increase in the concentration of GHG in atmosphere. For e.g. concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere has increased by 30% since 1700s. Methane and CFCs are increasing at an even faster rate

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Causes

Heavy industrialisation, power generation, urbanisation, transport which are all based on burning of fossil fuels
Urbanisation and Automobiles — release CO2, NOx, SOx
CFCs in refrigeration systems. Growing demands for refrigeration and air conditioning
Forest Fires releasing carbon dioxide
Deforestation depletes the carbon sink in forests. Lesser carbon dioxide assimilation by photosynthesis
Cattle rearing, paddy rice farming, land use, wetland changes

Impact

Sea level rise due to thermal expansion of oceans and melting of polar ice. 0.15m to 1m above current levels by 2100. Will impact coastal regions the most. Low lying Pacific islands
are in immediate danger. Regions of dense population like Bangladesh and Myanmar have deltaic regions which would be flooded.
Freshwater sources would be affected by saline intrusion.
Existing dry regions would become drier. Greater likelihood of desertification and droughts.
Glacier melting: Flooding and rock avalanches
Outbreak of diseases: Higher temperatures favour pathogens, Altered disease dynamics
Drastic changes to tropical forests which modifies the carbon sinks
Precipitation peak regions are moving from tropics towards the poles. This will affect agriculture adversely in tropics but might increases crop output in the temperate regions. Some of
the poorest regions in the world (Central Africa, South Asia) will be hit with food insecurity.
Agriculture yields in India would be especially affected since 2/3 of agriculture in India is rain-fed
Longer exposure to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations will slow down plant growth due to decline in shoot nitrogen utilisation
At higher temperatures, amount of dissolved oxygen will be less, endangering aquatic life (and thereby, fisheries and food security)
Increase in extreme weather events like heat waves, flash floods, cyclones
Loss of coastal wetlands, mangroves and
Coral reef bleaching: more carbon dioxide would make ocean waters acidic, corals are also vulnerable to thermal stress
Impact on biodiversity
Change in species habitat ranges, extinction of those which cannot adapt or move to new habitats (e.g. species occupying high elevations)
Gender ratio disrupted in species like crocodiles and turtles, where sex is determined by incubation temperature
Infectious pathogens like Chytrid fungus are wiping out amphibian populations
Biggest impact on life forms in polar regions.
Impact on plankton, and indirectly the entire aquatic ecosystem

Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) report

Focus on Himalayan region, North East, Western Ghats, Coastal areas

Highlights

Coastal areas would be affected the most

Rise in sea levels
Less frequent but more intense cyclones
Malaria and other diseases would emerge in new areas
Increased instances of flooding and droughts
Different regions would have different effects, but overall there would be a decline in crop productivity
Increased temperatures would lead to stress in livestock leading to decreased milk productivity

UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention for Climate Change)

Earth Summit, 1992 in Rio.

Aims to reduce GHGs in the atmosphere to combat global warming
In its original form, UNFCCC set no mandatory limits on GHG emissions
But included provisions for updates that would set mandatory limits

Kyoto Protocol

Under UNFCCC at COP 3

Sets binding targets for developed countries to reduce GHG emissions - only global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions
Detailed rules were adopted at COP 7 - Marrakech (Marrakech Accords)

Annexure I - Developed (Industrialised) + Economies in Transition (Former Soviet economies of Russia and Europe)
Legally binding for Annex I - reduce collective emissions by 5.2% of 1990 levels
Annexure II - Developed (members of OECD)
Provide financial resources to developing countries (part of Annex I)
Annexure B - Annex I parties with 1st/2nd round Kyoto targets (as per Doha round)
Non Annexure I - Mostly low income developing countries
May volunteer to be Annex I countries when they are developed
LDC - No capacity, no targets

1st term - 2008 to 2012

2nd term - 2013 to 2020 (Doha amendment)
Paris Agreement would replace Kyoto Protocol in 2020

