UNIT III Motivation

1. Concept and Meaning of Motivation

Motivation is the process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals. Motivation
is a managerial function which has been defined by different scholars. Some of the important
definitions are as follows:
According to Edwin B.Flippo, “Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do
your will through the possibility of gain or reward.”
According to Dalton E. McFarland, “Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives,
desires, aspirations, strivings or needs direct, control or explain the behavior of human beings.”
According to William G. Scout, “Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to
accomplish desired goals”.
According to Fred Luthans, “Motivation is the process which begins with a physiological or
psychological need or deficiency which triggers behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or
incentive.”
2. Nature of Motivation
1. Motivation is an internal feeling which influences the human behavior.
2. Motivation is affected by way the individual is motivated.
3. Motivation results in achieving goals positively in the organization.
4. Motivation is related to satisfaction.
5. Motivation can be positive and negative.
6. Motivation is a complex process as the individuals are heterogeneous in their expectations,
perceptions and reactions.
7. Motivation is stronger when it springs from a person’s needs which are consistent with his
values.
3. Importance of Motivation
1. It helps the manager to ignite the will to work amongst the workmen.
2. Good motivation method helps in improving the abilities and capabilities of the employees.
3. It helps in finding out the hidden talents and calibre of the employees.
4. Motivated employees means satisfied employees i.e. satisfied in terms of job as well as their
personal motives.
5. Motivation reduces the chances of industrial unrest, strikes and similar labour problems.
6. Motivation helps to change the negative or indifferent attitudes of employee to positive
attitudes so as to achieve organizational goals.
7. motivation helps to reduce the employee turnover and thereby saves the cost of new
recruitment and training.
8. motivation helps in reducing the absenteeism in the organization.
Techniques to increase motivation
core employee motivation techniques

The 8 proven motivational techniques for managers are:

Recognition
Recognition is any kind of verbal act or symbolical event that a manager creates to acknowledge
an employee’s effort, quality work, and skill. If an employee does a good job, it would be
appropriate for them to receive recognition from their manager. Managers can
provide recognition to employees through awards, positive feedback, and other expressions of
appreciation. Also, make sure that the recognition is specific and tailored to the individual
employee’s achievements. Another key point to note is to always give recognition in public i.e. in
front of others. This increases the value of the recognition you just gave.
Emotional support
It refers to managers showing deep empathy towards their employees, it certainly helps the
manager in creating an environment that is conducive for building motivation among their
employees. Providing emotional support can be a powerful way for managers to motivate
employees, especially through tough times. This type of encouragement should focus on
providing individuals with understanding, empathy, and reassurance.
Encouragement
Encouragement is a powerful tool that can help employees overcome their mistakes and
failures and focus on their work. It can also help employees in developing a positive mindset and
resolve to be productive at work by encouraging them during difficult times when things do not
go according to plan. To encourage the employees, the manager can send a basic encouragement
email or just let the employees know that you trust them.
Feedback
Feedback acts a great employee motivation technique apart from helping managers guide their
teams. Feedback refers to the manager’s reflection or review of an employee’s or the team’s
performance. Employees need feedback to improve their performance. Giving constructive
feedback is one of the best ways to motivate individuals. However, managers should be sure to
provide accurate and timely information so that employees can learn from their mistakes.
Good employee experience
Creating a good employee experience is a manager’s attempt in setting up activities that
encourage the staff to do their work with more enthusiasm. Such an effort can improve
employees’ performance by motivating them and getting rid of boredom among the workers. It
can also provide a pleasant working environment for them. Having a good experience at work
can lead an employee towards higher employee engagement and job satisfaction.
Purpose in the job
Adding a purpose to the job refers to adding the main aim for employees to achieve. As a
manager, if you can crack an answer for “Why do I work here”, then you have nailed it. It also
enables the employees to work with full effort. By having a purpose in the job, employees will
be passionate, innovative, and committed to doing hard work, listening to their managers, and
making efforts toward the completion of this purpose. This sense of purpose at work will also be
helpful for the managers in setting a workplace culture that is conducive to growth.
Career growth
Another way to motivate employees is to emphasize career growth opportunities within the
company. Promoting professional development opportunities shows employees that you are
invested in their future and that you see them as an important part of the team. It shows to the
employee that my manager has invested in my growth and hence I must be invested in the
company’s success. To facilitate these growth opportunities, managers can try coaching or
training programs for their show team.
