MODULE CONTENT

Topic 1: Basic Areas of Ethical Study

Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this topic, the student must be able to:
1. identify the three basic areas of ethical study; and
2. explain the three basic areas of ethical study.

Introduction

A framework is defined as a set of assumptions, concepts, values and

practices that constitutes a way of viewing reality (Framework, n.d.) We may
understand basic theories as frameworks in ethics as a system of rules, ideas,
notions, theories, or principles that assists man in his moral decisions and
judgments.

In Ethics there are three major areas of study: meta-ethics, normative ethics,
and applied ethics. Under these major subject areas are various ethical theories as
frameworks.

1. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics was regarded as that branch of ethical inquiry that

considered general ethical questions whose answers had some relatively direct
bearing on practice (Normative Ethical theories, 2020). In a sense, it is a search for
an ideal litmus test of proper behavior (Fieser, n.d.). Normative Ethics is concerned
with the standard and criteria by which we can judge man‘s actions to be morally
right or morally wrong. This was the prevalent form of ethics in philosophy until the
end of the 19th Century. It includes a consideration of the importance of human
freedom, and a discussion of the limits of a human‘s responsibility for moral
decisions and for the consequences of actions) (Ethics, 9).

The crucial thesis of normative ethical ethics is that there is only one ultimate
principle or standard of moral conduct, whether it is a solitary law or a set of rules. It
stresses three elements: the person who performs the act (the agent), the act, and
the consequences of the act. Generally, there are three categories of normative
ethical theories: deontology, teleological ethics and virtue ethics.

Deontology

Deontological normative ethical theories place the locus of right and wrong in
autonomous adherence to moral laws or duties (Deontological Theories 2002). It
emphasizes the correlation between duty and morality of human acts.

In deontological ethics an action is considered morally good

because of some characteristic of the action itself, not because
 the product of the action is good. Deontological ethics holds
that at least some acts are morally obligatory regardless of their
consequences for human welfare. Descriptive of such ethics
are such expressions as ―Duty for duty‘s sake,‖ ―Virtue is its
own reward,‖ and ―Let justice be done though the heavens fall.‖
(Deontological ethics, n.d.)

Also called duty-based ethics, deontology is interested with what man does,
not with the consequences of his actions. It advises people to do the right thing
because it is the right thing to do and keep away from wrong things because they are
wrong. People are counseled to do the right thing, even if that produces more harm
than doing the wrong thing. People have a moral obligation to do the right thing,
even if it produces a bad result.

Teleological Ethics

This theory of morality derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or
desirable as an end to be achieved (Teleological ethics, n.d.). It believes that the
rightness or wrongness of a human act is contingent on its outcome. Hence,
a human act is considered morally right if it produces a good outcome. Since the
moral goodness of a human act is dependent only on its results, the more good
results a human act produces, the better or more right that human act is. The results
of a human act generally eclipse all other considerations.

Every teleological moral theory locates morality in the outcomes of human

actions. Teleological ethical theorists contend that every human act is teleological in
the sense that man reasons about the means of realizing certain goals. Thus, all
moral conduct is goal-directed.

Virtue ethics

This is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and
virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one‘s duty or acting in order to
bring about good consequences (Athanassoulis, N. n.d.). Therefore, the fundamental
component of moral behavior is the person‘s character rather than ethical duties and
rules about the acts themselves or consequences of particular actions. This moral
theory is character or person-based rather than action based because it places
special emphasis on the moral character of the person executing the act.

Virtue ethics is primarily concerned with traits of character that

are essential to human flourishing, not with the enumeration of
duties. It falls somewhat outside the traditional dichotomy
between deontological ethics and consequentialism: It agrees
with consequentialism that the criterion of an action‘s being
morally right or wrong lies in its relation to an end that
has intrinsic value, but more closely resembles deontological
ethics in its view that morally right actions are constitutive of the
end itself and not mere instrumental means to the end (Virtue
ethics, n.d.).
 Virtue ethics is not only concern with the morality of individual acts, but it is
also a source of counsel as to the type of attributes and behaviors human beings
should realize. It does not just focus its attention on particular moral acts, rather
more concerned with the whole of a person's life. It believes that a moral being is
someone who lives virtuously, someone who possesses and actually applies the
virtues he has learned.