Kyoto Gases - CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, SF6, NF3

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2nd Round of Kyoto Protocol

Needs ratification of 144/192 parties to become operational (India has ratified)

Should be reported from 5 sectors - energy, industrial processes and product use, agriculture, waste, LULUCF (land use, land use change and forestry)

USA never ratified

Canada pulled out citing wealth transfers out of the country due to binding limits
Japan and Russia did not sign 2nd terms as it would impose restrictions on them which were not faced by their main competitors - India, China and Indonesia

Adaptation Fund - established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are parties to Kyoto Protocol

"Common but differentiated responsibilities"

Obligation to reduce emissions on developed countries as they are historically responsible for current levels of GHGs
Every country has responsibility, but historically biggest polluters should do more than recent polluters
Developed countries should accept binding limits, and contribute finance for green projects in developing and LDCs
Nothing is binding on developing and LDCs
Concept evolved at Rio, 1992

Market Mechanisms

Emission Trading - Parties can buy Kyoto units from other countries that have earned them by reducing carbon emissions to meet their domestic emission targets
Clean Development Mechanism - Countries can meet their domestic emission reduction targets by implementing emission reduction project in developing country
to earn Certified Emission Reduction
Joint Implementation - Annex I country can invest in emission reduction project in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically

Paris Agreement

Under UNFCCC, COP 21

INDCs - nationally determined and voluntary
Limit temperature rise to below 1.5°C from pre-Industrial levels, and further to 1.5 *C
Common but differentiated responsibilities
Ratchet Mechanism - agreement to submit pledges by 2020
Stocktake - estimate progress in implementation of INDCs every 5 years
Peak GHG as soon as possible and achieve a balance between source and sink of GHG
Sustainable management of forests as a way to mitigate carbon emissions (afforestation drives, prevent indiscriminate deforestation)
Developed countries should take the lead in mobilising climate finance

National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC)

Both mitigation and adaptation measures

Domestic goal of reducing emission intensity of GDP by 20-25% of 2005 level by 2020
Lower carbon sustainable growth must be a central element in our 12th 5YP

8 sub missions under NAPCC

National Solar Mission (Green Energy Corridor, Indigenous production and market linkages)
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (business models and market development)
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (Energy Conservation Building Code, AMRUT, Smart Cities, Solid Waste Management)
National Water Mission (Equitable distribution across states, water use efficiency, recycling of waste water)
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
National Mission for Green India (increased forest cover in 5mha land - both public and private + improved forest based livelihoods)
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (credit support, markets, pest management, improved seeds and irrigation)
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change - regional impact of climate change on different zones in the country

India’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

Increase energy efficiency route and reduce emission intensity of GDP

40% of cumulative electric power from non fossil fuel sources by 2030
Cooperation with developed countries for finance mobilisation Nand technology transfer. Low cost international finance from sources such as the Green Climate Fund
Increase carbon sink (2.5-3 billion tons of CO2) through additional forest and tree cover by 2030
Review NAPCC in light of new wind, solar and waste to energy programs
Efficient and cleaner technologies in thermal power generation
Reduce emissions from transport sector
Climate resilient infrastructure

OZONE

90% of ozone is in stratosphere

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Tropospheric ozone is a pollutant and green house gas. It causes Photochemical Smog
Build up of the ozone layer from oxygen released by the marine life allowed life to develop on land.

Formation of Ozone Destruction of Ozone

Oxygen in the upper stratosphere is broken into individual O atoms. Free radicals are responsible for degradation of ozone molecules
O atoms combine with molecular oxygen to forms Ozone Free radicals of OH, NO, Cl and Br react with Ozone to form unstable Oxy-radicals
Oxygen to Ozone is a process in dynamic equilibrium and oxygen. These radicals combine with another ozone molecule to form oxygen
in a process where the original free radical is re-generated, making this a cyclic
process and goes on for a long time.
Single chlorine radical can go on degrading ozone molecules for upto 2 years.

