NNAMIDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA

DEPARTMENT OF FINE AND APPLIED ARTS

ASSESSMENT

ON

COURSE CODE: FAA 851

COURSE TITLE: CRITICAL ISSUES IN ART AND ARTS CRITICISM

LECTURER IN CHARGE: PROF. CLIFFORD EZEKWEM NWANNA

BY

OZOR PETER OKOCHA

2024036003FN

PROGRAM: MASTERS

QUESTION

1. WHAT IS ART CRITICISM

2. WRITE BRIEFLY ON ART CRITICISM

3. WHAT MOTIVATE PEOPLE TO APPRECIATE ART WORKS

MARCH 2025
Art Criticism

Art criticism is a discipline within the field of aesthetics and art history that involves

analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating artworks. It is an essential practice that provides

insights into artistic expressions, cultural contexts, and the impact of art on society. Art

criticism not only helps to appreciate and understand art but also contributes to its historical

and theoretical discourse

Definition and Purpose of Art Criticism

Art criticism is the process of engaging with a work of art through description, analysis,

interpretation, and judgment. The primary aim is to provide an informed and structured

discussion about art, which may include aspects such as technique, form, meaning, and

historical relevance (Barrett, 1994). According to D'Alleva (2005), art criticism enables

viewers to approach artworks with a deeper understanding of their artistic and cultural

significance.

Feldman (1970) outlines four essential steps in art criticism: description, analysis,

interpretation, and judgment. Description involves identifying the visual elements present in

an artwork without imposing subjective opinions. Analysis examines how these elements

interact, including composition, colour schemes, and the use of space. Interpretation seeks to

understand the possible meanings, themes, and messages conveyed by the artist, often

considering historical and cultural contexts. Judgment, the final stage, involves evaluating the

success or impact of the artwork based on aesthetic and conceptual criteria.

The purpose of art criticism extends beyond personal opinion; it fosters deeper engagement

with art, encouraging critical thinking and appreciation (Freeland, 2001). It serves as a bridge

between artists and audiences, helping to contextualize works within artistic movements and
broader cultural discussions. Art criticism also plays a crucial role in shaping artistic canons,

influencing which works are valued and preserved over time (Carrier, 2008).

In contemporary contexts, art criticism has expanded to incorporate diverse perspectives,

including feminist, postcolonial, and digital critiques, reflecting the evolving nature of artistic

expression (Nochlin, 1971). Whether in academic writing, journalism, or online platforms, art

criticism remains vital for understanding and interpreting art in a meaningful way.

Historical Development of Art Criticism

Art criticism has evolved over centuries, shaped by shifting artistic movements, philosophical

perspectives, and cultural contexts. One of the earliest figures in art criticism was Giorgio

Vasari (1511–1574), who is Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects

(Vasari, 1550/1991) provided biographical accounts of Renaissance artists. Vasari's work

established a model for later art historical writing by linking artistic development to

individual genius and stylistic progression.

The Enlightenment period saw the emergence of systematic art criticism. Denis Diderot

(1713–1784) pioneered critical analysis of contemporary art, particularly through his reviews

of the Salon exhibitions in Paris. His critiques (Diderot, 1765/1995) moved beyond mere

description, engaging with the emotional and philosophical dimensions of art, setting a

foundation for modern interpretative criticism. Similarly, Johann Joachim Winckelmann

(1717–1768) contributed to art historiography by emphasizing stylistic analysis and the

classical ideal, arguing that Greek art embodied the highest aesthetic values (History of the

Art of Antiquity, 1764).

In the 19th century, art criticism expanded alongside Romanticism, Realism, and the rise of

modernity. John Ruskin (1819–1900), in works like The Stones of Venice (1853), argued that
art should reflect moral and social values, advocating for a connection between artistic beauty

and ethical integrity. Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), in contrast, championed modernity in

his Salon of 1846, asserting that art should engage with contemporary life rather than

idealized classical traditions. This period also saw the rise of Impressionist critics like Émile

Zola, who defended avant-garde artists against traditional academic standards.

