MPT00303

TOPIC 6
CONTROL AND REGULATION (I)

Nervous
Hormone Homeostasis
system
 NERVOU S
SYSTEM

• A complex network of
nerves and cells that carry
messages to and from the
brain and spinal cord to
various parts of the body.
• The nervous systems include:
• central nervous system
(CNS)
• peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(CNS)

• CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord,

which is the body’s processing centre.
• The brain controls most of the functions of the
body, e.g., awareness, movement, thinking, speech,
and the five senses (seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting
and smelling).
• The spinal cord is an extension of the brain,
which carries messages to and from the brain via
the network of peripheral nerves connected to it.
• Nerves also connect the spinal cord to a part of
the brain called the brainstem.
HUMAN BRAIN Frontal lobe:
ANATOMY • The largest lobe of brain, located in the
front of the head.
• Involved in personality characteristics,
decision-making and movement.
• Recognition of smell usually involves
parts of the frontal lobe.
• Contains Broca’s area that is associated
with speech ability.

Temporal lobe:
• The sides of the brain.
• Involved in short-term memory, speech,
musical rhythm, and some degree of
smell recognition.
HUMAN BRAIN Parietal lobe:
ANATOMY • The middle part of the brain.
• Helps a person to identify objects and
understand spatial relationships
(where one’s body is compared with
objects around the person).
• Involved in interpreting pain and
touch in the body.
• Houses Wernicke’s area that helps the
brain understand spoken language.

Occipital lobe:
• The back part of the brain.
• Involved with vision.
 BRAIN

Cerebrum:
• Initiates and coordinates
movement and regulates
temperature.
• Enable speech, judgement,
thinking and reasoning, problem-
solving, emotions and learning.
• Functions related to vision,
hearing, touch and other senses.

Brainstem:
• Connects the cerebrum with the
spinal cord.
Midbrain: BRAIN
• Facilitates various functions, from hearing and
movement to calculating responses and
environmental changes.
• Contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by
Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine neurons
and part of the basal ganglia, which enables
movement and coordination.

Pons:
• Enables a range of activities such as tear production,
chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing
and facial expression.
• Named for the Latin word “bridge”, for its
connection between the midbrain and the medulla.
 BRAIN

Medulla:
• Essential to survival.
• Regulates many bodily activities, including
heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and O 2
and CO2 levels.
• Produces reflexive activities, e.g., sneezing,
vomiting, coughing and swallowing.
BRAIN Thalamus:
• Relays sensory input to the cerebrum.
• Plays a role in sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, learning
and memory.
Hypothalamus:
• Controls the gland.
• Keeps the body in a stable state called homeostasis.
Cerebellum:
• Coordinates voluntary muscle movements and
maintains posture, balance and equilibrium.
Spinal cord:
• Sends motor commands from the brain to the body.
• Sends sensory information from the body to the brain
• Coordinates reflexes.
 DEEPER STRUCTURES WITHIN
THE BRAIN

Pituitary gland:
• Sometimes called the master gland.
• Governs the function of other glands in the body,
regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid,
adrenals, ovaries and testicles.
• Receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus
through its stalk and blood supply.
Amygdala:
• It regulates emotion and memory and is
associated with the brain’s reward system, stress,
and the “fight or flight” response when someone
perceives a threat.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOU S S YS TEM
(PNS)

• PNS includes all the nerves that branch out from

the brain and spinal cord and extend to other
body parts, including muscles and organs.
• Connects the CNS to the organs, limbs and skin.
• It allows the brain and spinal cord to receive and
send information to other body areas, enabling us
to react to environmental stimuli.
• PNS is divided into two parts:
i. Somatic nervous system
ii. Autonomic nervous system
SOMATIC NE RVOU S SYSTEM
• Derived from the Greek word “soma”, which
means body.
• Responsible for carrying sensory and motor
information to and from the CNS.
• Contains two major types of neurons:
i. Motor neurons (or efferent neurons):
carry information from the brain and spinal
cord to muscle fibers throughout the body,
allowing us to take physical action in
response to stimuli in the environment.
ii. Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons):
carry information from the nerves to the
CNS, allowing us to take in sensory
information and send it to the brain and
spinal cord.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

