1

Course Code: CE-918

Introduction to Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

Remote Sensing

Unit I
Remote Sensing 2

What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information about the earth’s surface without
actually being in contact with it.
This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that
information.

A device to detect the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from an object is called a ―sensor (e.g.,
cameras and scanners). A vehicle used to carry the sensor is called a ―platform (e.g., aircrafts and satellites).

Applications in civil engineering:

Watershed studies, hydrological states and fluxes simulation, hydrological modelling, disaster management
services such as flood and drought warning and monitoring, damage assessment in case of natural calamities,
environmental monitoring, urban planning, transportation network analysis, Land Use Land Cover, etc.
Historical development of remote sensing 3
 4
Historical development of remote sensing
Milestones in the history of remote sensing
Historical development of remote sensing 5
Components/process of Remote Sensing 6

In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between incident radiation and the targets of
interest. This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems where the following seven elements are involved.
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source
which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact
with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a second time as the
energy travels from the target to the sensor.

3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to
the target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending
on the properties of both the target and the radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been
scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not
in contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic
radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy
recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to
a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an
image (hardcopy and/or digital).
Components/process of Remote Sensing 7

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is

interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract
information about the target which was illuminated.

7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote

sensing process is achieved when we apply the
information we have been able to extract from the imagery
about the target in order to better understand it, reveal
some new information, or assist in solving a particular
problem.

These seven elements comprise the remote sensing process

from beginning to end.
Electromagnetic radiation 8

The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the target.
This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation

What is electromagnetic radiation?

Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical
field(E) which varies in magnitude in a direction
perpendicular to the direction in which the radiation is
traveling, and a magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles
to the electrical field. Both these fields travel at the speed
of light (c).
Characteristics of Electromagnetic radiation 9

Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important for understanding remote sensing.
These are the wavelength and frequency.
The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the
distance between successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by the
Greek letter lambda (λ). Wavelength is measured in metres (m) or some factor of
metres such as nanometres (nm, 10-9 metres), micrometres (μm, 10-6 metres) or
centimetres (cm, 10-2 metres).
Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of
time. Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle per
second, and various multiples of hertz.

Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

Therefore, the two are inversely related to each other. The shorter the
wavelength, the higher the frequency. The longer the wavelength, the
lower the frequency.
Electromagnetic Spectrum 10

The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including gamma and x-rays) to the longer wavelengths
(including microwaves and broadcast radio waves). There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are
useful for remote sensing.
Electromagnetic Spectrum (contd..) 11

WAVELENGTH REGIONS IMPORTANT TO REMOTE SENSING

i. Ultraviolet
ii. Visible spectrum
iii. Infrared
iv. Microwave

i. Ultraviolet
For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV portion of the
spectrum has the shortest wavelengths which are practical for
remote sensing. This radiation is just beyond the violet portion
of the visible wavelengths, hence its name. Some Earth
surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals, fluoresce or
emit visible light when illuminated by UV radiation.
Electromagnetic Spectrum (contd..) 12

ii. Visible spectrum

The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can detect is part of the
visible spectrum. It is important to recognize how small the visible portion is
relative to the rest of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation around us which
is "invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing
instruments and used to our advantage. The visible wavelengths cover a range
from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 μm. The longest visible wavelength is red and
the shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular
colours from the visible portion of the spectrum are listed below. It is
important to note that this is the only portion of the spectrum we can
associate with the concept of colours.
 13
Electromagnetic Spectrum (contd..)
Visible spectrum

Blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the visible spectrum. Theyare defined as such
because no single primary colour can be created from the other two, but all other colours can be formed by
combining blue, green, and red in various proportions. Although we see sunlight as a uniform or homogeneous
colour, it is actually composed of various wavelengths of radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible and infrared
portions of the spectrum. The visible portion of this radiation can be shown in its component colours when sunlight is
passed through a prism, which bends the light in differing amounts according to wavelength.
Electromagnetic Spectrum (contd..) 14

iii. Infrared
The next portion of the spectrum of interest is the infrared (IR) region which
covers the wavelength ranging from approximately 0.7 μm to 100 μm more
than 100 times as wide as the visible portion.
The infrared can be divided into 3 categories based on their radiation
properties:
a. Reflected near- IR: The reflected near IR covers wavelengths from
approximately 0.7 μm to 1.3 μm is commonly used to expose black and
white and color-infrared sensitive film.
b. Middle IR : The middle-infrared region includes energy with a wavelength
of 1.3 to 3.0 μm.
c. Thermal IR : The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and
reflected IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is
emitted from the Earth's surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR covers
wavelengths from approximately 3.0 μm to 100 μm.
 15
Electromagnetic Spectrum (contd..)
iv. Microwave
This wavelength (or frequency) interval in the electromagnetic spectrum
is commonly referred to as a band, channel or region. The major
subdivision in this region is shown in Figure.
The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing
is the microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers the
longest wavelengths used for remote sensing. The shorter wavelengths
have properties similar to the thermal infrared region while the longer
wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
 16
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere
 17
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere
Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel
through some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the
atmosphere can affect the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by
the mechanisms of scattering and absorption.