The 20th century introduced diverse theoretical approaches to art criticism. Clement

Greenberg (1909–1994) advanced formalist criticism, emphasizing the aesthetic purity of

modernist art, particularly Abstract Expressionism (Art and Culture, 1961). His

contemporary, Harold Rosenberg (1906–1978), countered with the concept of Action

Painting (Rosenberg, 1952/1982), emphasizing the gestural and performative aspects of

painting. Meanwhile, Susan Sontag (1933–2004) argued for an experiential approach,

advocating for “Against Interpretation” (1966), which resisted over-intellectualization in

favor of direct artistic engagement.

In recent decades, art criticism has expanded to include feminist (Nochlin, 1971),

postcolonial (Said, 1978), and digital (Joselit, 2013) perspectives, reflecting contemporary

concerns about representation, power, and technology. Today, art criticism continues to

evolve, bridging academic, journalistic, and online discourse in an ever-changing artistic

landscape.

Approaches to Art Criticism

There are various approaches to art criticism, each offering a unique lens for analyzing

artworks and understanding their meaning and impact.

Formal Analysis: This approach, pioneered by Heinrich Wölfflin, focuses on the visual

elements of an artwork—line, shape, color, texture, and composition. Wölfflin introduced

developments across different artistic periods. Greenberg (1961) further developed

formalism, emphasizing purity in modernist painting, particularly Abstract Expressionism.

Contextual Analysis: This method examines the broader social, historical, and cultural

background of an artwork. It considers the artist’s biography, political influences, and the

cultural movements that shaped the work. Nochlin (1971) famously questioned the absence

of women in art history, linking artistic production to systemic societal structures. T.J. Clark

(The Painting of Modern Life, 1985) analyzed 19th-century French painting through a

Marxist lens, situating art within its socio-conomic context.

Psychoanalytic Criticism: Inspired by Sigmund Freud’s theories (Leonardo da Vinci and a

Memory of His Childhood, 1914/1957), this approach explores unconscious motivations in

artistic creation. Freud interpreted Da Vinci’s paintings through childhood memories and

repressed desires. Jung (1968) expanded this by introducing archetypal criticism, suggesting

that recurring symbols in art stem from a collective unconscious.

Feminist Criticism: This perspective, championed by scholars like Nochlin (1971) and

Pollock (1988), challenges gender biases in art history and foregrounds female artists

historically overlooked by the canon. Feminist critics analyze how representations of gender

and power manifest in artistic imagery, questioning the male-dominated art world.

Postmodern and Deconstructivist Criticism: This approach, influenced by Jacques Derrida

(Of Grammatology, 1978) and Michel Foucault (The Order of Things, 1966), deconstructs

traditional narratives and emphasizes multiple interpretations of art. Roland Barthes (The

Death of the Author, 1967) argued against fixed meanings, asserting that the viewer’s

interpretation is as significant as the artist’s intent. This perspective often challenges artistic

hierarchies and questions established aesthetic values.

with and understand art in its many forms.

The Role of Art Critics

Art critics play a vital role in shaping public perception and understanding of art. They serve

as intermediaries between artists and audiences, offering informed perspectives that

contribute to the appreciation of artistic works. Their influence extends beyond interpretation,

affecting the art market, museum acquisitions, and academic discourse (Elkins, 2003).

Mediators between Artists and Audiences

Art critics help bridge the gap between the creator and the viewer by providing context,

analysis, and evaluation. Through newspaper articles, academic journals, and online

platforms, critics translate complex artistic ideas into accessible language, guiding audiences

in interpreting works. Greenberg (1961) argued that critics should clarify the formal qualities

of art, helping audiences engage with modernist aesthetics. Similarly, Berger (1972) explored

how art criticism can reshape viewers' perspectives by exposing the ideological structures

behind visual culture.