•It is a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates

involuntary physiologic processes, including heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal.
•It contains three anatomically distinct divisions: sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric:
•The sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous
system contain both afferent and efferent fibres that provide sensory
input and motor output, respectively, to the central nervous system.
•The enteric nervous system is an extensive, web-like structure that is
capable of functioning independently of the remainder of the nervous
system.
*The primary function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is to supply nutrients to our bodies
via the processes of ingestion, motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption; this occurs
through complex coordination of digestive processes that are regulated by intrinsic
endocrine and nervous systems.
• Sympathetic system: prepares the
body to expend energy to respond to
environmental threats by regulating the
flight-or-fight response. When there’s a
threat, it triggers a response by
accelerating the heart rate, increasing
breathing rate, boosting blood flow to
muscles, activating sweat secretion, and
dilating the pupils.
• Parasympathetic system: helps to
maintain normal body functions and
conserve physical resources. Once a
threat has passed, it will slow the heart
rate, slow breathing, reduce blood flow to
muscles, and constrict the pupils. The
body returns to a normal resting state.
 AU TONOMIC VS. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTE M

Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System

“involuntary” “voluntary”
Regulates the functions of our internal Regulates voluntary movements.
organs such as heart, stomach, lungs and
intestines.
Part of the peripheral nervous system Part of the peripheral nervous system
and it also controls some of the muscles connects the brain to the motor
within the body. neurons such as those found in the
skeletal muscles.
Regulates involuntarily responses. For We are in control of this system
example, we do not notice when blood (voluntary) and we use it when we
vessels change size or when our heart want to make our muscles move.
beats faster.
 NERVES IN THE PNS

• The PNS consists of nerves that are responsible

for carrying signals between the CNS and the
parts of the body that lie outside the CNS.
• Nerves are a part of the nervous system. They are
primarily involved in control and the
coordination of all the parts of the body.
Three types of nerves:
1. Motor nerves: contain only motor neurons
2. Sensory nerves: contain only sensory neurons
3. Mixed nerves: contain both sensory and
motor neurons
 NERVES IN THE PNS

• A nerve is a cable-like structure

within the body designed to
conduct nerve impulses that
relay information from one part
of the body to another.
• A typical nerve is made up of a
bundle of fibres which are
wrapped around layers of tissue
and fat, and they stretch
throughout the body. These
nerves transmit information
along the axons to the
respective organs. These are the
basic elements that constitute a
nerve.
 NERVE NEURON
A nerve is a whitish fiber of neuron cells A neuron is a specialised cell
which carry impulses to the CNS and involved in transmitting nerve
from the CNS to the effector organs. impulses.
Found only in the PNS. Found in both PNS and CNS.
Composed of many nerve fibers,, blood Composed of an axon, cell body,
vessels, and lymphatics. and dendrites.
Acts a conducting zone for transporting Chemical and electronic signals are
signals generated here.
Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, sensory Types include sensory neurons,
nerves, and motor nerves are the main motor neurons, and interneurons.
four types.
 CELLS OF THE
NERVOU S SYSTEM

(I) Neurons (nerve cells)

• Sensory neurons (afferent
neurons) transmit nerve
impulses from the receptors to
the CNS.
• Interneurons (association
neurons) are the major
components of the integration
centres in the CNS.
• Motor neurons (efferent
neurons) transmit impulses
from the CNS to effectors
(motor organs).
 CELLS OF THE
NERVOU S SYSTEM

(II) Neuroglia (glia or glial

cells)
• Non-neuronal cells in the
nervous system that do not
generate or transmit nerve
impulses.
• Provide developmental,
physiological and metabolic
support for neurons.
• Responsible for maintaining
homeostatic control and
immune surveillance in the
nervous system.
 • Hormones are chemicals that coordinate
different functions in your body by carrying
messages through your blood to your
organs, skin, muscles and other tissues.
• These signals tell your body what to do and
HORMONES when to do it.
• Hormones are essential for life and your
health.
• Hormones and most of the tissues (mainly
glands) that create and release them make
up your endocrine system.
 Hormones control many different bodily
processes, including:
• Metabolism.
• Homeostasis (constant internal balance), such
as blood pressure and blood sugar regulation,
fluid (water) and electrolyte balance and
HORMONES body temperature.
• Growth and development.
• Sexual function.
• Reproduction.
• Sleep-wake cycle.
• Mood.
 Your body uses hormones for two types of
communication:
1. Communication between two endocrine
glands. One gland releases a hormone, which
stimulates another gland to change the levels
of hormones that it’s releasing.
• E.g., pituitary gland releases thyroid-
HORMONES stimulating hormone (TSH), which triggers
thyroid gland to release its hormones, which
then affect various aspects of the body.
2. Communication between an endocrine
gland and a target organ.
• E.g., pancreas releases insulin, which then acts
on muscles and liver to help process glucose.
 HORMONES IN HUMANS