Why is ozone loss particularly severe in polar regions?

Stratosphere in polar regions becomes isolated by strong circumpolar winds

Leads to formation of Polar Stratospheric clouds
This leads to accumulation of molecules of halogens, which split into free radicals in summer when light is available.

Impact of Ozone Depletion

1% loss of ozone leads to a 2% increase in UV radiation

UV exposure leads to skin problems, ageing, cancer, corneal cataracts and depression of the nervous system
Death of Phytoplankton, which causes a cascade effect in aquatic ecosystems
UV-C: Highest energy and most dangerous UV which damages microbial diversity (100% absorbed in Ozone layer)
UV-B: Hazardous to eyes, damages collagen fibres and accelerates ageing of skin, linked to skin cancers (87% absorbed in Ozone layer)
UV-A: Least harmful, but causes ageing of skin, DNA damage and possibly skin cancer

Protection Measures

Vienna Conference (1985): After the hole in ozone was discovered in the South Pole. Did not have legally binding reduction goals. India was a party to the conference
Montreal Protocol (1989):
Phase out CFCs and instead use HCFCs (which later were an issue for Global Warming)
Freeze CFC production and consumption
Freeze Halon production and consumption
Total phase out of Halon production (except for essential uses such as inhalers)
Legally binding
India is a signatory, as are all UN members
Recently, the recovery of ozone layer in Antarctica can be attributed to control measures introduced as a part of Montreal Protocol
Kigali Amendment: Reduce HFCs as they cause global warming. Legally binding

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

AIR POLLUTION

Sources

Ozone at ground level causes smog

Ozone Formed from Nitrogen Oxide + Volatile Organic Compounds Irritant: Causes sore throat, asthma attacks
Harmful for plants and crops

Forms carboxyhemoglobin: competes with oxygen in binding to Hb,

Carbon Monoxide Fossil fuels, especially when combustion is incomplete thus reducing Oxygen supply in the body
Fatal in high concentrations

Nitrogen Dioxide
Respiratory issues: Asthma, Bronchitis
Fossil fuels in power plants and cars
Acid Rain

Sulphur Dioxide

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Burning of coal (chemical, paper and fuel Asthma, Irritant, Smog
factories) Acid Rain

Solid or liquid matter suspended in air PM 2.5 lodge inside lungs causing severe respiratory
Particulate Matter Coarse: Road dust, Sea spray, Construction refuse issues
Fine: Fuel combustion Irritation and nasal infections

Leaded petroleum (used as an anti knock agent) Kidney damage

Lead Industrial wastes Nervous system is impaired — leads to low IQ
Paints Heart attacks and strokes

CFCs, Halons AC, Refrigerants, Aerosols, Industrial Solvents Ozone Depletion

Cancer, Birth Defects, Skin Irritation, Respiratory

Toxic Pollutants Arsenic, Asbestos, Benzene, Dioxin
Problems

Control Measures

Use of catalytic converters and exhaust filters to reduce amount of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
More efficient combustion engines
BS VI Fuel
Curbing Vehicular Stringent Pollution Checks
Pollution Move towards renewable sources of energy (like electric cars), reduce fossil fuel use
Ethanol Blending in Fuel
Ban use of leaded fuels
Public Transport

Exhaust filters
Removal of gaseous pollutants
Wet System: Washing towers where alkaline fluids circulate. React with SO2 to form a precipitate
Curbing Industrial
Pollution Dry System: Gas Pollutants are allowed to react with an absorbent under a dry phase
Wet Dry System: Calcium Hydroxide Slurry
Set emission standards and ensure compliance for various pollutants
Move from Thermal to Solar/Wind/Hydro based energy generation

Sustainable use of refrigeration systems (District Cooling Action Plan)

Other measures
Construction sites must be managed adequately to prevent PM release

Build awareness and protect public health

Six categories of air quality: Colour coded
National Air Quality Pollutants measured: SO2, NO2, CO, O3, NH3, Pb, PM 2.5, PM 10
Index
Health alerts to public
Specific measures pertaining to particular air qualities

WATER POLLUTION

According to Water Act, 1974, Water Pollution refers to "contamination

of water" or "discharge of any sewage or trade effluent into water directly or
indirectly” which renders such water harmful to public health and unfit for use in domestic/industrial/agricultural sectors.

