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YOUR NOTES
AS Physics CIE 

11.2 Fundamental Particles

CONTENTS
11.2.1 Fundamental Particles
11.2.2 Quark Composition

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11.2.1 Fundamental Particles YOUR NOTES


Fundamental Particles: Quarks
Quarks are fundamental particles that make up other subatomic particles such as
protons and neutrons
Protons and neutrons are in a category of particles called hadrons
Hadrons are defined as any particle made up of quarks
Fundamental means that quarks are not made up of any other particles. Another example
is electrons
Quarks have never been observed on their own, they’re either in pairs or groups of three
There are six flavours (types) of quarks that exist:

The six flavours of quarks

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Properties of Quarks YOUR NOTES

The charge of a hadron is determined by the sum of the charges of its quarks 
Each flavour of quark has a certain relative charge:

Each flavour of quark has a charge of either +⅔e or -⅓e

For example, a proton is made up of two up quarks and a down quark. Adding up their
charges gives the charge of a proton:
+⅔e + ⅔e - ⅓e = +1e
The equivalent antiparticle of the quark is the anti-quark
These are identical to quarks except with opposite relative charges

Each flavour of anti-quark has a charge of either -⅔e or +⅓e. The quark composition of
anti-protons and anti-neutrons changes to anti-quarks

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Particles are made up of a combination of three quarks or two quarks. Which quark
combination would not give a particle a charge of -1 or 0?
A. up, strange, strange
B. charm, charm, down
C. top, anti-up
D. anti-up, anti-up, anti-strange

 Exam Tip
You will be expected to remember the charge of each quark. However, instead of
memorising the charges of anti-quarks too, just remember they are identical but
with opposite signs.

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Fundamental Particles: Leptons YOUR NOTES

Leptons are a group of fundamental (elementary) particles 
This means they are not made up of any other particles (no quarks)
There are six leptons altogether:

The six leptons are all fundamental particles

The muon and tau particle are very similar to the electron but with slightly larger mass
Electrons, muon and tau particles all have a charge of -1e and a mass of 0.0005u
There are three flavours (types) of neutrinos (electron, muon, tau)
Neutrinos are the most abundant leptons in the universe
They have no charge and negligible mass (almost 0)
Leptons interact with the weak interaction, electromagnetic and gravitational forces
However, they do not interact with the strong force
Although quarks are fundamental particles too, they are not classed as leptons
Leptons do not interact with the strong force, whilst quarks do

 Worked Example
Circle all the anti-leptons in the following decay equation.

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YOUR NOTES


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11.2.2 Quark Composition YOUR NOTES


Quark Composition: Protons & Neutrons
Protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles. They are each made up of three
quarks
Protons are made up of two up quarks and a down quark
Neutrons are made up of two down quarks and an up quark

Protons and neutrons are made up of three quarks

You will be expected to remember these quark combinations for exam questions

 Worked Example

Step 1: Calculate number of protons:

The number of protons is from the proton number = 26 protons
Step 2: Calculate number of neutrons:
The number of neutrons = nucleon number - proton number = 56 - 26 = 30 neutrons
Step 3: Up quarks in a proton:
Protons are made up of uud quarks = 2 up quarks
Step 4: Up quarks in a neutron:
Neutrons are made up of udd quarks = 1 up quark
Step 5: Total number of up quarks:
26 protons x 2 up quarks = 52 up quarks

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30 neutrons x 1 up quark = 30 up quarks YOUR NOTES

52 + 30 = 82 up quarks 

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Baryons & Mesons YOUR NOTES

Hadrons are the group of subatomic particles that are made up of quarks 
These may be either a:
Baryon (3 quarks)
Meson (quark and anti-quark pair)

Hadrons may be either a baryon or a meson

Quarks have never been discovered on their own, always in pairs or groups of three
Anti-hadrons can be either
Anti-baryons (3 anti-quarks)
Anti-meson (quark and anti-quark pair)

Anti-hadrons may be either an anti-baryon or an anti-meson

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Note that all baryons or mesons have integer (whole number) charges eg. +1e, -2e etc. YOUR NOTES
This means quarks in a baryon are either all quarks or all anti-quarks. Combination of quarks 
and anti-quarks don’t exist in a baryon
e.g.

The anti-particle of a meson is still a quark-antiquark pair. The difference being the quark
becomes the anti-quark and vice versa

 Worked Example
The baryon Δ++ was discovered in a particle accelerator using accelerated positive
pions on hydrogen targets.Which of the following is the quark combination of this
particle?

 Exam Tip
Remembering quark combinations is useful for the exam. However, as long as
you can remember the charges for each quark, it is possible to figure out the
combination by making sure the combination of quarks add up to the charge of
the particle ( just like in the worked example)

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Quark Composition: β– & β+ decay YOUR NOTES

Beta decay happens via the weak interaction 
This is one of the four fundamental forces and it’s responsible for radioactive decays
Quark Composition: β- decay
Recall that β- decay is when a neutron turns into a proton emitting an electron and anti-
electron neutrino
More specifically, a neutron turns into a proton because a down quark turning into an up
quark

Beta minus decay is when a down quark turns into an up quark

Quark Composition: β+ decay
Recall that β+ decay is when a proton turns into a neutron emitting an positron and an
electron neutrino
More specifically, a proton turns into a neutron because an up quark turns into a down
quark

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Beta minus decay is when an up quark turns into a down quark YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
The equation for β– decay is

Using the quark model of beta decay, prove that the charge is conserved in this
equation.

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