• Hormones are chemical messengers that are

secreted directly into the blood, which carries them
to organs and tissues of the body to exert their
functions.
• Hormones are secreted by the glands of
endocrine system.
• The target cell has receptors specific to a given
hormone and will be activated by either:
• lipid-soluble hormones: diffuse through the
plasma membrane and bind to a receptor protein.
• water-soluble hormones: bind to a receptor
protein on the plasma membrane.
 ENDOC RINE SYSTEM

Specialized glands that make up your endocrine system make and release most of the
hormones in your body.

A gland is an organ that makes one or more substances, such as hormones, digestive juices,
sweat or tears. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system consists of the following glands:

Pituitary Pineal Parathyroid Adrenal

Hypothalamus Thyroid Pancreas Ovaries Testes
gland gland glands glands
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• NOT all organs and tissues that release hormones or hormone-like

substances are considered part of the endocrine system.
• Other body tissues that release hormones include:
• Adipose tissue (fat tissue).
• Kidneys.
• Liver.
• Gut (gastrointestinal tract).
• Placenta.
 ENDOCRINE HORMONES
Gland Hormones Functions
Thyroid Thyroxine Regulates metabolism and temperature.

Calcitonin Inhibits release of calcium from the bones.

Parathyroid Parathyroid Stimulates the release of calcium from the

hormone bones.
Islet cells (in the Insulin Decreases blood sugar by promoting uptake of
pancreas) glucose by cells.

Glucagon Increases blood sugar by stimulating breakdown

of glycogen in the liver.
Pineal gland Melatonin Sleep cycles, reproductive cycles in many
mammals.
 ENDOCRINE HORMONES
Gland Hormones Functions
Ovaries Estrogen Stimulates egg maturation, controls secondary sex
characteristics.
Progesterone Prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg.
Testes Testosterone Regulates sperm cell production and secondary sex
characteristics.
Adrenal Epinephrine – fight Stimulates “fight or flight” response.
medulla Norepinephrine – flight
Adrenal Glucocorticoids Part of stress response, increase blood glucose
cortex levels and decrease immune response.
E.g., cortisol helps to regulate metabolism and your
body respond to stress.
Aldosterone Regulates sodium content in the blood.
 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

Hormones Cognitive function & mood

serve to
maintain
homeostasis Development & growth
and to
regulate Metabolism of food items
numerous
other systems
and processes Maintenance of body temperature & thirst
including:
Sexual function & reproductive growth and health
 STEPS OF HORMONAL SI GNALING
1. Biosynthesis of a particular
hormone in a particular tissue.
2. Storage & secretion of the
hormone.

3. Transport of the hormone

to the target cells, tissues, or
organs.

4. Recognition of the hormone

by an associated cell
membrane or an intracellular
receptor protein.

5. Relay & amplification of the

received hormonal signal via a
signal transduction process.
 HORMONES AND DISEASES

• In case of hormone deficiency, synthetic

hormone replacement therapy may be used.
• Medications may be used to curb the problems
in case of excess hormone production.
• For example,
• A person with an underactive thyroid gland
may be treated with synthetic thyroxine.
• A person with an overactive thyroid may be
administered a drug such as propranolol.
 Diabetes, including Type 2 diabetes,Type 1
diabetes and gestational diabetes.

Thyroid disease, including hypothyroidism (low thyroid

hormone levels) and hyperthyroidism (high thyroid
SOME OF THE hormone levels).
MOST COMMON Irregular menstruation (periods), caused by polycystic
HORMONE- ovary syndrome (PCOS), amenorrhea and anovulation.
RELATED
CONDITIONS Female infertility.