Watch your thoughts; they become words.

Watch your words, they become actions.
Watch your actions; they become habits.
Watch your habits; they become character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny.
- Frank Outlaw

2. Meta-ethics

Meta-ethics is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the status,

foundations, and scope of moral values, properties, and words. (Meta-ethics, n.d.) It
is an inquiry about the nature of ethical assertions, attitudes, and evaluations. Meta-
ethics belongs to the three branches of ethics considered as framework, the others
being normative ethics and applied ethics.

Garner and Rosen (1967), claimed that there are three kinds of meta-ethical
problems, or three general questions:

1. What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments? (moral semantics)

2. What is the nature of moral judgments? (moral ontology)
3. How may moral judgments be supported or defended? (moral epistemology)

The first meta-ethical problem or general question investigates the meaning of

the terms: good, bad, right and wrong. Question of the second kind inquires on the
universality or relativity of moral judgments. The third problem raises the question on
our ability to know if a human act is right or wrong, if at all. Garner and Rosen
(1967), argued that answers to the three basic questions are not unrelated, and
sometimes an answer to one will strongly suggest, or perhaps even entail, an
answer to another.

Meta-ethical theories are commonly categorized semantically as either

cognitivism or non-cognitivism; substantially as either universalism or relativism; and
epistemologically as empiricism, rationalism, or intuitionism.

Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-Cognitivism

a. Moral Cognitivism holds that moral statements do express beliefs and that they
are apt for truth and falsity (Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism, 2018). It
claims that ethical sentences convey propositions that are capable being true or
false. It also declares that right and wrong are matters of fact. Moral realism and
ethical subjectivism are the two most common forms of cognitivism.
 a.1 Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism) is the position that ethical
sentences express propositions that refer to objective features of the world, that
is, features independent of subjective opinion (Shafer-Landau,2015). It
assumes that moral values are objectively true and their truth does not depend
or are independent of our opinions, perception, beliefs, feelings or attitudes of
them.

a.2 Ethical Subjectivism is the meta-ethical view which claims that the truth or
falsity of such propositions is ineliminably dependent on the (actual or
hypothetical) attitudes of people (Brandt ,1959). Contrary to moral realism,
ethical subjectivism argues that there are no objective moral truths. The truth or
falsity of ethical propositions is dependent on our opinions, perception, beliefs,
feelings or attitudes towards them. Ethical sentences are arbitrary because they
do not convey unchanging truths.

b. Moral Non-cognitivism holds the view that ethical statements lack truth-
value which means they are neither true nor false. According to Garner and
Rosen (1967), noncognitivist denies the cognitivist claim that moral judgments
are capable of being objectively true, because they describe some feature of the
world. If moral statements cannot be true, and if one cannot know something that
is not true, noncognitivism implies that moral knowledge is impossible (Garner
and Rosen,1967). Moral truths are not the type of truths that can be known.

b.1 Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that claims that ethical sentences do not
express propositions but emotional attitudes (Garner and Rosen,1967). It
assumes that the purpose of ethical propositions is to convey emotions of
approval or disapproval. To a certain degree they are also imperatives meant to
sway the frame of mind of other people.