A . Scattering
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere
interact with and cause electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original
path. How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including the
wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance
the radiation travels through the atmosphere.

There are three (3) types of scattering that take place.

• Rayleigh scattering
• Mie scattering
• Non-selective scattering
 18
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere (contd…)
Types of scattering
• Rayleigh scattering
✓ It occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the radiation. These could be particles such as small
specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules.
✓ Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer wavelengths.
✓ Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere.
✓ The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the
atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer) visible
wavelengths. At sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering
of the shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the
atmosphere.
 19
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere (contd…)
Types of scattering
• Mie scattering
✓ It occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the radiation.
✓ Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than
those affected by Rayleigh scattering.
✓ Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and
dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.

• Non-selective scattering
✓ This occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles
can cause this type of scattering.
✓ Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about equally. This type of scattering
causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal
quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).
 20
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere (contd…)
B. Absorption
Absorption is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation interacts with
the atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere
to absorb energy at various wavelengths. Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapour are the three
main atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation.

Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Without this protective layer in the atmosphere our skin would burn when exposed to sunlight.

Carbon dioxide is referred to as a greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared
portion of the spectrum - that area associated with thermal heating - which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere.

Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming longwave infrared and shortwave microwave radiation
(between 22μm and 1m). The presence of water vapour in the lower atmosphere varies greatly from location to location
and at different times of the year. For example, the air mass above a desert would have very little water vapour to absorb
energy, while the tropics would have high concentrations of water vapour (i.e. high humidity).
 21
Interaction of EMR with atmosphere (contd…)
Atmospheric windows
While EMR is transmitted from the sun to the surface of the earth, it passes through the atmosphere. Here, electromagnetic
radiation is scattered and absorbed by gases and dust particles. Besides the major atmospheric gaseous components like
molecular nitrogen and oxygen, other constituents like water vapour, methane, hydrogen, helium and nitrogen compounds
play important role in modifying electromagnetic radiation. This affects image quality. Regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum in which the atmosphere is transparent are called atmospheric windows. In other words, those areas of the
spectrum which are not severely influenced by atmospheric absorption and thus, are useful to remote sensors, are called
atmospheric windows.
 22
Interaction of EMR with target
Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach and interact
with the Earth's surface. There are three (3) forms of interaction that can take place
when energy strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface.
These are:
• Absorption (A) - occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the target
• Transmission (T) - occurs when radiation passes through a target
• Reflection (R) - occurs when radiation "bounces" off the target and is redirected

The total incident energy will interact with the surface in one or more of these three
ways. The proportions of each will depend on the wavelength of the energy and the
material and condition of the feature.

In remote sensing, we are most interested in measuring the radiation reflected from
targets. We refer to two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme ends of
the way in which energy is reflected from a target:
specular reflection and diffuse reflection.
 23
Interaction of EMR with target (contd..)
Specular reflection and diffuse reflection

When a surface is smooth we get a specular or

mirror-like reflection where all (or almost all) of the
energy is directed away from the surface in a
single direction.

Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and

the energy is reflected almost uniformly in all directions.
 24
Interaction of EMR with target (contd..)
Interaction with leaves Interaction with water

Longer wavelength visible and near-infrared radiation is

A chemical compound in leaves called chlorophyll absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths.
strongly absorbs radiation in the red and blue Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to
wavelengths but reflects green wavelengths. stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and
Leaves appear "greenest“ to us in the summer, darker if viewed at red or near-infrared wavelengths.
when chlorophyll content is at its maximum. In If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers
autumn, there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so of the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and
there is less absorption and proportionately more a brighter appearance of the water. The apparent colour of
reflection of the red wavelengths, making the the water will show a slight shift to longer wavelengths.
leaves appear red or yellow (yellow is a
combination of red and green wavelengths).
Advantages and disadvantages of Remote Sensing 25

Advantages of remote sensing are:

a) Provides data of large areas

b) Provides data of very remote and inaccessible regions
c) Able to obtain imagery of any area over a continuous period of time through which the any anthropogenic or natural changes
in the landscape can be analyzed
d) Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing a team of surveyors
e) Easy and rapid collection of data
f) Rapid production of maps for interpretation

Disadvantages of remote sensing are:

a) The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level

b) Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data
c) Data from multiple sources may create confusion
d) Objects can be misclassified or confused
e) Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative motion of sensor and source