Educate your employees
It refers to making sure that your employees are well informed about the organization’s strategies,
plans, and objectives. This is one of the best ways to motivate employees since it creates a sense
of pride in the employees. If employees are well informed, they will be more motivated and
productive. They feel a greater sense of ownership over the organization.
Motivation plays a significant role in student learning. Students with high motivation levels tend
to have the best learning outcomes. Motivation is particularly useful in encouraging persistence
in applying effort to a learning task and trying new approaches. Although motivation is highly
influenced by student characteristics and tends to vary across different learning areas, the
classroom context also plays an important role in influencing student motivation. There are many
strategies that teachers can use to promote and support their students’ motivation. As many
theorists define motivation as arising from a need to satisfy psychological desires for autonomy,
competence and connection or belonging, the following motivational strategies focus on meeting
those needs.
1. Build strong relationships
Positive relationships with teachers are significantly related to positive motivation and to greater
achievement. Motivation is affected by the level of emotional and social support students
perceive. Students who believe their teachers are not interested in their learning report more
negative motivation and experience lower achievement. Research has demonstrated that
relationships with teachers are particularly important for Māori students.
Teachers need to show support and concern for all students and be interested in their ideas and
experiences, as well as what they produce in class. Try to ensure you communicate a sense of
caring for how each individual student is doing. Showing sensitivity and kindness to students
enhances the affective climate of the classroom, whereas threats, sarcasm, directives and
imposed goals result in negative affective experiences for students.
 Promote students’ sense of membership of the classroom and the school
Students’ motivation is strongest when they believe they are socially accepted by teachers and
peers and their school environment is fair, trustworthy and centred on concern for
everyone’s welfare. Motivation tends to be lowest in environments that are perceived as
unwelcoming and untrustworthy. When students have a strong sense of membership of the class
and school, they are more likely to adopt the values endorsed by the school. Students from
negatively stereotyped groups are most sensitive to cues of belonging and trustworthiness.
Teachers are authority figures who can set the tone for relations in the classroom, and make
students feel they are valued group members. Provide plenty of opportunities for positive
interactions with and among students. Try to create a sense of belonging while also valuing
students’ social and cultural identities. Activities that engender a shared sense of purpose will
motivate students and enhance their sense of belonging.
3. Enhance task interest and engagement
In classrooms characterised by positive attitudes and emotions, and high levels of interest in
the tasks undertaken, students report greater motivation and perceptions of competence.
Students who engage with activities and tasks relating to their interests find learning easier, more
enjoyable and more related to their lives, and they perform better than those without personalised
content.
Linking content to existing interests of the students also helps students to connect their prior
knowledge to academic learning.
Interest can be fostered through well-chosen texts and resources, as well as activities that
engender students’ curiosity through provocative questioning or generating suspense. Interest is
further enhanced by providing a choice of activities and using hands-on activities connected to
the learning content, although be wary of adding irrelevant or decorative details to a task in ways
that detract from learning outcomes. Students themselves might be able to adapt academic
problems to a context within their areas of interest if invited, although task interest is not simply
a matter of allowing students to engage in work that aligns with their existing interests.
Promoting a positive affective climate in the classroom can help improve students’ attitudes
towards the subject being taught, and strategies such as humour can enhance their enjoyment of
the topic. The teacher’s enthusiasm for the subject or task can also help to engender students’
interest.
4. Emphasise the relevance and importance of the learning
Research finds that when teachers emphasise the importance of learning a particular strategy or
piece of content, student motivation increases. Students perceive more challenging classes as
more important, although it is necessary to find the optimal level of challenge: when challenge is
too low or too high, students attribute low importance to the learning task.
Elaborating on and clarifying students’ responses and summarising learning regularly
throughout the lesson send the message that the learning is important. In addition, discussing the
new knowledge students have developed through the application of particular strategies
encourages students to perceive those strategies as valuable. In contrast, emphasising speed,
coverage of content or accuracy over understanding, and failing to probe students’ answers for
explanation and justification, reduces the level of challenge and also implies that student
performance, rather than learning, is most important.