Direct Pollution: Effluents from Factories, municipal sewage, agricultural run offs
Indirect Pollution: Acid rain, solid waste contamination

Water Pollution Parameters: BOD, COD, Dissolved Oxygen, pH, Coliform count

Domestic Wastes
and Sewage Lack of adequate sewage disposal Contamination with bacteria
Non functional sewage disposal mechanisms

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Makes the water unfit for drinking — diseases like
cholera, diarrhoea

Adversely affect aquatic life

Pollutants from soil (fertilisers, pesticides, heavy Leads to eutrophication — algal blooms — death
Surface Run off
metals) of fish
Loss to fisheries

Industrial Effluents Hg, Pb, Cd, As

Less oxygen and increased temperature hampers

Heated water from industries and power plants
the physiology of aquatic life
Thermal Pollution Increase in temperature leads to decrease in oxygen
Accelerates decomposition reactions, increasing
concentration
the BOD

Plastics lead to death of marine organisms

Plastic wastes
Oil spills cover the water and cut off oxygen
Marine Pollution Radioactive Wastes
supply leading to widespread deaths
Oil Spills
Toxic chemicals affect physiology

Nitrate: Blue Baby Syndrome

Metal Fluoride: Knock Knee
Dumping of industrial and e-waste
Contamination Cadmium: Itai Itai
Arsenic: Blackfoot

Prevention Measures

Sewage Pollutants must be treated before discharge

Judicious use of fertilisers and pesticides
Oxidation ponds to remove radioactive wastes
Treating hot water before discharge
Strict implementation of legislations
Control solid waste dumping into water bodies
Restrict activities such as idol immersion

SOLID WASTES

India’s waste production is the fastest growing in the world

Per capita waste generation is low, but the large population makes it a problem

Sources Impact Control

Construction/demolition waste from

Odours and disease breeding sites —
construction sites
rabies, stagnant rainwater leading to
E-Waste Treatment of wastes before
malaria
Industries: Paper and Pulp, Sugar, Oil releasing
Open burning: Air pollution
refineries, heating plants, plastic, Incineration
Land fills: Soil contamination
rubber Producer Responsibility for plastic
Dumping: Water pollution
Metal processing industries and e-waste
Biomedical wastes: Anti microbial
Slaughter houses
Resistance
Biomedical wastes

MoHUA Manual on Solid Waste Management

Technology based segregation, transport, recycling, reuse and disposal with revenue based models wherever possible
Increased role of rag pickers as waste collectors
Emphasis on composting, waste to energy, etc.
Producers to tie up with e-waste recyclers to ensure disposal
Organise informal sector workers into legally recognised groups to serve for solid waste management
Tie up with private organisations and NGOs
Swacch Bharat Mission Urban

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SOIL POLLUTION

Sources Impact Control

Judicious use of fertilisers

Excessive fertilisers and pesticides in
Saline and degraded soils Precision agriculture (Soil Health
agriculture
cards)

Metal contamination Enforce appropriate waste

Waste dumping
Leaches into groundwater management rules and guidelines

Soil Erosion Loss of fertile soil cover — land Better management of ploughing and
Faulty cultivation methods degradation — droughts cultivation
Deforestation Silting of rivers in turn leads to flooding Afforestation drives
Excessive irrigation Saline soils Shelter belts and Contour farming