Influence on the Art Market and Institutional Acquisitions

Critics significantly impact the valuation and reception of artworks, often determining which

artists gain recognition and which movements become dominant. Their reviews influence

collectors, galleries, and museums in making acquisition decisions. For instance, Greenberg’s

promotion of Abstract Expressionism played a crucial role in elevating Jackson Pollock,

Mark Rothko, and Barnett Newman in the mid-20th century. Similarly, Harold Rosenberg’s

(1952/1982) theory of Action Painting influenced how postwar American painting was

perceived, shifting critical attention toward the physical act of painting itself. More recently,
figures like Jerry Saltz and Roberta Smith continue to shape contemporary art discourse

through journalistic criticism.

Theoretical and Academic Contributions

Art critics contribute to the development of art history and theory by offering new

frameworks for analysis. Nochlin’s (1971) essay Why Have There Been No Great Women

Artists? challenged traditional art historical narratives, prompting feminist critiques of artistic

institutions. Krauss (1985) introduced post-structuralist perspectives, questioning the concept

of originality in modern art. These critical interventions help redefine how art is studied and

understood in academic circles.

Shaping Cultural and Political Discourse

Beyond aesthetics, art criticism engages with broader cultural, political, and ethical issues.

Clark (1973) used Marxist analysis to examine how 19th-century art reflected class struggles.

Edward (1978) Said influenced postcolonial approaches to art criticism by revealing how

Western representations of the "East" perpetuated colonial stereotypes. More recently,

scholars like Okwui (2002) have expanded global perspectives on contemporary art,

advocating for greater inclusion of African and diasporic artists in mainstream discussions.

Evolving Roles in the Digital Age

With the rise of digital media, the role of art critics has expanded beyond traditional print

publications. Online platforms, blogs, and social media allow for more diverse and immediate

engagement with art. Platforms like Hyperallergic and e-flux offer alternative spaces for

critique, often challenging commercial and institutional narratives. However, this shift also

raises concerns about the democratization of criticism, as professional expertise competes

art discourse can dilute critical depth, making sustained analysis more difficult.

Challenges in Art Criticism

Despite its significance, art criticism faces several challenges that complicate its role in

evaluating and interpreting artworks. These challenges include subjectivity, the evolving

nature of contemporary art, commercial pressures, accessibility, and the impact of digital

media.

 The Issue of Subjectivity

Art criticism is inherently subjective, as different critics may interpret the same artwork in

vastly different ways. This subjectivity stems from personal biases, cultural backgrounds, and

theoretical preferences (Danto, 1997). Danto, argues that in a pluralistic art world where no

single style or movement dominates, critics struggle to establish universal criteria for

judgment. As a result, what one critic considers ground-breaking, another may dismiss as

derivative or uninspired. The challenge, therefore, is balancing personal interpretation with

objective analysis.

 The Evolving Nature of Contemporary Art

Traditional critical frameworks, which were developed for painting, sculpture, and classical

forms, often struggle to accommodate newer forms of artistic expression such as conceptual

art, performance art, and digital media (Dickie, 1974). The institutional theory of art,

proposed by Dickie, suggests that an artwork’s legitimacy is often determined by its

acceptance within the art world. However, as contemporary artists continue to challenge

institutional definitions, critics must constantly adapt their analytical approaches. For
instance, the rise of interactive and AI-generated art challenges traditional notions of

authorship and meaning (Grau, 2003).

 Commercial and Institutional Pressures

The influence of galleries, museums, and the art market raises concerns about the impartiality

of art criticism. Carroll (1999) highlights how art criticism can be swayed by financial

interests, as favorable reviews can increase an artist’s market value. Similarly, Carrier (1987)

notes that critics may align with institutional agendas, compromising their ability to provide

independent assessments. The growing commercialization of art through sponsorships and

brand collaborations further complicates this issue, as critics must navigate the tension

between artistic integrity and market-driven narratives.

 Accessibility and the Role of the Audience

Art criticism is often perceived as elitist, with complex language and theoretical jargon

making it inaccessible to general audiences (Elkins, 2003). Elkins argues that modern art

criticism has become overly academic, distancing itself from public engagement. The

challenge is to balance scholarly depth with accessibility, ensuring that criticism remains

relevant to both art professionals and everyday viewers.