Moral Universalism versus Moral Relativism

a. Moral Universalism which is also called moral objectivism proposes

that ethical implications of an action is universally applicable to everybody,
regardless of circumstance. It believes that there is a universal moral
system which applies to anyone which transcends culture, nationality, race,
religion, sexuality or other distinguishing feature.

b. Moral Relativism is a philosophical position which believes that moral

judgments are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint (for
instance, that of a culture or a historical period) and that no standpoint is
uniquely privileged over all others (Westacott, n.d.). Moral judgments differ
from person to person and are all equally valid and no one‘s belief of right
and wrong is really better than any other. There is no objective and ultimate
standard of morality, so each moral judgment about right and wrong is
relative to a person‘s cultural, social, historical or personal circumstances and
preferences.
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus Moral Intuitionism

a. Moral Empiricism is an ethical perspective which assumes that moral

knowledge is based on one‘s experiences and observations. It claims that
moral learning and knowledge is not possible without experience. This ethical
view is an extension of empiricism in epistemology that states that knowledge
comes only or primarily from sensory experience (Psillos and Curd,
2010). Empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the
formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions (Forrest and
Kaufmann, 2008). Other forms of moral empiricism suggest that moral truths
are reducible to matters about man‟s judgments and beliefs or cultural
practices and therefore are recognizable by observation and experience of
their practices.

b. Moral Rationalism is a view in meta-ethics (specifically the epistemology of

ethics) according to which moral principles are knowable a priori, by reason
alone (Capps and Pattinson, 2017). It considers reason as the main source
and test of moral knowledge. Because of reason, certain moral truths exist
and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths.

c. Moral Intuitionism argued that moral truths are self-evident, that is, evident
in and of themselves and so can be known without the need of any proof or
reasoning. What is morally right or morally wrong is self-evident in nature and
cannot be known through human experience.

Intuitionism teaches three main things: (1) There are real objective moral
truths that are independent of human beings. (2) These are fundamental
truths that can't be broken down into parts or defined by reference to anything
except other moral truths. (3) Human beings can discover these truths by
using their minds in a particular, intuitive way (Intuitionism, n.d.).

The concepts of right and wrong and objective moral truths do exist and
culture does not change those. A fundamental moral truth is like any
fundamental truth and no one can't attempt to break it down any further
because things that are moral good are simply morally good. Man has the
ability to intuitively know if something is right or wrong.

Intuitionism does not mean that all moral decisions are reached
by relying on intuition. Intuition enables the discovery of
the basic moral truths, and everyday moral decision-making
then involves thinking about the choices available and making
moral judgements in an ordinary sort of way. (Intuitionism, n.d.)

3. Applied ethics

Applied ethics, in a broad sense, refers to any use of philosophical methods

critically to examine practical moral decisions and to treat moral problems, practices,
and policies in the professions, technology, government, and the like (Applied ethics,
2020). As a problem-solving branch of ethics, it strives to find out the application of
moral knowledge into practice. In other words, it bridges ethical theory and practical
and feasible solutions. It has produced principle-based attitude toward ethical issues
which in many instances result in solutions to particular problems that are not
globally acceptable.

This discipline studies difficult moral questions and controversial moral issues
that human beings actually face in their lives like: abortion, euthanasia, death
penalty, suicide, cloning humans, vaccination, harassment, discrimination, gay or
lesbian relations, war tactics, animal rights, capital punishments or nuclear war and
environmental issues.

Some of the key areas of applied ethics are: bioethics, environmental ethics,
business ethics, sexual ethics, and social ethics.

Bioethics

This is branch of applied ethics that studies the philosophical, social, and legal
issues arising in medicine and the life sciences (Chadwick, n.d.). Bioethics devotes
its time and attention in studying the moral controversies brought about by advances
in biology and medicine. It is concerned with scientific advances that can alter the
way we understand health and illness and, ultimately, the way we live and die. It is
multidisciplinary because it draws contributions from many different academic
disciplines or professional specializations such as philosophy, theology, history,
anthropology, law, medicine, nursing, health policy, social work and the medical
humanities.

Issues that are considered in bioethics include: cloning, surrogate

motherhood, human genetic engineering, genomics, stem cell research, organ
donation and transplantation, transplant trade, medical and genetic data privacy,
cyber-attacks against medical devices and systems, biohacking, biological
differences based on inequalities in wealth, bioterrorism, technological sexuality,
assisted reproductive technologies, ethical issues on brain imaging and testing,
nanotechnologies (using small particles to deliver medicine or other medical
treatments), and genetically modified food.

