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8
The Canadian Identity:
One, Two, or Many Nations?

FOCUS ON
• How did French–English
relations shape Canadian
identity in the second half
of the twentieth century?
• How has immigration
shaped the Canadian
identity since World
War II?
• What constitutional
changes occurred during
the 1980s and 1990s?
• How did Aboriginal
peoples contribute to
Canadian culture in the
late twentieth century?

Counterpoints Issue
• Does Canada need a
multiculturalism policy?

In the decades following World War II, various

groups in Canada became concerned about their identity
and their role within the nation. This painting, Unity
Rally III, Montreal by Evangeline Murray, focusses on
French–English relations, but Aboriginal concerns and
multiculturalism also became important issues.
Expressing ideas From the title, explain what is
happening in this painting. What is the significance of
the flags? What impression is given by the balloons?

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Introduction 1960 Quiet Revolution begins in Quebec.

1965 Canada’s maple leaf flag flies for first time.
During the night of March 7, 1963, three 1967 Canadian immigration policy becomes
Canadian army buildings in Montreal were officially “colour-blind.”
bombed with Molotov cocktails (homemade fire- 1968 National Indian Brotherhood formed.
bombs). The mysterious letters “FLQ” were
1970 FLQ crisis in Quebec leads Prime Minister
painted on the walls. The next day, a document
Trudeau to invoke War Measures Act.
from an organization claiming responsibility for
the bombings was delivered to the news media: 1971 Federal government introduces
multiculturalism policy.
The Front de libération du Québec is a revolution- 1980 Quebec holds a referendum on
ary movement of volunteers ready to die for the sovereignty-association.
political and economic independence of Quebec. 1982 Constitution patriated without Quebec’s
The suicide-commandos of the FLQ have as agreement.
their principal mission the complete destruction,
1990s Asian countries become major sources of
by systematic sabotage of: immigration.
all colonial [federal] symbols and institutions, in
1990 Meech Lake Accord dies.
particular the RCMP and the armed forces; …
all commercial establishments and enterprises 1992 Charlottetown Accord rejected in
referendum.
which practise discrimination against Quebeckers,
which do not use French as the first language, 1993 B.C. Treaty Commission established.
which advertises in the colonial language [English]; 1995 Second referendum on Quebec sovereignty
all plants and factories which discriminate is held.
against French-speaking workers. 1999 Nunavut created.
… INDEPENDENCE OR DEATH
2000 Nisga’a Treaty given royal assent.
The age of terrorism had arrived in Canada.
How did this new crisis emerge? What had
happened between English- and French-
society, a “nation” rather than just another
Canadians to make the relationship so strained?
Canadian province. To emphasize his province’s
How could the crisis be resolved?
difference from English-speaking Canada, he in-
In this chapter, you will learn about the impact
troduced a new flag for Quebec bearing the
of Quebec nationalism in the latter part of the
French symbol, the fleur-de-lis. He fiercely op-
twentieth century. You will also see how growing
posed the growing powers of the federal govern-
multiculturalism and the struggle of Aboriginal
ment in the post-war years.
peoples for their rights changed the nation.
Under Duplessis, the Roman Catholic
Church was the main defender of Quebec cul-
ture. Priests urged people in Quebec to turn their
The Roots of Quebec backs on the materialism of English-speaking
North America. The Church praised the old
Nationalism Quebec traditions of farm, faith, and family. It
ran Quebec’s hospitals and schools, where most
The Duplessis Era children received only a basic education. Religion
From 1936 to 1939, and again from 1944 to 1959, played a role in every part of the curriculum, and
Quebec was controlled by Premier Maurice the schools taught children to accept authority.
Duplessis and his party, the Union Nationale. The elite few who attended high school and uni-
Duplessis was a strong Quebec nationalist who versity received a fine education, but the empha-
was devoted to the idea of Quebec as a distinctive sis was on traditional subjects such as classical

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Figure 8-1 Duplessis

associated labour unions with
communism, and he did not
hesitate to call in the provincial
police to crush strikes. This
photograph was taken in 1949
during a strike by Quebec
asbestos miners.

Using evidence What do you

think is happening in this
photograph? Who do you think
these men are? Give reasons
for your view.

languages and philosophy. As a result, Quebec out corruption. Government jobs and contracts
produced many priests, lawyers, and politicians were now awarded according to merit. Wages and
but few scientists, engineers, or business people. pensions were raised, and restrictions on trade
While Duplessis tried to keep out the influ- unionism were removed.
ence of foreign culture, he encouraged foreign in- The government also began a peaceful but
vestment in Quebec. Businesses and industries dramatic movement to modernize the province’s
from Ontario and the United States were attracted economy, politics, education, and culture. It took
by what Quebec had to offer. The province guar- control of social services and the education system.
anteed cheap labour, since union activity was ei- Students were now required to take more science
ther discouraged or banned. It also promised low and technology courses to prepare them for the
taxes. Quebec would benefit from the new in- new Quebec. Above all, Quebeckers were en-
vestment, but so would Duplessis. In return for couraged to think of themselves as citizens of the
favourable business conditions, companies were twentieth century. As new attitudes began to take
expected to contribute generously to the Union hold, the influence of the Roman Catholic Church
Nationale. Bribery and corruption became the declined. This wave of change became known as
trademarks of the Duplessis regime. In return for the Quiet Revolution, and it transformed the face
government jobs or licences, businesses were ex- of Quebec.
pected to give “kickbacks” or gifts to the Union In the 1962 election, the Liberals went one
Nationale. step further. They campaigned, and won, with the
motto Maîtres chez nous, “Masters in our own
house.” The aim now would be to strengthen
The Quiet Revolution Quebec’s control of its own economy. Among other
In 1960, after Duplessis died, Jean Lesage and steps, the government nationalized (bought out)
the Liberals came to power with an election slo- several hydro companies and turned them into a
gan that announced it was “Time for a change.” large, provincially owned power monopoly, Hydro-
Once in power, Lesage’s first step was to stamp Québec.

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Figure 8-2 A Canadian

Army engineer lies
injured in Montreal after
an FLQ bomb, which he
had removed from a
mail box, exploded in
his hands. On May 17,
1963, a total of
seventeen bombs were
placed in mail boxes in
the Montreal suburb of
Westmount.

The Birth of Separatism While most Quebec nationalists disapproved of

such tactics, there were signs of general discontent
As Francophone Quebeckers became proud of
in the province. In 1967, the influential Quebec
their achievements, they became angrier at what
cabinet minister René Lévesque left the Liberal
they perceived as injustices at the hands of
Party and, a year later, formed the Parti Québécois
English-speaking Canadians. Why was Ottawa,
(PQ). Lévesque believed that Quebec and Canada
the national capital, so overwhelmingly English-
would do better to divorce peacefully than to con-
speaking? Why did federal politicians from
tinue a marriage of two cultures that, to many
Quebec seldom hold key Cabinet posts? Why did
Quebeckers, was no longer workable.
French-Canadians not have the right to their own
schools and hospitals in the rest of Canada, even
though English-Canadians enjoyed those rights Ottawa’s Response
in Quebec? And why was Quebec’s Francophone
majority expected to speak English in stores or at Lester Pearson became prime minister in the
work? midst of the Quiet Revolution. He was convinced
For some, the only solution lay in a Quebec that Canada would face a grave crisis unless the
controlled entirely by Quebeckers—in separation French were made to feel more at home in
from Canada. Some young radicals with extreme Canada. He appointed the Royal Commission on
views joined terrorist groups such as the FLQ Bilingualism and Biculturalism (the “Bi and Bi
(Front de libération du Québec) and fought in Commission”) to investigate some solutions. The
the name of le Québec libre—a “free” Quebec. commission recommended that Canada should
As you read in the introduction to this chapter, become officially bilingual.
these groups used firebombs and explosives to at- In 1964, Pearson acted on a long-standing
tack symbols of English-Canadian power in complaint in Quebec that Canada’s symbols were
Quebec. For example, in the early 1960s, Royal too British. He suggested that Canada should have
Mail boxes and downtown office towers belonging a new flag to replace those in use—the British
to Canadian National Railways were attacked. Union Jack and the Red Ensign, which had the

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ACTIVITIES
1. The Duplessis era is sometimes referred to as “The
Great Darkness.” Would you agree or disagree with
this assessment? Explain.
2. During the Duplessis years, why did many Quebec
Francophones feel victimized by Anglophones as
well as by their own government?
3. a) Make a chart contrasting Maurice Duplessis’s and
Jean Lesage’s approaches to governing Quebec.
b) Did the changes brought by Lesage really amount
to a revolution? Support your answer with evi-
dence from your chart.
4. a) Describe the aims of the FLQ. Check the extract
in the introduction as well as the text above.
b) Had you lived in Quebec in the 1960s, how do
you think you would have reacted to the FLQ?
Figure 8-3 Diefenbaker and the Conservatives Write a letter to the editor explaining your view.
wanted to keep the old Red Ensign (top), with its
5. a) Why did Prime Minister Pearson believe a new
traditional links to Britain, while the Liberals favoured
flag was necessary?
a design using the three maple leaves of the
Canadian coat of arms (bottom). b) How important do you think a flag is in asserting
identity? Should it be a criminal act to show dis-
Expressing ideas Compare these two flags with the
respect to a flag? Discuss your views with the
flag that was finally chosen. Consider the use of
class.
symbols and colour. Which of the three flags do you
think is best, and why?