NOISE POLLUTION

Air Act (1981) includes Noise as a pollutant

Sources Impact Control

Industrialisation, urbanisation and

Public awareness
modern lifestyle,
Industries, airport, and railway
Factories, airports, railway stations
Fatigue and Irritability terminals sight should be far from
and busy roads usually have noise
Crack in physical buildings and edifices living spaces
levels much above the safe standards.
Miscarriages in pregnant women Proper regulations for the utilisation
Indiscriminate honking with pressure
Prolonged exposure may lead to mental of a loudspeaker and other devices
horns, excessively loud music
disorder, high blood pressure and Soundproof machines in industrial
systems
permanent deafness and manufacturing installations
Use of loudspeakers at full volume at
Affect biodiversity which have sensitive Ban all type of fire crackers (?)
religious, social and political
hearing. Noise also distorts the sounds Silence zones around schools and
gatherings
they rely on for their day to day activity hospitals
Construction Sites
Planting green-belt effectively
Noise from consumer appliances
reduces the noise

REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is the process of acquiring information about material objects, area, phenomena without coming in physical contact with the object.
Identification of earth surface features and estimation of their geophysical properties using EM radiation as the mode of interaction.
Spectral, spatio-temporal and polarisation signatures are used.
India’s earth observation satellites ranging from Bhaskara to Cartosat have contributed to the development of remote sensing.

Applications of Remote Sensing

Challenges before agriculture

Increase productivity to feed growing population

Reduce environment degradation caused by input intensive agriculture.

Sustainable Agriculture Remote Sensing can be used for

Identifying cultural wastelands that can be brought under irrigation

Plan supportive infrastructure like irrigation
Spectroscopic signatures can be used to estimate soil quality — soil health cards and precision agriculture
Crop Acreage and production estimation: Used for crop area estimation and yield forecasting before harvest

Fisheries Using remote sensing several parameters of the ocean can be measured

Chlorophyll
Total suspended matter
Dissolved organic carbon

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These parameters can be used to predict accumulation of fish and thus, help in better fishery practices

Inventory of surface water bodies

Irrigation performance
Groundwater exploration
Flood forecasting
Water Security
Reservoir sedimentation
RS along with ground trotting helps to provide information on geology, geomorphology, structural pattern and recharge conditions, which define
the groundwater regime.
Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission: Wells were drilled based on groundwater prospects map generated using RS data.

Inventorying Himalayan glaciers and monitoring their retreat (related to global climate change and water security)
Glacier Monitoring Changes in glacier boundary and their influence on river runoff are used to plan strategy for power generation
Glacial depth is measured using radio echo sounding method

Regulate the impact of developmental activities and sustain the delivery of natural ecosystem functions and services
Mapping of forest cover
Landscape level characterisation of biodiversity — identification of disturbance areas and biological richness areas for conservation and
Environment Assessment bioprospecting over Western Ghats, islands and Eastern Himalayas
Monitor health of critical ecosystems such as mangroves and coral reefs
Studies of carbon sequestration, hydrology and ecosystem patterns
Environment Impact Analysis and Ecological Footprint analysis

Zonation maps for landslides and earthquakes

Weather monitoring — Forecasting of cyclones and floods
Disaster Management Aerial photography can help in damage assessment and plan rescue and evacuation
National Agricultural Drought Monitoring System uses RS to gather data
Databases on lithology, geological structures, slope, vegetation and land use

Inventory of natural resources like minerals, petroleum etc.