Environmental Ethics

This is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of

human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its
non-human contents (Environmental ethics, 2015). It deals with man‘s moral
obligation to the preservation and care of the non-human world.

Environmental ethics rests on the principle that all life forms on earth have
the right to live. Human beings and nature are closely linked with each other
because they depend on one another for their existence. Owing to their inseparable
relationship, the guiding principles of man‘s life and his ethical values should include
it. By destroying the environment and its non-human contents, man unjustly and
immorally denies its right to live.

The topics for debate in environmental ethics include: global climate change,
the depletion of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems,
water and air pollution, waterways, the use of fertilizers, animal experimentation, and
endangered species preservation.

Business Ethics

This can be understood as the study of the ethical dimensions of productive

organizations and commercial activities (Business ethics, 2016). It is interested in the
analyses of the ethical problems and principles in the manufacture, supply,
advertising, and selling of products and services.

Business ethics is beyond just a moral code of right and wrong in the
workplace. Over and above their obligation to the law, business organizations must
be conscious of the moral impact of their activities on customers, employees,
shareholders, communities and the environment in all aspects of their operations.

More than knowledge and experience in managing a business the interests of

the community are of paramount importance. There should be a balance between
the purpose of business, which is to make money and its unwritten social
responsibilities to its employees and society.

Corporate governance, employee rights, unions, insider trading, bribery,

misleading advertising, discrimination, corporate social responsibility, fiduciary
responsibilities, and even slavery are some of the controversial subjects addressed
in business ethics.

Sexual Ethics

This is commonly understood as the study of human sexuality and sexual

behavior. It seeks to investigate thoroughly moral behavior regarding with whom
people have sex and how they do so. It is an attempt to bring about a
comprehensive understanding of the moral conduct of interpersonal relationships
and sexual practices from social, cultural, religious, medical, legal and philosophical
perspectives.

Sexual ethics explores topics such as procreation, abortion, contraception,

adultery, extramarital sex, sexual harassment, sexual abuse, polyamory, seduction,
flirting, prostitution, homosexuality, pornography, masturbation, incest, rape,
sadomasochism, bestiality, pedophilia, sexually transmitted infections, genital
modification and mutilation, teenage pregnancy, celibacy, and marriage.

Social Ethics

This is an analysis of the set of rules, guidelines, values, behaviors and

responsibilities people have toward themselves, each other, and the world as a
whole. The collection of social principles regulate relationships within a society,
specifically with regard to determining what is considered morally right, just and
noble. The rules which society judges acceptable are expected to be followed
because they are meant to guide people in their ethical choices and values.
 Social ethics teaches what each person will and will not tolerate from each
other within society. To maintain social equilibrium, the welfare of society as a whole
must be placed ahead of the interests of any individual. People in a society cannot
do as they please. There are social norms and laws that prescribe boundaries and
encourage social responsibility.
Social ethics validates if people‘s decisions and actions cause harm to society
or the environment. Each person is responsible to act in manner that benefits his
society and not solely himself.

Social ethics closely and thoroughly examines problems such as:

environmental pollution, global warming, antisocial behavior, poverty,
malnourishment, lack of access to food and clean water, access to clean and
affordable living, unemployment, homelessness, discrimination and violence, drug
abuse, alcohol abuse, political corruption, prostitution, sexual abuse, rape, early
pregnancy, same-sex marriage, birth control, HIV/AIDS, prostitution, gay marriages,
gender issues, child labor, lack of proper access to education, the shortage of
schools, the lack of infrastructure, alcoholism, food and drug safety, suicide, drug
abuse, capital punishment, animal abuse, human rights, women's rights, children‘s
rights, world population, organ & body donation, euthanasia & assisted suicide,
death penalty, consumer debt and bankruptcy, judicial reform, censorship, gun
control, terrorism, nuclear weapon production, immigration, tobacco, nuclear
proliferation, cancer, health care reform, religious conflict & war, political polarization,
government accountability, lack of access to credit, eating disorders, obesity and the
lack of physical fitness programs.