Trudeau and Quebec

When Pierre Trudeau succeeded Pearson as prime
Union Jack in the upper corner. Pearson chose minister in 1968, he was determined that the fed-
the maple leaf as a symbol for the new flag be- eral government should do more to persuade peo-
cause it seemed to represent all Canadians. ple from Quebec that their future lay with
Unfortunately, rather than bringing Canadians Canada. In 1969, he acted on the advice of the
closer together, the new flag increased the ten- “Bi and Bi Commission.” His government passed
sions between French and English Canada. the Official Languages Act, making Canada an
Many Canadians opposed any new flag be- officially bilingual country. Now, all federal gov-
cause they felt that Pearson was pandering to ernment agencies across the country were required
Quebec. An emotional debate split the country. to provide services in both languages. English-
Finally, after hundreds of suggestions from across speaking civil servants had to take French-
Canada, the red-and-white maple leaf design was language training courses, and more French-
chosen. On February 15, 1965, Canada’s new flag Canadians were appointed to senior federal gov-
was raised on Parliament Hill for the first time. ernment positions. Trudeau also called on all
Ironically, English-Canadians have come to re- Canadians, especially young people, to increase
gard the flag with pride and affection, while peo- their understanding of the other national culture.
ple from Quebec, disillusioned by the bitter Trudeau’s moves met with mixed reviews.
debate, continued to fly primarily the fleur-de-lis. Many Canadians embraced the idea of bilingual-

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Figure 8-4 This 1976 cartoon shows B.C.

Premier Bill Vander Zalm, Prime Minister
Trudeau, and Quebec Premier René
Lévesque. Many people in British
Columbia, farthest from Quebec
geographically, opposed the Official
Languages Act.

Interpreting a cartoon What is

happening in the cartoon? What does this
cartoon say about western Canada’s
reaction to bilingualism? About regionalism
in Canada? About Pierre Trudeau’s views?

ism with enthusiasm and enrolled their children While both federal and Quebec authorities
in French immersion classes. But others, western agreed to most of the demands, they refused to
Canadians especially, felt that the federal gov- release any FLQ prisoners from jail. In response,
ernment was forcing French on them. Some also on October 10, the FLQ kidnapped Quebec
believed that Ottawa was focussing all its atten- labour minister Pierre Laporte. Alarmed that the
tion on Quebec, while the West and its concerns situation in Quebec was getting out of control,
were largely ignored. Francophones in Quebec Trudeau decided to take drastic action.
were also unimpressed. Trudeau was not doing Claiming that Quebec was on the verge of a
enough, they felt. They wanted “special status” violent revolution, Trudeau asked Parliament to
for Quebec in Confederation. Trudeau, however, impose the War Measures Act. This sweeping
insisted that Quebec was a province just like any piece of legislation had only ever been used dur-
of the others. ing the two world wars. Under the act, civil rights
were suspended. Anyone could be arrested and
detained without being charged with an offence.
The October Crisis Membership in the FLQ became a crime. When
In October 1970, events in Quebec made head- asked by a reporter just how far he would go to
lines across the nation and around the world. On defeat the FLQ, Trudeau brushed aside concerns
October 5, members of the FLQ kidnapped James about the measures he was taking and replied,
Cross, a British diplomat, from his Montreal “Just watch me.”
home. In exchange for Cross’s safe release, the On October 16, federal troops were sent in
FLQ made several demands, including the release to patrol the streets of Ottawa and Montreal.
of FLQ members serving prison sentences for pre- Hundreds of pro-separatist Quebeckers were ar-
vious criminal acts. rested and held without charge. While critics both

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inside and outside Parliament questioned the wis- the trunk of a car. He had been strangled. His
dom of these moves, Trudeau stated such action murder shocked Canadians and increased the
was necessary in order to combat FLQ terrorism pressure on the government to crack down on the
and help free the hostages unharmed. FLQ and find the remaining hostage, James Cross.
One day later, police made a horrifying dis- Two months later, the Montreal police tracked
covery: they found the body of Pierre Laporte in the group holding Cross in a Montreal house. In
return for the captive’s release, the kidnappers
were permitted safe passage to Cuba, where they
would be granted political asylum. Those detained
under the War Measures Act were released. Of
the 450 people held in detention under the act,
only twenty-five were ever charged. The October
crisis was over.

The PQ in Power
In 1976, Quebec voters chose the Parti Québécois
as their next provincial government. It was a stun-
ning victory for René Lévesque and his party. In
the 1970 election, the PQ had won only seven of
the 110 seats in the provincial legislature. During
the 1976 election campaign, Lévesque had reas-
sured Quebeckers that a vote for the PQ would
not automatically mean separation. He promised
that he would hold a province-wide referendum
before making any moves towards independence.
With this reassurance, Quebeckers had voted in,
Figure 8-5 Soldiers with semi-automatic rifles patrol for the first time, a party dedicated to the ulti-
the streets of Montreal. mate goal of separation from Canada.
Expressing ideas How do you think you might have The top priority of the new government was
reacted to this image in 1970? strengthening the status of the French language.
Shortly after taking office, the PQ government

Figure 8-6 Quebec

Premier René Lévesque
hushes supporters at a
PQ rally following his
party’s victory over the
Liberal party of Robert
Bourassa in the
provincial election.

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building your skills

Assessing Viewpoints

T he use of the War Measures Act by Prime Minister

Trudeau remains controversial. Was he justified in invoking
Source 3
...[T]here were no fine distinctions drawn between
such powerful legislation? separatism and terrorism in the general round-up in
The following four documents give different points October 1970.… After the crisis had passed, rather
of view. Read the documents. For each, identify who than issuing an apology for such overzealous po-
made the statement, the circumstances under which lice work, the Prime Minister boasted that sepa-
the statement was made, and what position was taken. ratism was “dead.” Other … Liberals agreed: the
FLQ crisis had been an opportunity to “smash sep-
Source 1 aratism” and the government had taken it.
The kidnapping in broad daylight of a Quebec cab-
Source: J.L. Finlay and D.N. Sprague, The
inet minister [Laporte] in front of his own … resi-
Structure of Canadian History (Toronto: Prentice
dence had a dramatic effect on [the government’s]
Hall, 1984), 444.
view of the crisis we were facing. We began to be-
lieve that perhaps the FLQ was not just a bunch Source 4
of pamphlet-waving, bomb-planting zealots after As for the objection that Trudeau was acting to
all; perhaps they were in fact members of a pow- squash separatism and ... the Parti Québécois, we
erful network capable of endangering public safety, have the statements of both the Prime Minister and
and of bringing other fringe groups—of which there one of his supporters … during the crisis. On
were a large number at the time—into the picture, October 17, [Bryce] Mackasey stressed to the
which would lead to untold violence. If all these House of Commons that the Parti Québécois was
groups coalesced [came together], the crisis could “a legitimate political party. It wants to bring an end
go on for a very long time, with tragic conse- to this country through democratic means, but that
quences for the entire country. is the privilege of that party.” Trudeau … made the
Source: Pierre Trudeau, Memoirs (Toronto: same point in November to an interviewer.
McClelland & Stewart, 1993), 136. Source: Robert Bothwell, Ian Drummond, and
John English, Canada Since 1945: Power,
Source 2 Politics, and Provincialism (Toronto: University of
…[T]he list of people arrested, without warrant, on Toronto Press, 1989), 394.
the strength of suspicions, prejudice, or pure id-
iocy, exceeded the incredible number of four hun- Applying the Skill
dred.… Deprived of all their rights, beginning with
1. Are these documents primary sources or secondary
habeas corpus [see Chapter 2], a great many of
sources? Explain in each case.
them were to remain in custody for days and
weeks. As much as, if not more than in 1917, when 2. Summarize each document’s main argument.
there was at least the excuse … of a real world 3. Which documents support Lévesque’s claims?
war, the whole of Quebec found itself behind bars 4. Which documents do you consider to be the most
as Trudeau and company now attempted to justify credible sources? Justify your choice.
their act before Parliament, the existence of which
5. Write one or two paragraphs giving your view on
they seemed just to have remembered.
whether the use of the War Measures Act was jus-
Source: René Lévesque, Memoirs (Toronto: tified. Support your view with details from the text
McClelland & Stewart, 1986), 247. and the documents above.