 The Impact of Digital Media and Democratization

The rise of digital media and social platforms has transformed art criticism, allowing for a

more democratized discourse. Online publications, blogs, and social media provide a space

for alternative voices, but they also contribute to the oversaturation of opinions, making it

difficult to distinguish expert critique from uninformed commentary (Elkins, 2003). While

digital platforms like Hyperallergic and e-flux challenge mainstream narratives, they also
raise questions about the changing role of the critic in an era where audiences can directly

engage with artists and form their own interpretations without mediation.

Conclusion

Art criticism is a crucial discipline that enhances the understanding, interpretation, and

appreciation of art. By employing diverse analytical approaches—ranging from formal

analysis and contextual evaluation to psychoanalytic and postmodern critiques—art critics

provide valuable insights into artistic intent, cultural context, and aesthetic significance.

These evaluations not only inform public discourse but also shape academic research,

museum collections, and the broader art market.

As art continues to evolve, so too must the methods and perspectives of art criticism. The

increasing diversity of artistic media, from digital and AI-generated works to interactive

installations, demands more flexible and inclusive critical frameworks (Elkins, 2003).

Moreover, the rise of digital platforms has democratized art criticism, making it more

accessible while simultaneously posing challenges in maintaining critical depth and scholarly

rigor (Danto, 1997).

Despite these challenges, art criticism remains essential in fostering deeper engagement with

art, bridging the gap between creators and audiences, and ensuring that artistic contributions

are critically examined within their historical and cultural contexts. Moving forward, the

discipline must balance traditional analytical rigor with contemporary adaptability, ensuring

that it remains relevant and meaningful in an ever-changing artistic landscape.

Art criticism is the systematic evaluation and interpretation of visual artworks, encompassing

description, analysis, interpretation, and judgment. It aims to deepen the understanding and

appreciation of art by considering elements such as technique, form, meaning, and historical

context (Barrett, 1994).

Historically, art criticism has evolved through various periods. Giorgio Vasari’s biographical

approach in the Renaissance laid the foundation for critical discourse (Vasari, 1550/1991).

The 18th and 19th centuries saw figures like Denis Diderot and John Ruskin emphasizing

artistic trends and moral dimensions (Diderot, 1995; Ruskin, 1853). In the 20th century,

Clement Greenberg’s formalist criticism and Harold Rosenberg’s action painting theory

introduced modern evaluative frameworks (Greenberg, 1961; Rosenberg, 1982).

Different approaches to art criticism include formal analysis (focusing on visual elements),

contextual analysis (examining historical and cultural influences), psychoanalytic criticism

(exploring unconscious motivations), feminist criticism (addressing gender biases), and

postmodern criticism (questioning traditional narratives) (Wölfflin, 1950; Nochlin, 1971;

Derrida, 1978).

Despite its importance, art criticism faces challenges such as subjectivity, commercial

influence, and evolving artistic forms (Danto, 1997; Carrier, 1987). However, it remains

essential in shaping public perception, guiding museum acquisitions, and fostering critical

discourse in academia and the art market (Elkins, 2003).

As art continues to evolve, so must art criticism, adapting new methodologies to remain

relevant in an increasingly digital and globalized artistic landscape.

Art appreciation is a deeply personal and multifaceted experience, influenced by cultural,

psychological, aesthetic, intellectual, and emotional factors. People engage with art for

various reasons, ranging from emotional resonance to intellectual stimulation and social

influence. Below are some key motivations that drive individuals to appreciate artworks.

 Emotional and Psychological Engagement

Aesthetic Experience and Emotional Impact

Art has the power to evoke emotions, whether it is joy, sadness, nostalgia, or even

discomfort. The beauty of an artwork, its colors, composition, and subject matter can trigger

emotional responses, making the viewer feel connected to the piece (Danto, 1997). This

aesthetic experience, often described as a sense of wonder or admiration, plays a crucial role

in art appreciation.