Male infertility — more specifically, low testosterone

levels (hypogonadism).

Obesity.
HORMONES
IN PLANTS

• Plant hormones (or phytohormones) are regulators of almost all aspects of plant
development and plant responses to their environment, which present in very
low concentrations.
• They may act individually, may have opposing effects to decrease each other’s
effects (antagonism), or may have a greater effect than either one of the
hormones in isolation (synergistic interaction).
 Plant hormones
(plant growth substances)

abscisic acid ethene

auxin gibberellin cytokinin
(ABA) (ethylene)

Control major Stimulate cell

aspects of plant division; and Tune responses Regulate both
Promote cell to several abiotic
growth, e.g., regulate shoot growth and
growth and stresses; promote
germination, meristem size, senescence
elongation of seed and bud
elongation leaf primordia
the plant dormancy; and
growth, flower number, and leaf
development, and shoot plant defense
and flowering growth against various
time pathogens
 Animal hormones Plant hormones
Organic substances secreted by the Various hormones produced by plants to
endocrine glands of animals to regulate regulate germination, growth, metabolism,
physiological activities and homeostasis and other physiological activities in plants

Produced in specific endocrine glands Can be produced by each plant cell

Diffuse through the blood Diffuse through xylem and phloem

Act on distant target organs Act on nearby target organs

Produce a rapid response Produce a slow response
Regulated by the nervous system Not regulated by the nervous system

E.g., insulin, thyroxine, serotonin, estrogen, E.g., auxin, cytokinin, gibberellin, ABA, etc.
progesterone, testosterone, etc.
 WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS ?

• Hormones are responsible for key homeostatic processes including control

of blood glucose levels and control of blood pressure.
• Homeostasis is a property of a human biological system, where the self-
regulating process tends to maintain the balance for the survival.
• It is the regulation of the internal conditions within cells and whole organisms
such as temperature, water, and sugar levels.
• This keeps cells and organisms functioning at optimal levels even when
challenged by internal and external changes.
 HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis Animal organs and To maintain

E.g., the level of homeostasis, the
refers to the organ systems blood glucose,
relatively constantly adjust body adapts two
body temperature, types of feedback
stable state to internal and blood calcium level
inside the external changes mechanisms:
and water content.
body of an to maintain the
animal. steady state.

Negative Positive
feedback occurs feedback occurs
when a change in a when a change in a
variable triggers a variable triggers a
response which response which
reverses the initial causes more
change. change in the
same direction.
 REGULATION OF HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is the body's attempt to maintain a constant and balanced internal

environment, which requires persistent monitoring and adjustments as conditions
change.

Homeostatic regulation is monitored and adjusted by:

• Receptor: the sensing component responsible for monitoring & responding to

changes in the external or internal environment.
• Control centre (or integration centre): receives and processes information
from the receptor.
• Effector: responds to the commands of the control centre (either oppose or
enhance the stimulus)
HO MEO STA SI S
 • Endotherms are animals that
HOMEOSTASIS EXAMPLE maintain a constant body
- THERMOREGULATION temperature due to environmental
changes.
• Animals that do not have internal
control of their body temperature
are called ectotherms.
• Thermoregulation is coordinated by
the nervous system, with the
processes of temperature control
centred in the hypothalamus of
the advanced animal brain.
• The hypothalamus maintains the set
point for body temperature through
reflexes that cause vasodilation,
vasoconstriction, and shivering
or sweating.
THERMOREGU LATION
 BREAKDOWN OF HOMEOSTASIS

• Many factors can cause the failure of homeostasis function in an internal

environment, leading to disability or death.
• The most common factors are:
• Genetics
• Physical condition
• Diet and nutrition
• Venoms and toxins
• Psychological health
• Side effects of medicines and medical procedures
 HOMEOSTASIS IN
PLANTS

• Homeostasis in plants
allows plant cells to store
the proper amount of
water in their cells, keeping
them from wilting and dying
during times of drought.
• Trees maintain homeostasis
by stomatal control and
morphological adjustments.
PHYSIOLOG IC AL RE SPO NSE S TO DROUG HT,
SALINITY AND HEAT STRE SS IN PLANTS
 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS

Further information:

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