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passed Bill 101, sometimes referred to the “yes” to giving his government a mandate to ne-
“Charter of the French Language.” This law made gotiate a new agreement with Canada based on
French the only official language of the province. sovereignty-association. He proposed that
Quebec government employees had to work in Quebec become politically independent, yet main-
French. Commercial outdoor signs would have to tain a close economic association with Canada.
be in French only, and children of immigrants At rally after rally, Lévesque inspired his listen-
would be required to attend French rather than ers to seize the opportunity to become “maîtres
English schools. chez nous.”
Francophone Quebeckers welcomed the lan- Prime Minister Trudeau also made impas-
guage law. Many felt their culture and language sioned speeches urging the people of Quebec to
were endangered. The birth rate in Quebec had remain part of a strong, united, and forward-look-
fallen to its lowest level in history, and while im- ing Canada. During the campaign, Trudeau
migration had increased, most new immigrants promised to negotiate a new Constitution should
preferred to educate their children in English. To the “no” side win. This promise proved popular
non-Francophone Quebeckers, however, Bill 101 among Quebeckers. They wanted a Constitution
was a symbol of oppression. In the rest of Canada, that recognized Quebec as an equal partner in
as well, many people felt that the PQ’s policies Confederation and as a distinct society within
were too extreme. They looked to the federal gov- Canada. Trudeau’s promise helped to swing many
ernment to stand up to the separatist challenge Quebec votes to the “no” camp.
and find a way to preserve Canadian unity. In the referendum, 40 per cent of Quebeckers
voted “yes” to sovereignty-association; 60 per cent
voted “no.” In front of thousands of distraught
The 1980 Referendum supporters, a visibly upset René Lévesque ac-
In 1980, the Lévesque government called a ref- cepted defeat. Yet, he also promised his followers
erendum, as promised, to determine Quebec’s po- that their dream of a sovereign Quebec would tri-
litical future. Lévesque asked Quebeckers to vote umph one day.

Figure 8-7 This cartoon showing

Prime Minister Trudeau and Premier
Lévesque offers one view of
sovereignty-association.

Interpreting a cartoon According

to the cartoonist, how did
sovereignty-association differ from
separation? What was this
cartoonist’s view of Lévesque? How
do you know?

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Patriating the Constitution and Freedoms, a clear statement of the basic rights
to which all Canadians were entitled. Before he
True to his word, Trudeau announced plans
could make any changes, however, he had to have
to revise Canada’s Constitution. The British
the approval of the provinces.
North America (BNA) Act had been Canada’s
As a first step, Trudeau needed to come up
Constitution since 1867. The act set out the pow-
with an amending formula. How many provinces
ers of the federal and provincial governments
would have to be in agreement for a change in
and guaranteed the language and education
the Constitution to be made? Should Quebec, as
rights of Quebec’s French-speaking majority.
the French-speaking partner in Confederation,
Since the BNA Act fell under British jurisdiction,
be given veto power? These were difficult issues
no changes could be made without the British
to resolve. Quebec was not the only province
Parliament’s approval.
pushing for more power; the western provinces
Trudeau wanted to patriate the Constitution
also saw this as an opportunity to have more say
(bring it home to Canada), where the Canadian
over affairs that affected them. Furthermore, most
government would have the authority to make
of the provincial premiers were opposed to the
changes. Trudeau wanted this authority because
Charter. In English-speaking Canada, premiers
he hoped, above all, to include a Charter of Rights

Figure 8-8 Queen Elizabeth II arrives

at Parliament to sign Canada’s new
Constitution Act, April 17, 1982.

Using evidence From this

photograph, what would you say was
the mood of the occasion?

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felt that the Charter would make the courts more Act was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II
powerful than their legislatures. In Quebec, and Prime Minister Trudeau outside the
Lévesque feared that the Charter could be used to Parliament Buildings in Ottawa. The Canadian
override his language laws—or any other legisla- Constitution had officially come home. The last
tion that might be passed to protect Quebec’s dis- step towards making Canada a completely inde-
tinct society. pendent nation had been taken. As the rest of
A series of meetings failed to resolve these is- Canada celebrated, flags in Quebec flew at half-
sues. In a last-ditch attempt to reach agreement, mast, and Premier Lévesque led an angry demon-
the prime minister and the ten premiers met in stration through the streets of Quebec City.
Ottawa on November 4, 1981. Over late-night The last step towards making Canada a com-
cups of coffee in the kitchen of the National pletely independent nation had been taken. But
Conference Centre, federal Justice Minister the process had revealed cracks in national unity
Jean Chrétien and the justice ministers from that would continue to trouble Canadians in the
Saskatchewan and Ontario hammered out what years that followed.
came to be called the “Kitchen Compromise.”
Nine of the ten provincial premiers were awak-
ened in their rooms at the Château Laurier Hotel ACTIVITIES
and asked to approve the deal.
The premiers agreed to accept the Charter if 1. Do you think the Official Languages Act was an ef-
an escape clause were added. This was the fective way to address dissatisfaction in Quebec?
“notwithstanding clause,” which allowed the Explain.
federal government or any of the provinces to opt 2. Make a timeline of events during the October crisis.
out of some of the clauses in the Charter. This Identify events that you think were most significant.
meant that a provincial law that was contrary to a Give reasons for your choices.
specific Charter guarantee could be passed, de- 3. In Quebec elections, the Parti Québécois won 23.5
spite anything the Charter contains (see also per cent of votes in 1970, over 30 per cent in 1973,
Chapter 12). An agreement on the amending for- and 41 per cent of votes in the 1976 election. What
mula was also reached. Changes to the do you think accounted for these results in each
Constitution could be made only with the agree- case? Find evidence from the text.
ment of “seven out of ten provinces representing
4. Would you describe Lévesque’s plan for sovereignty-
50 per cent of Canada’s population.” This meant,
association as separation from Canada? Why or why
in effect, that Quebec could be excluded as long
not?
as Ontario was included.
Only René Lévesque, who was staying at an- 5. Explain:
other hotel, was not included in the Kitchen a) amending formula
Compromise. The next day, he argued against the b) patriation
deal. Nevertheless, Trudeau accepted the com- c) Charter of Rights and Freedoms
promise. He maintained that the federal govern-
d) Constitution Act of 1982.
ment had so many members from Quebec that it
could speak for that province. Lévesque and the 6. Make a chart with two columns: “Attitude to
people of Quebec felt betrayed. They believed Patriating Constitution” and “Reasons.” Complete
that the federal government and the English- the chart with information from the text for Trudeau,
speaking premiers had ganged up on Lévesque in Quebec, and Other Provinces.
order to deny Quebec recognition of its distinct 7. a) Do you think Lévesque was betrayed by the
status. The Quebec provincial government re- Kitchen Compromise? Explain.
fused to sign the proposed new Constitution. b) Role-play a conversation between Lévesque and
Without Quebec’s agreement, Trudeau went Trudeau on the Kitchen Compomise.
ahead. On April 17, 1982, the new Constitution

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The Constitution Debate sources—Newfoundland of the fisheries, and

Alberta of its oil industries.
By 1984, most Canadians outside Quebec felt Western alienation, which had grown through
that the issues of the Constitution and Canadian the oil crisis of the 1970s, had come to a head
unity had been settled. Their greatest concern once again over a government contract to repair
was the worsening economy. Yet, when John air force jets. Ottawa awarded the multibillion-
Turner, Trudeau’s replacement as prime minister, dollar contract to the Bombardier company of
called an election later that year, Brian Mulroney, Montreal, even though Bristol Aerospace of
the leader of the Progressive Conservatives, re- Winnipeg had made a better proposal. Westerners
turned to the issue of the Constitution. To build were outraged. They were convinced that the con-
support from separatists in Quebec during the tract went to Bombardier just to “buy” Conservative
election campaign, Mulroney promised to repair votes in Quebec. In response, the Reform Party
the damage of 1982 by obtaining Quebec’s con- was formed in 1987 to be the voice of western
sent to the Constitution “with honour and en- Canada. As well, both Alberta and Newfoundland
thusiasm.” demanded reforms to the Senate that would give
Once elected, Mulroney looked for an op- their provinces a stronger voice in Ottawa. (Senate
portunity to follow up on his promise. The time reform is discussed in Chapter 9.)
seemed right when René Lévesque retired and
the pro-federalist Liberal Party, led by Robert The Meech Lake Accord
Bourassa, took office in Quebec. Mulroney began
negotiations. His first priority was to reach an In 1987, Prime Minister Mulroney called the pre-
agreement by which Quebec would sign the miers to a conference at Meech Lake, where he
Constitution, but by now, other provinces had proposed a package of amendments to the
their own demands. For example, Newfoundland Constitution. Among other provisions, the Meech
and Alberta wanted more control of their own re- Lake Accord offered to recognize Quebec as a
distinct society. It also proposed giving more power

Figure 8-9 Some critics

thought Mulroney had
made a bad mistake in
reopening the
Constitution debate.