Resource Management Natural Resources Management System: Dept. Of Space as Nodal Agency
Maps of wetlands and renewable energy potential

Way Forward

Need to integrate RS with a multi institutional framework and people’e participation in decision making
New sensors to fill the information gaps in spectral, spatial and temporal resolutions
Data to Service oriented approach

NATURAL RESOURCES

Waste management plans to be strictly adhered to, in order to reduce contamination of soil, air and water
Improve efficiency of manufacturing process to judiciously use minerals, so that mining can be reduced
Curb illegal and unregulated mining. Apps like Khan Prahari
Mining Scrap mining and recycling
Proper EIA before grant of mining lease
Invest in research towards environment friendly mining techniques. e.g. Bioprospecting
Ensure proper utilisation of District Mineral Funds — ensure accountability of mining companies

Capital subsidies to invest in fishing gear that don’t damage the ecosystem (like bottom trawling does)
Knowledge of spawning cycles of species, so that fishes are not harvested during the breeding season
Enforce strict fishing guidelines and maximum limits
Fisheries Guidelines for fishing in international waters (currently not regulated)
Stringent measures to curb illegal fishing
Employ indigenous knowledge of sustainable fishing
Minimise environmental impact of fishing gear and vehicles

Aquaculture
Inland aquacultures with 100% water recycling

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Multitrophic aquaculture: Byproducts from one species become feed for another filter feeder. Reduces waste
accumulation and helps to improve water quality. e.g. Fish, Mussels, Sea Weed
Research into species interactions, to fight right combinations for enhancing yields. For e.g. Certain fish can be
reared in rice fields that eat the rice pest, benefiting farmers in multiple ways
Composite culture (multi species) to make most efficient use of resources

Parcel strategy of grazing

Sustainable agriculture practices. Improve yields in present croplands, to minimise needs for expansion
Controlled Burning
Prevent introduction of exotic species
Grasslands
Sustainable groundwater management
Broader climate change mitigation that would increases resilience of grasslands
Grasslands must be seen as unique biomes, and not as wastelands that can be converted to agricultural and
industrial lands

Importance of Resources

Food, water, fodder, energy, medicine

Essential for maintaining ecological balance
Meet increasing human demands
Mitigates pollution
Reduces ecological disasters like flood, drought, etc.

Integrated Pest Management

Method of pest control, which utilizes all suitable techniques of pest control to reduce pest populations and maintain them below the
economic injury level
Based on the ecological relations within the crop and the environment

Use of resistant varieties of crops

Moderately to low level of resistance is best integrated with chemical and biocontrol agents - highly resistant type
Cultural
lead to changes in biotype of the pest.
Crop rotation and sanitation

Use of screens or barriers or handpicking in nursery stage of the crops

Mechanical
Use of light traps to kill egg-laying adults can bring down the population for the other methods to be effective

Conservation and augmentation of natural enemies already available

Biological Importation and colonization of exotic natural enemies
Mass culture and release of indigenous as well as exotic natural enemies

Minimal use of insecticides is recommended in IPM, not to use insecticides unless absolutely necessary
Application methods that do not bring insecticides in contact with natural enemies are favoured
Modification of dosage, times of application, formulations and placement of material can be utilized to increase
Chemical
selectivity of chemicals
Use of pheromones, hormones, repellents, antifeedants and sterilants are selelective in their action - must be
encourages

Plant and animal quarantines by the government and collective eradication and suppression in large areas
Regulatory
International efforts to suppress noxious pests like locusts have proved fruitful

Examples

Prohibition of ratooning.
Prohibition of synthetic organic insecticides and return to the old calcium and lead arsenates and nicotine sulphates.
Repopulation of the area with natural enemies introduced from the surrounding regions
Deadlines for planting, ploughing, irrigation, pruning and harvesting
Employment of cultural practices, which led to the establishment of healthy, uniform stands

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Planting of trap crop of a susceptible variety or attractive crop on the borders and main crop in the middle, and then spraying only on the
susceptible variety where the pest would naturally congregate

Paddy - FAO developed an intercountry programme for IPM in South and Southeast Asia by integrating biological, chemical and cultural
control methods
Sugarcane - Chemical control is not successful in sugarcane fields because of technical and mechanical problems of insecticide
applications and insecticide contamination eventually reaching humans. Integration of biological control, particularly the egg parasite,
Trichogramma species and modification of cultural practices has been successful

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