Catharsis and Personal Reflection

According to Aristotle’s concept of catharsis, art allows individuals to experience and release

emotions in a controlled environment. Many people appreciate art because it provides an

outlet for self-reflection, helping them process personal experiences and emotions. A

painting, sculpture, or piece of music might resonate with a viewer’s personal history,

offering comfort or a sense of understanding (Freud, 1957).

Psychological Escapism

Art serves as an escape from reality. In a world filled with routine and stress, engaging with

art allows individuals to transcend their everyday experiences and immerse themselves in
new perspectives, stories, and emotions. This escapist motivation is particularly evident in the

appreciation of fantasy art, surrealism, and abstract works (Jung, 1964).

 Intellectual Stimulation and Curiosity

Desire for Knowledge and Interpretation

Many people appreciate art because it challenges them to think critically. Art often contains

hidden meanings, symbolism, and historical references that require interpretation. Engaging

with an artwork can stimulate curiosity, leading viewers to research the artist’s background,

artistic movements, or cultural influences (Nochlin, 1971).

The Puzzle of Abstraction

Abstract and conceptual art particularly attract those who enjoy solving intellectual puzzles.

Unlike representational art, which depicts recognizable subjects, abstract art invites multiple

interpretations, encouraging deeper engagement and personal meaning-making (Greenberg,

1961).

Philosophical and Existential Inquiry

Some artworks raise profound philosophical questions about existence, identity, society, and

reality. Viewers drawn to these themes appreciate art as a medium for exploring complex

ideas and challenging their perspectives (Derrida, 1978).

 Cultural and Social Influences

Cultural Identity and Heritage

Art appreciation is often tied to cultural pride and heritage. Traditional and indigenous

artworks connect people to their roots, allowing them to celebrate and preserve cultural
narratives. People may admire historical art from their own backgrounds or gain a deeper

understanding of other cultures through exposure to diverse artistic traditions (Vasari, 1991).

Social Prestige and Status

For some, art appreciation is influenced by social status. Owning or being knowledgeable

about art can be a sign of sophistication, education, and high cultural capital. This is

especially evident in the art market, where collectors invest in prestigious artworks not only

for aesthetic enjoyment but also for financial and social recognition (Bourdieu, 1984).

Community and Shared Experiences

Art brings people together, fostering a sense of belonging and shared experience. Museums,

galleries, and public art installations provide spaces for social interaction and discourse.

Festivals, exhibitions, and performances encourage collective appreciation, making art a

communal activity (Elkins, 2003).

 Spiritual and Transcendental Experience

Religious and Spiritual Connections

Throughout history, art has been deeply tied to religion and spirituality. Many appreciate art

as a means of connecting with the divine, whether through sacred paintings, sculptures, or

architecture. The grandeur of religious art, such as the stained glass windows of cathedrals or

intricate mandalas, inspires reverence and contemplation (Ruskin, 1853).

Meditative and Healing Properties

Art can also serve as a meditative practice. Many people find that engaging with visual arts,

music, or poetry helps reduce stress and promotes mindfulness. The therapeutic value of art is
recognized in fields like art therapy, where creating and experiencing art is used for

emotional healing and self-expression (Grau, 2003).

 Economic and Professional Motivations

Investment and Collecting

Art is often appreciated for its economic value. Collectors and investors analyze artworks

based on their market potential, rarity, and historical significance. The appreciation of art in

this context is tied to financial gain, prestige, and the long-term value of artistic assets

(Carrier, 1987).

Career and Academic Interest

Scholars, critics, curators, and artists appreciate art as part of their professional and academic

pursuits. They engage with art not only for personal enjoyment but also to contribute to its

study, critique, and preservation (Nochlin, 1971).

Conclusion

The appreciation of art is motivated by a wide range of factors, including emotional

engagement, intellectual curiosity, cultural influences, social dynamics, and economic

considerations. Whether driven by personal connection, aesthetic enjoyment, or philosophical

inquiry, art continues to inspire and captivate people across time and cultures. As artistic

expressions evolve, so too do the ways in which individuals perceive and engage with art,

making appreciation a dynamic and ever-changing experience.

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