Interpreting a cartoon
Who are the characters
shown in this cartoon?
What is happening to
them? Do you find this
cartoon effective?
Explain.

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to the other provinces. All provinces, for exam- saw this clause as a way of protecting French cul-
ple, would have the power to veto constitutional ture and language, but opponents worried that it
change. Quebec supported the accord. Premier might be used in Quebec to override the Charter
Bourassa announced: and deprive specific groups of their rights.
Aboriginal peoples pointed out that they, too, had
The Meech … Accord is an unprecedented historic a distinct society that needed to be recognized
attempt to maintain and consolidate the unity of and protected. And other critics argued that the
our country, Canada. For Quebeckers, Canada is citizens of Canada had not been given enough
the first choice, and I would like it to remain that opportunity to have their say on the crucial issue
way. of the Constitution.
Two provinces, Manitoba and Newfoundland,
However, there were many critics. The most
withheld their support; as a result, the Meech
vocal of these was Pierre Trudeau. He argued that
Lake Accord disintegrated in June 1990.
the designation of Quebec as a distinct society
Quebeckers were dismayed. The failure of the ac-
would create “two solitudes” in Canada. It would,
cord was seen as a rejection of Quebec itself, even
he said, simply isolate the Francophones of
a “humiliation.” By late 1990, support in Quebec
Quebec. It would make them less rather than
for separation had soared to 64 per cent. Lucien
more a part of Confederation. Other critics dis-
Bouchard, a powerful Quebec member of
liked the “distinct-society” clause. Quebeckers
Mulroney’s Cabinet, resigned in protest and
formed the Bloc Québécois. This political party
would run in federal elections to support the aim
of Quebec separation.

The Charlottetown Accord

Prime Minister Mulroney believed he had to
continue with the Constitution debate. Anxious
to avoid previous mistakes, his government
appointed a special “Citizen’s Forum”—a com-
mittee that travelled across the nation to hear
the views of Canadians on the future of the
Constitution. Eventually, Mulroney and the pre-
miers came up with another package of proposed
constitutional amendments. This was the
Charlottetown Accord, which answered
Quebec’s concerns in ways similar to the Meech
Accord. Now, other interests were also addressed.
The Charlottetown Accord proposed reforming
the Senate, making it an elected body with equal
representation from all parts of the country, as
the western provinces wanted. It also supported
Figure 8-10 Elijah Harper, a Cree NDP member of
Aboriginal self-government to draw the support
the Manitoba legislature, shown here holding an
eagle feather for spiritual strength, opposed the
of the First Nations.
Meech Lake Accord because it did not recognize
The Charlottetown Accord was put to a na-
Canada’s Aboriginal nations as a distinct society. He tional referendum in October 1992. Mulroney
started procedural delays that prevented final warned that rejection of the accord would en-
ratification of the accord by the provincial legislatures. danger the very future of the nation. Yet, 54.5 per
cent of Canadian voters rejected it. The

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Charlottetown Accord had so many clauses, each Following the narrow margin of victory in the
designed to please a different group, that it was 1995 referendum, the federal government moved
easy to find fault. to ensure that a future referendum would follow
The greatest opposition was in British a clear process. Prime Minister Chrétien sent the
Columbia, the fastest-growing province, where question of how Quebec might separate to the
68.3 per cent voted “no.” B.C. voters felt that the Supreme Court of Canada. Then, he followed up
accord gave Quebec too much power. They ob- on the court’s ruling with his controversial “clarity
jected particularly to the guarantee that Quebec bill,” which set down in law, for the first time,
would always have 25 per cent of the seats in the Ottawa’s insistence on a clear question in any fu-
House of Commons, regardless of the size of its ture referendum and a substantial “yes” majority
population. Voters in Quebec generally believed
that the Charlottetown Accord did not give them
enough power because most of the Senate seats
had been given up to the West. They also feared
Aboriginal self-government, because it would af-
fect a large portion of northern Quebec.

Referendum of 1995 and After

Angered by events in the Constitution debates,
Quebeckers again elected the separatist Parti
Québécois in the 1994 provincial election. The
following year, Premier Jacques Parizeau called a
provincial referendum on full sovereignty—the
separation of Quebec from the rest of Canada.
The “yes” forces reminded Quebeckers to re-
member their “humiliation” in the rejection of the
Meech Lake Accord. On the night of October 30,
1995, as the referendum votes were counted, the
nation held its breath. When the results were in,
49.4 per cent of Quebeckers had voted “yes” to
sovereignty; 50.6 per cent had voted “no.”
The vote was so close that the country was
in a state of shock. The “no” side had won by a
slim margin of just over 1 per cent. In the after-
math of the referendum, some politicians con-
tinued to believe that Canada could change the
Constitution to satisfy at least some of Quebec’s
demands. Others thought it was time to take a
hard line with the separatists. By the end of the
century, no permanent settlement was clear.
Lucien Bouchard became Quebec premier and
talked periodically of a new referendum on sov- Figure 8-11 People from across Canada took planes,
ereignty. Meanwhile, Prime Minister Jean buses, cars, and trains to Montreal to tell the people
Chrétien began working on guidelines for a fu- of Quebec that they wanted them to stay in Canada.
ture vote on sovereignty in Quebec. He stressed Using evidence How does this photograph
that, should the province ever opt for sovereignty, demonstrate support for the “no” side?
the costs for Quebeckers would be high.

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 203

Chapter08 11/05/2004 8:42 AM Page 204

before Quebec’s exit from Confederation would

be negotiated. 1961–1970 Southern Europe 40.0%
As the century closed, support for separatism
appeared to be declining in Quebec. Liberal gains United Kingdom
in Quebec in the 2000 federal election and the Caribbean and 21.3%
Bermuda 5.7%
resignation of Premier Bouchard seemed to sup-
port the tough stand towards separation that had United States 6.4%
been adopted by Prime Minister Chrétien. The
Northern Other 15.1%
new premier of Quebec, Bernard Landry, remains Europe 11.5%
committed to a restructuring of Canadian con-
federation into something resembling the 1991–1996 Other 34.4%
European Union. The “clarity bill” may soon be
tested.
Western-Central Eastern
Asia and Asia 24.3%
Middle East 7.9%
ACTIVITIES
Southern Asia 13.5%
1. a) Why did Brian Mulroney reopen the Constitution Eastern Europe 8.5%
Southeast Asia 11.4%
debate?
b) Do you think he made a mistake in doing so? Source: Statistics Canada.
Support your answer with evidence from the text.
Figure 8-12 Immigration to Canada by country of birth
2. List the criticisms of the Meech Lake Accord. Why
(five leading regions).
did it fail?
Using evidence Based on these graphs, find evidence
3. Why did the Charlottetown Accord fail?
to support the following conclusion: The sources of
4. How did the Quebec referendum of 1995 differ from Canadian immigration changed almost completely
that of 1980? between the two periods shown.
5. Why did the results of the 1995 Quebec referendum
shock the country?

Immigrants of other origins did arrive, but the

government limited their numbers in various ways.
A Multicultural Nation By the 1960s, Canadians had a more open
attitude towards people of other cultures and
As Anglophone and Francophone Canada at-
countries. In 1962, new regulations removed most
tempted to define their country’s nature, another
limits on immigrants of Asian, African, and other
force was developing that would have an impact
origins. In 1967, legislation made Canada’s im-
on Canadian society: Canada was becoming more
migration policy officially “colour-blind.” Since
multicultural.
the Canadian economy required people with train-
ing and specific skills, immigrants were to be cho-
Immigration and sen by a point system based on education and
Multiculturalism employment prospects. National and racial ori-
gins were no longer factors.
From the end of World War I until the 1960s, In 1971, Prime Minister Trudeau also intro-
Canada had a somewhat restrictive immigration duced an official policy of multiculturalism.
policy. Immigrants of British and European ori- Trudeau claimed that the policy would:
gins, especially northern Europeans, were pre-
ferred because it was thought they would adapt … support and encourage the various cultures and
the most easily to the Canadian way of life. ethnic groups that give structure and vitality to our

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Birthplace Toronto* Vancouver* Czechoslovakia. In 1972, about 7000 people of

Population Population Asian background, many of them highly trained,
Canada 60.2% 66.5% came from Uganda after their country’s dictator,
Idi Amin, singled them out for ill treatment.
Europe 16.2% 10.1%
During the 1980s, immigration policy especially
Asia 14.5% 18.7%
encouraged immigrants having the money and
Caribbean and business skills to create jobs by investing in ex-
Bermuda 3.5% 0.3%
isting companies or starting new ones.
Central and During the 1980s, Canada became more mul-
South America 2.8% 0.9%
ticultural than ever before. Figure 8-12 shows
Other 2.8% 3.5% how the sources of immigration continued to
*These figures refer to the Toronto and Vancouver Census change into the 1990s. The biggest increase was
Metropolitan Areas, whose 1996 populations were: Toronto
4.4447 million, Vancouver 1.8914 million. in immigration from Asian countries. Canada’s
Source: Statistics Canada. cities also continued to draw most of the new im-
migrants and to develop as lively multicultural
Figure 8-13 Birthplace of populations, Toronto and centres (see Figure 8-13).
Vancouver, 1996, by selected regions (in percentages).

Interpreting statistics Using information from this Multiculturalism Becomes an

table, write two or three sentences comparing and
contrasting the compostion of the populations of Toronto Issue
and Vancouver based on place of birth. The federal government recognized the growth of
Canada’s multicultural communities by estab-
lishing the Department of Multiculturalism and
society. They will be encouraged to share their cul- Citizenship in 1988. This department continued
tural expressions and values with other Canadians to promote multiculturalism in all areas of gov-
and so contribute to a richer life for us all. ernment policy. Despite these initiatives, how-
ever, Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism
The policy of multiculturalism encouraged were complex. Many Canadians believed that the
the country’s different ethnic groups to express policy benefited Canada. It allowed people of all
their cultures. Multicultural activities were orga- ethnic, racial, religious, and cultural backgrounds
nized across the country. For example, heritage to feel welcome here, and to play a positive role in
language classes were provided to help children the development of the nation. Supporters say the
learn the language of their parents. Festivals were policy also helped strengthen national unity by
held for cultural communities to share their music, drawing all Canadians closer together in mutual
dances, foods, games, arts, crafts, and stories. respect.
Various programs were designed to make all resi- But through the 1980s and 1990s, it became
dents feel at home in Canada, regardless of their clear that not everyone agreed with this position.
origins. These programs were also intended to Some Canadians argued that the policy of multi-
prevent racism by promoting respect for all cul- culturalism was preventing Canada’s communi-
tures. ties from developing a common Canadian identity.
In 1976, immigration regulations changed Canada’s model of multiculturalism was like a
again, this time to allow immigration of family mosaic, where groups maintained their own iden-
members with relatives already in Canada. From tity. It would be better, they said, to follow the
the late 1960s on, more allowance was also made “melting-pot” model of the United States, where
for refugees fleeing persecution in their home- cultural groups were encouraged to assimilate—
lands. For example, some 11 000 refugees came to that is, to give up their identities and take on the
Canada in 1968, after the Soviet Union invaded mainstream culture to a greater extent.

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 205

Chapter08 11/05/2004 8:42 AM Page 206

As new cultures took root in British Columbia,

other issues were raised. For example, traditional
ACTIVITIES
Canadian holidays such as Easter and Christmas 1. How did Canadian immigration policies and patterns
are rooted in the Christian faith and culture. develop between 1960 and 2000? Present your an-
These holidays presented a challenge for schools swer in the form of a timeline or chart.
with large multicultural populations. One solu-
2. Why did the federal government introduce an offi-
tion was to highlight the festivals of groups rep-
cial multiculturalism policy in 1971?
resented in sufficient numbers in the school. For
example, Chinese New Year, the Muslim holy 3. Do you think the policy has had its intended effect?
month of Ramadan, and Sikh holy days such as Support your view with examples.
Baisakhi were celebrated in some schools. These 4. Explain how the Canadian model of a “cultural mo-
festivals offered students a better understanding saic” differs from the U.S. model of a “melting pot.”
of the beliefs and customs of Canada’s multicul- 5. Quebec has long pressed for a greater share of im-
tural society. migrants to Canada and a greater say on who can
enter. Why do you think this is so?

countries such as Rwanda and Yugoslavia, where ethnic

diversity has ripped communities and families apart.

counterpoints For and Against

The Honorable Hedy Fry, who is also the member of
Parliament for Vancouver Centre and an immigrant to
Does Canada Need a Canada, has expressed the following view:

Multiculturalism Policy? Multiculturalism is the key to Canadian unity. We

must understand that people of different races can
Canada’s official multiculturalism policy has fierce de- have a strong sense of belonging to one nation
fenders and critics. Many Canadians believe the policy while maintaining their original cultural identities....
benefits Canada. They feel multiculturalism plays a pos- Multiculturalism and respect for our differences
itive role in the nation’s development, and that it helps are important reasons why this country has been
create national unity, as Pierre Trudeau claimed it would ranked as the best nation in the world by the United
in 1971. Supporters also feel that multiculturalism gives Nations.
Canadians an awareness of other cultures, an asset
Source: Gary Engler, “Dr. Fry defends her job and
when dealing with problems that may arise in various
policies.” Vancouver Sun, November 19, 1997.
communities. Furthermore, they say the policy helps
promote values such as tolerance, equality, and sup- Neil Bissoondath, an author and also an immigrant
port of diversity. to Canada, has a different view:
Opponents claim that it is not good for the country
to promote differences in cultures. They say this ap- Anyone critical of multicultural policy ... is immedi-
proach weakens the country’s unity. Some critics feel ately branded a racist. And if one happens to be,
that ethnic groups should maintain their own cultures in as I am, a “person of colour,” one is then graced
Canada if they wish, but that the government should with words such as “sell-out,” “traitor” ... from
not provide financial support to these groups—rather, “ethnic” defenders with a stake in the system....
it should support Canadian culture. Critics also point to Many are they in this country who fear a serious

206 Unit I ■ Canada in the Twentieth Century

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Source: Rais Khan, presentation to the Reform

Party, quoted in Preston Manning, The New
Canada (Toronto: Macmillan Canada, 1992),
316–317.

Myrna Kostash, an Alberta author with an Eastern

European background, has responded to Neil
Bissoondath:

It is precisely the policy of multiculturalism that has

brought ethnic minorities out of the so-called ghet-
toes into the mainstream of our public culture....
Bissoondath takes great satisfaction from his
successful acculturation into Canada, having ar-
rived some twenty years ago from Trinidad. He
spurns identification with the “ethnic bastions” of
ex-Trinidadians in Canada. Fair enough. But he
should acknowledge the experience of those
Canadians for whom multiculturalism emerged
after decades of a less salubrious [agreeable] his-
Figure 8-14 Hedy Fry responds to questions in the
House of Commons, March 1999.
tory in a far less culturally accommodating society
than the one Bissoondath joined. For a real expe-
rience of ghettoization [being kept apart as a group],
he should have come to Canada before the
Multiculturalism Act….
examination of multiculturalism, its policies and its
Source: Myrna Kostash, reviewing Neil
consequences.
Bissoondath’s book Selling Illusions in the
Source: Neil Bissoondath, Selling Illusions: The Toronto Star, October 22, 1994, F17.
Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada (Toronto:
Penguin, 1994), 5.
Analysing the Issue
Rais Khan, a University of Winnipeg political sci- 1. In a group, survey a variety of Canadian newspa-
ence professor and immigrant to Canada, is also criti- pers, magazines, and television progams to deter-
cal of the multiculturalism policy: mine the extent to which they reflect Canada’s
multicultural nature. Use a three-column chart to
Immigrants come here to become Canadians; to
record your findings, according to the media types
be productive and contributing members of their
surveyed. Summarize your findings, and present
chosen society. I am one of them. I did not come
them to the class.
here to be labelled as an ethnic or a member of
the multicultural community, or to be coddled with 2. Both Hedy Fry and Neil Bissoondath are from
preferential treatment, nurtured with special grants, Trinidad. Why do you think their views on multicul-
and then to sit on the sidelines and watch the world turalism differ?
go by. I came here to be a member of the main- 3. Imagine you are the federal minister responsible for
stream of the Canadian society.... I do not desire multiculturalism. Prepare a speech announcing that
special consideration; I wish to be treated equally.... you are going to either a) continue the policy of mul-
Whether or not I preserve my cultural background ticulturalism or b) make changes to it. Justify your
is my personal choice.… decision, taking possible consequences into account.

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 207

Chapter08 11/05/2004 8:42 AM Page 208

Aboriginal Nations it recommends].... It is difficult to envision any re-

sponsible Indian organization willing to participate
By the latter half of the twentieth century, Canada in a proposal that promises to take the rights of all
was becoming a bilingual but multicultural coun- Indians away and attempts to ... legislate Indians
try. Yet, its roots were even more diverse, including out of existence. It is a strange government and a
the First Nations that were its original residents. strange mentality that would have the gall to ask
When Aboriginal people living on reserves the Indian to help implement its plan to perpetrate
won the right to vote in 1960, it did little to im- cultural genocide on the Indians of Canada. It is
prove their living conditions. They continued to like asking the doomed man on the gallows if he
suffer from serious problems, including poverty, would mind pulling the lever that trips the trap.
poor health, and inadequate housing and educa- Source: Harold Cardinal, The Unjust Society: The
tion. For those who left to try their luck in the Tragedy of Canada’s Indians (Vancouver: Douglas
large cities, life was often worse. Lacking educa- & McIntyre, 1999), 137.
tion, job skills, and the ability to adapt to urban
life, many faced hostility and discrimination. The National Indian Brotherhood led the at-
By the late 1960s, First Nations were orga- tack on the White Paper. Instead of assimilation
nizing to pressure Ottawa and the provincial gov- into “white” (non-Aboriginal) society, they de-
ernments to deal with the crisis they were facing. manded self-government and control over their
The National Indian Brotherhood was formed in own affairs. When they presented their paper,
1968 to lobby on behalf of Aboriginal people liv- called Citizens Plus, or the “Red Paper,” a sur-
ing on reserves. In response to their growing de- prised Jean Chrétien announced he was shelving
mands, Pierre Trudeau’s Liberal government the White Paper. However, he offered no new pol-
proposed a policy outlined in the White Paper of icy in its place.
1969. A white paper is a document that a gov-
ernment puts forth for discussion. If it is accepted, Educational Concerns
it may be passed into law. The 1969 White Paper
called for an end to what Trudeau viewed as the Gradually, First Nations began to take some con-
overly protective attitude that had previously trol in areas that concerned them most. One of
marked government policy in dealing with these was education. The system of residential
Aboriginal peoples. schools was finally abandoned in 1969. In fol-
Trudeau and his Indian Affairs Minister, Jean lowing years, many First Nations took over the
Chrétien, suggested that Aboriginal peoples should education of their children, and “band schools”
be treated exactly like other citizens. Any special emerged in various parts of the country. At band
rights they had on the reserves, such as not having schools, Aboriginal children could study their own
to pay income tax, would be abolished. At the languages and learn about their own cultures and
same time, more would be done to encourage traditions. However, the lack of secondary schools
them to leave the reserves and seek jobs in the near the reserves meant that most Aboriginal chil-
cities. In this way, they would become part of dren were forced to leave home at a much younger
mainstream Canadian society. This kind of as- age than other Canadian children. As part of a
similation would supposedly bring an end to their government-run “boarding home program,” some
problems. high school students were sent to live with fami-
Aboriginal people were furious. They saw the lies and attend school in cities such as Vancouver
White Paper as an attack on their right to maintain and New Westminster, British Columbia. But they
their unique identity. Harold Cardinal, an Alberta were far from home, and loneliness drove some
Cree leader, explained their response: to return before graduating from high school.
Although the residential school system was
Ironically, the White Paper concludes by ... calling dismantled, its legacy continued to haunt many
upon Indian organizations ... to assist [in the process who had lived through it. In 1990, a prominent

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Figure 8-15 Phanuelie Palluq performs

a drum dance in 1999 before Minister
of Indian Affairs Jane Stewart and
Natural Resources Minister Ralph
Goodale at the Ottawa ceremony in
which the government offered an
apology for the cruel treatment of
Aboriginal children in residential
schools.

Aboriginal chief and lawyer, Phil Fontaine, spoke projects would endanger their traditional activi-
out about how he was mistreated at school. Others ties of hunting, fishing, and trapping.
soon came forward with horrifying stories of abuse. Probably the most significant Aboriginal vic-
In 1998, the federal government apologized for tory during the 1970s was won by the Inuit, Métis,
its part in the problem and announced a $350 and Indian Brotherhood (later Dene) of the Yukon
million healing fund. and Northwest Territories. They were struggling to
halt the construction of oil and natural gas
pipelines that were to run through their lands in
Environmental Concerns the Mackenzie Valley. The pipelines were to de-
Aboriginal peoples also began taking control over liver energy from Alaska and the Arctic to Alberta.
another area of concern: the environment. The three Aboriginal groups lobbied to stop con-
Canadian industries were expanding, sometimes struction of the pipeline. They demanded a study
in and around reserves. Many Aboriginal groups to determine its impact on their lands and the en-
were concerned that hydroelectric and natural gas vironment.

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 209

Chapter08 11/05/2004 8:42 AM Page 210

to halt construction of two new phases of the huge

James Bay Hydro Project, which threatened to
flood a large part of their ancestral territories.

The Path to Self-Government

In 1980, Canadian Aboriginal peoples formed the
Assembly of First Nations to represent them in
their dealings with the federal government. During
the constitutional negotiations, the Assembly of
First Nations pressured the country’s political
leaders for legal recognition of Aboriginal rights. As
a result, Aboriginal rights were entrenched in the
Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In 1985,
Parliament also passed Bill C-31, which gave
Aboriginal band councils the power to decide who
had the right to live on Aboriginal reserves.
Figure 8-16 An eloquent spokesperson for the
Aboriginal cause was Teswahno, also known as Dan
Previous decisions of this sort had been made by
George. He was Chief of the Squamish Band of the federal government’s Department of Indian
Burrard Inlet, British Columbia, from 1951 to 1963. At Affairs.
age sixty, he became an actor committed to The increase in band council powers raised
portraying Aboriginal characters in a positive light. He the question, “What other powers should be trans-
helped the movie industry move away from its ferred from the federal government to the band
stereotyped views of Aboriginal people. Chief George councils?” The stage was set for discussions about
had roles in a number of Hollywood films, including self-government. Aboriginal peoples said self-
Little Big Man (1970) and The Outlaw Josey Wales government would give them the right to manage
(1975). Also a poet and essayist, he died in 1981. resources and gain control of their education,
culture, and justice systems. Control of resources
would also allow them to tackle social and health
concerns in their communities.
But how would self-government work in prac-
The federal government agreed to create a tice? Should Indian reserves be run as municipal
commission to investigate the issue. The Berger or town governments by the band members? Or
Commission conducted hearings all over the would Aboriginal lands and reserves across Canada
North, listening carefully to Aboriginal concerns. eventually join together to form something like a
In 1977, the commission recommended that con- province? Furthermore, how could Aboriginal na-
struction of the Mackenzie Valley pipeline be sus- tions lay claim to lands that they considered to
pended for ten years pending an in-depth be theirs?
environmental study and negotiations with the Aboriginal land claims have been of two types.
Aboriginal peoples about financial compensation, Specific claims have arisen in areas where
self-government, and other issues. In fact, con- treaties between Aboriginal peoples and the fed-
struction was suspended for much longer. By eral government have been signed, but their terms
2000, however, Aboriginal groups were open to have not been kept. For example, the agreed-upon
the idea of building the pipeline. At the same time, size of a reserve may have decreased as land was
they stressed that they wanted control and some taken away for the building of a highway or other
ownership of the project. development. Comprehensive claims have ques-
In Quebec, after a long dispute in the 1980s tioned the ownership of land in large parts of
and 1990s, Cree residents of the North managed Canada that were never surrendered by treaty.

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The Oka Confrontation to a bridge which ran through their reserve, block-
ing access to part of Montreal. There were nightly
By the end of the 1980s, scores of specific claims
violent confrontations involving the population of
were slowly making their way through the courts,
nearby Quebec communities, the police, and the
as members of reserves demanded additional land
Mohawks. Across Canada, other Aboriginal groups
or compensation for lands they had lost. Few
demonstrated their support by blockading high-
Canadians paid much attention, however, until
ways and railway tracks that ran through their re-
the summer of 1990, when events in the Quebec
serves.
town of Oka made headlines across the nation.
As the tense stand-off continued, Quebec
The Oka town council decided to expand a golf
Premier Robert Bourassa called in the Canadian
course into land that Mohawks at the nearby
Forces for help. Troops with heavy weapons moved
Kanesatake reserve considered sacred. The own-
into the area. Negotiations to end the crisis were
ership of the land had long been disputed.
tense. Towards the end of September, members of
The Mohawk warrior society decided to stop
other bands persuaded the Mohawks of
construction of the golf course by blockading the
Kanesatake to end the stand-off. Eventually, the
land. In response, the mayor of Oka called in the
disputed land was purchased by the federal gov-
Quebec Provincial Police to remove the block-
ernment and given to Kanesatake. The crisis
ade. On July 11, the police advanced on the
passed, but the point made by the confrontation
Mohawk lines, gunfire broke out, and an officer
hit home. Oka was a wake-up call to the govern-
was killed. It was not clear which side fired the
ment and people of Canada. Canada’s First
fatal shot. From that point, events snowballed.
Nations had demonstrated that they were pre-
The police blockaded Kanesatake. Mohawks from
pared to fight for their rights.
the nearby Kahnawake reserve barricaded the road

Figure 8-17 This

image of the Oka
confrontation
became famous
around the world.

Expressing ideas
What did this image
say about relations
between Canada
and Aboriginal
communities?

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 211

Chapter08 11/05/2004 8:42 AM Page 212

up close
Aboriginal Voices

A s the visibility of Aboriginal people in Canada’s po-

litical life has increased, so too has their presence
in Canadian art and culture. Aboriginal writers and artists
Rita Joe (born 1932) is from the Eskasoni First Nation
reserve on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. As a foster
child, she moved many times from family to family and
have won acclaim around the world. Giving voice to from reserve to reserve. Many of her poems deal with
their culture, they have enriched the Canadian identity. the pain of her people, once proud and self-sufficient,
and serve as a plea for better understanding between
cultural groups. When she was made a Member of the
Tomson Highway (born 1951) is a Cree from
Order of Canada in 1990, she accepted the award in
Manitoba. After studying music and literature in Ontario
recognition not just of herself but of her people as well.
and in England, he joined a performing arts company. He
The poem below records her experience of residential
is a well-known playwright whose works include Dry
school.
Lips Oughta Move to Kapuskasing and The Rez Sisters.
He became Artistic Director of Native Earth Performing
Arts in Toronto, one of only a few Aboriginal theatre I Lost My Talk
groups in North America. I lost my talk
The talk you took away
When I was a little girl
Daphne Odjig was born in 1919 on Manitoulin Island,
At Shubenacadie school.
Ontario. Her grandfather was a stone-carver who told
You snatched it away;
her, as a child, about the history and legends of her peo-
I speak like you
ple. Odjig later moved to British Columbia, where her
I think like you
paintings were inspired by the landscape of the B.C. in-
I create like you
terior and the West Coast islands. She published her
The scrambled ballad, about my word.
memoirs, Paintbrush in My Hand, in 1992 and in 1998
Two ways I talk
received an Achievement Award in Arts and Culture
Both ways I say,
from the National Aboriginal Achievement Foundation.
Your way is more powerful.
So gently I offer my hand and ask,
Let me find my talk
Figure 8-18 The Indian in Transition by Daphne Odjig.
This mural hangs in the National Arts Centre in Ottawa. So I can teach you about me.
Painted in the late 1970s, it outlines the history of
Aboriginal people in Canada.

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Douglas Cardinal (born 1934) is from

Calgary, Alberta. A distinguished archi-
tect, he is best known for his design
of the Canadian Museum of Civilization
in Hull, Quebec. As he described it, the
Museum was designed to speak “of
the emergence of man from the melt-
ing glaciers; of man and woman living
in harmony with the forces of nature
and evolving with them.”

Figure 8-19 The Canadian Museum of

Civilization in Hull, Quebec, designed
by Douglas Cardinal.

Bill Reid (1920–1998) came from mixed parentage in John Kim Bell was born on the Kahnawake Mohawk
British Columbia. It was not until he was in his teens reserve in Quebec. He studied violin and piano as a
that he discovered that his mother was Haida. He soon youth. In 1980, he was appointed apprentice conduc-
became interested in traditional Haida carving tech- tor of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, and went on
niques, and began to create wooden masks and poles. to devote his time to promoting opportunities for
Many of these techniques were on the verge of ex- Aboriginal artists. In 1993, he established the National
tinction, and Reid’s work inspired other Aboriginal artists Aboriginal Achievement Awards. Between 1993 and
to return to traditional art forms. 1998, over $5 million in educational awards was given
to over 800 Aboriginal students pursuing studies in the
arts, business, medicine, and the sciences.

Susan Aglukark (born 1967) was raised in Arviat, now

part of Nunavut. She has developed a distinctive musi-
cal style, fusing traditional Inuit chants with modern pop
melodies. But she is more than a pop star. She does
social work as well, and is the national spokesperson
for the Aboriginal Division of the National Alcohol and
Drug Prevention Program.

Questions
1. What themes and concerns are evident in the works
of Rita Joe, Bill Reid, and Daphne Odjig included
here?
2. Summarize the contributions of Aboriginal artists to
Canadian society.
Figure 8-20 One of Bill Reid’s most famous works, The
Spirit of the Haida Gwai, sits in the foyer of the Canadian
Embassy in Washington.

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 213

Chapter08 11/05/2004 8:42 AM Page 214

Land Claims in British Columbia Opponents of comprehensive claims argue

otherwise. They deny that the 1763 proclamation
Most land claims in British Columbia have been
can be valid in parts of Canada, such as the North
comprehensive, as Aboriginal nations never offi-
and British Columbia, that were not known to the
cially gave up their claims to most of what is now
British at that time. They assert that Canada ex-
British Columbia. In addition, when the British
ercised the traditional rights of “discoverers and
took over Canada, the Royal Proclamation of 1763
conquerors.” The land ceased long ago to belong
declared that “any lands whatever, which, not hav-
to the First Nations. In any case, without written
ing been ceded to or purchased by us, … are re-
records, it is difficult for some First Nations to
served to the … Indians.” Treaties were not signed
prove continuous occupation of the land.
except in a few areas, such as the province’s north-
The history of Aboriginal land claims in British
east corner and parts of Vancouver Island.
Columbia goes back more than a century. In 1887,
the Nisga’a, the original occupants of the Nass
Valley in the northwest, began asserting their land
rights. In 1912, they became the first group to
make a land claim against the Canadian govern-
Figure 8-21 The overlapping claims of the forty-two ment. Even when the Indian Act made it illegal for
Aboriginal groups claiming land in British Columbia.
them to raise funds for land claims, they contin-
Together, they amount to 110 per cent of the
ued their struggle.
province. The B.C. government has stated that it
favours a total land settlement of approximately 5 per
cent, reflecting the Aboriginal percentage of the B.C.
population.

First Nations Whose Statements of Intent to Negotiate a Treaty Have Been

5
Accepted as of November 1, 1994 by the B.C. Treaty Commission

32 1. Alkali Nation 24. Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal

15 2. Tsleil Waututh Nation (also Council
35 known as Burrard Nation) 25. Nazko Indian Band*
15 3. Cariboo Tribal Council 26. Oweekeno Nation
4. Carrier Sekani Tribal Council 27. Pavillion*
5. Champagne and Aishihik 28. Sechelt Indian Band
First Nations 29. Sliammon Indian Band
6. Ditidaht First Nation 30. Squamish Nation
7. The Gitanyow Hereditary 31. Spallumcheen Indian Band*
8 37 Chiefs 32. Taku River Tlingit First Nation
8. Gitksan Nation 33. Te'mexw Treaty Association*
9. Council of the Haida Nation 34. Teslin Tlingit Council*
4 10. Haisla Nation 35. Treaty 8 Tribal Association
37
7 8 4 11. Heiltsuk Nation 36. Tsawwassen First Nation*
12. Homalco Indian Band 37. Tsay Keh Dene Band
13. Hul’qumi’num First Nations 38. Tsimshian Nation
38 35 20
14. In-shuck-ch 39. Westbank
15. Kaska Dena Council 40. Wet’suwet’en Nation
10 16. Katzie Indian Band 41. Xaxli’p People
40 17. Klahoose 42. Yale First Nation
18. Ktunaxa Kinbasket Tribal
Council * Maps of traditional territories of these
9 First Nations are not available at this time.
19. Kwakiutl First Nation*
4
20. Lheit-lit’en Nation
11 3 21. Musqueam Nation
The information shown on this map does not
imply that the First Nations and the
22. Nanaimo Nation Governments of Canada and British Columbia
26 18 23. Nat’oot’en Nation* have agreed to the boundaries.
1
Traditional Territories 12
of British Columbia
17 41
First Nations 30 39 Boundary Supplied by First Nation
(as set out by statements of intent 28 (Approximate Locations)
24 29 2 14
accepted by the B.C. Treaty
21 42
Commission, November 1994)
16
22
6
0 125 250 km 13

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In 1993, the Nisga’a won a partial victory and policing. The government offered to pay the
when some justices of the Supreme Court of Nisga’a $190 million over fifteen years, in com-
Canada acknowledged that the concept of pensation for lost land. The Nisga’a agreed to be-
Aboriginal title (right to land) did indeed exist. come taxpayers, giving up their tax-exempt status
Then, two neighbouring nations, the Gitksan and under the Indian Act.
Wet’suwet’en, took their land claim to court. Their In 1998, ruling on the Delgamuluukw case,
claim became known as the Delgamuluukw case, the Supreme Court of Canada defined “Aboriginal
named after one of the people who made the title.” It ruled that Aboriginal groups could claim
claim. ownership of land if they can prove that they oc-
Both the Nisga’a and those involved in the cupied the land before the Canadian government
Delgamuluukw case persevered until they met claimed sovereignty, and that they occupied it
with success. In the mid-1990s, the governments continuously and exclusively. This was a landmark
of Canada and British Columbia decided that the ruling that would have application in other parts
time had come to settle rather than dispute the of the country.
Nisga’a claims. In 1996, the Nisga’a were offered The Nisga’a settlement and Delgamuluukw
a settlement that entitled them to 8 per cent of decisions stirred up controversy. Some businesses
their original claimed land, ownership of the feared future court cases over ownership of the
forests, and partial profits from salmon fisheries land. They began to halt their investments, and
and hydro development. The Nisga’a also won the jobs were lost in British Columbia. Opponents of
right to develop their own municipal government the Nisga’a deal argued that there would be further

Figure 8-22 Prime

Minister Jean
Chrétien
congratulates
Joseph Gosnell,
president of the
Nisga’a Tribal
Council, on the
passage of the
Nisga’a Treaty bill
in Commons.
Assembly of First
Nations Chief Phil
Fontaine (second
from right) and
Indian Affairs
Minister Robert
Nault look on.

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 215

Chapter08 11/05/2004 8:42 AM Page 216

A Powerful Force for Change

Self-government and land claims continued to be
important issues in many other parts of Canada.
The creation of the territory of Nunavut in 1999
resulted from the largest treaty ever negotiated in
Canada. It gave the Inuit of this northern area
political control of some 1.6 million square kilo-
metres on the eastern Arctic. It suggested that
Aboriginal land claims and self-government will
continue to be a powerful force for change in
shaping the nation into the twenty-first century.

ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the importance of the following in the de-
velopment of Aboriginal identity:
a) the 1969 White Paper and Citizens Plus
b) the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline and the Berger
Figure 8-23 Celebrating the creation of Nunavut in Commission.
Iqaluit, the territory’s capital, in April 1999. 2. a) Define assimilation.
b) Give examples of the federal government’s at-
tempts to assimilate Aboriginal people into
Canadian society.
3. What was the government’s response to demands
expensive disputes over land and self-government.
that it acknowledge its part in the ill treatment of
They demanded that the province hold a refer-
Aboriginal children in residential schools? Do you
endum on the deal. The B.C. government refused
think this response was adequate? Give reasons.
a vote by all the population, arguing that the rights
of a minority can never be fairly decided by a vote 4. Explain the importance of:
of the majority. In the closing days of 1999, the a) the Assembly of First Nations
Parliament of Canada passed the Nisga’a deal over b) specific land claims
the strong objections of the opposition Reform
c) comprehensive land claims
Party. When the treaty was given royal assent,
Nisga’a Chief Joseph Gosnell announced: d) the Nisga’a Treaty
e) the Delgamuluukw decision.
Today, the Nisga’a people become full-fledged
5. What percentage of B.C. land do Aboriginal groups
Canadians as we step out from under the Indian
claim? What Aboriginal land settlement percentage
Act—forever. Finally, after a struggle of more than
does the B.C. government favour? What issues do
130 years, the government of this country clearly
these percentages raise?
recognizes that the Nisga’a were a self-governing
people since well before European contact. We re- 6. a) Why do you think the creation of Nunavut is sig-
main self-governing today, and we are proud to say nificant?
that this inherent right is now clearly recognized b) What challenges do you think are posed for
and protected in the Constitution of Canada. Nunavut by having 29 000 people politically con-
trol 1.6 million square kilometres of land? How
Source: Federal government press release, April
do you think e-mail and other modern technolo-
13, 2000.
gies can help?

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LOOKING BACK

Develop an Understanding c) Should further constitutional talks be attempted

1. Make a three-column chart with the following head- while there is a Parti Québécois government in
ings: “Key People,” “Key Events,” and “Key Ideas.” Quebec?
List examples from this chapter under the appropri- d) Is the constitutional debate over?
ate headings. Include a brief explanation of each. 9. Review Chapters 6, 7, and 8. Using information in
2. Choose at least seven events from this chapter’s those chapters, make a “report card” to comment
sections on French–English relations. Devise a way on the state of Canadian identity at the end of the
to present them in order to illustrate the evolution twentieth century. Consider such criteria as Role
of relations between Quebec and the rest of Canada in the World, Economic Growth, Caring Society,
from the 1940s to the present. Technology, French–English Relations, Multicultural
3. Make a PMI chart in which you list the effects of Relations, and Aboriginal Issues. Be sure to include
Canada’s multiculturalism policy. a section on Areas for Improvement.

4. How have Canadian Aboriginal peoples made their

voices heard since 1945? What key events have con- Research and Communicate
tributed to their affirmation of their identity and po- 10. With a partner, script and tape a message you
sition in society? Make a timeline including at least would like to broadcast from British Columbia to
five events. Write brief notes on why you chose Quebeckers on the day before a referendum on
them. sovereignty.
5. Look back at the photographs in the sections dealing 11. Some immigrants have achieved high honours in
with Aboriginal nations. What do they tell you about Canada. List the names of at least three, and pro-
how Aboriginal people have given voice to their cul- vide descriptions of their main accomplishments. If
ture? How do you think this has helped shape the necessary, do research in sources such as ency-
Canadian identity? clopedias, almanacs, and Web sites.
12. In 2000, Matthew Coon Come was elected chief of
Explore the Issues the Assembly of First Nations. How has he con-
6. a) Do you think Quebec has a distinct society? Why tributed to the affirmation of Aboriginal identity in
or why not? Canadian society? Do research and write a bio-
graphical article about him.
b) In view of your answer, how should the rest of
Canada respond to Quebec? 13. Most of British Columbia is involved in Aboriginal
land claims disputes. Research and report on an
7. Pierre Trudeau hoped to create a strong, unified coun-
Aboriginal land claim in your area.
try that was bilingual and multicultural. Did he suc-
ceed? Did his policies address the major concerns 14. In groups, conduct a poll on the present status of
in all parts of the country? Work in a group to for- land claim negotiations in British Columbia.
mulate a debate topic based on these questions. Construct your questions so that people can ex-
Then, debate your topic in class. press their opinions on Aboriginal title, compensa-
tion, fishing rights, and other issues. Compile and
8. Hold a class debate or small-group discussion on
analyse your results.
one of the following topics:
15. Research the status of Aboriginal rights in another
a) Is Quebec a distinct society?
country such as Brazil, Australia, or New Zealand.
b) Would a distinct-society clause in the Constitution Compare your findings with the situation in Canada.
hurt Canada as a country, or hurt Canadians?

Chapter 8 ■ The Canadian Identity: One, Two, or Many Nations? 217