Ways to communicate the importance and relevance of a topic to students include:
 increasing challenge
 providing opportunities for students to grapple with the central tenets and abstract
principles of a topic
 inviting students to personalise a topic by putting themselves into the context of a topic
 discussing universal human experiences that relate to a topic
 inviting students to explore the relevance and importance of their current learning by
investigating how particular academic concepts are used in their communities
5. Connect with students’ goals, values and identities
When students see learning tasks as useful and relevant to their goals, they develop more
interest, persist longer and perform better. Students who see their future adult self as being
dependent on their educational achievement spend more time on homework and have better
grades. Students might have between one and five core goals for their self-development and
future plans. It is helpful if school goal setting can tap into and co-ordinate with these
goals. Students may value a learning area as important for their self-worth and identity, or they
might value an area for its usefulness in accomplishing future goals relevant to their career or life
plans. For example, one student may perceive mathematics as useful for eventually owning a
business, another may view mathematics as handy for calculating cricket batting averages, and
another may simply enjoy maths for its own sake.
It is important that students feel that learning activities are congruent with their personal
identities, as this makes them more motivated to persist with difficulty. If learning activities are
at odds with students’ personal identities (‘This activity is not for people like me’), then
difficulty is taken as proof that the activity is pointless and unachievable.
Knowing your students well means you can promote interest in an academic topic by linking it to
the students’ recreational activities or career goals. Otherwise, you can ask students to reflect
on a curriculum unit and generate their own connections so that they discover the importance and
usefulness for themselves – this is also an opportunity to learn more about your students.
Not all activities and lessons can be inherently interesting to students, in which case it is
important to ensure you offer a rationale for why the activity or lesson is useful to the student
and worth the effort.
Teachers can influence students to see their future adult self as dependent on
achievement. Posters and images of possible careers might provide ongoing reminders so that
students’ desired goals remain in mind. It is also important that parents value school and subject
areas. Some research shows that providing information about the importance of a subject to
parents leads to increases in student motivation and achievement within that subject.
6. Give students autonomy and responsibility
Motivation is impaired when students feel they have no control over a situation. Giving students
choices and empowering student initiative enhances motivation, effort, interest, positive
emotions and perceptions of personal control and competence, as well as achievement. Most
students perform better on self-adapted tests in which they can select test items from various
options. Providing choices can also increase risk taking and help students develop interest for
particular activities. However, for students from some cultural groups, motivation might be
highest when authority figures or peers make choices for them.
It is important to carefully plan how to make choices available to students, basing them on your
students’ ability to understand and make choices. Some students may need scaffolding to help
them make appropriate choices. Choices must be appropriate for students’ abilities and needs,
and be a good match with student interests (although be wary of trying to align all learning
activities with students’ current interests at the risk of compromising the quality of the learning
or missing the opportunity to create interest and build knowledge in a new subject area). It might
be that students get to choose from a list of topic-related activities provided by the teacher, or
that they select their own tasks to work on. They might also be involved in setting due dates,
choosing student working groups, and the order of task completion. Being able to choose how to
apportion their time, as well as among several different versions of a task, might be most
motivational for students with skills in self-regulation. However, it is important that all students,
not just the highest-performing students, get to choose activities and resources.
Some choices are more effective than others. The best type of choices:
 allow students to reflect their personal interests, values and goals
 are unrestricted choices, with no indication of which option to choose, rather than
controlled choices
 offer choice between 2–5 options (as more than 5 options increases thinking effort and
therefore decreases motivation)
 allow students to repeatedly return to a list of options to make another choice rather
than making single or multiple choices at one time only
7. Develop students’ self-efficacy
Students have important needs in relation to feeling competent. Motivation is strongly influenced
by students’ perceived expectations of success or failure, which are in turn influenced
by teacher expectations. Motivation, self-efficacy and achievement are positively affected when
outcomes are represented as the result of student effort and action. Optimal learning experiences
occur when the student perceives the challenge of the task as equal to his or her skills to achieve
it. When challenge and skills are unbalanced, learning activities are not rewarding and perhaps
even evoke anxiety. The highest levels of motivation occur when there is both high challenge
and high feelings of self-efficacy.
One way to inspire increased motivation is to increase student’s expectations of success and their
sense of self-efficacy. Tell students you believe in them and that they will learn a particular
content or strategy if they study hard and are motivated. Ways to ensure students experience
success include:
 ensuring optimal challenge
 focusing on personal improvement rather than outperforming others
 providing feedback which helps students master content
 helping students set realistic goals
 structuring activities with clear processes for engagement with the task
 reinforcing key learning throughout the lesson, which increases self-efficacy as students
are clear that they are making progress
 giving frequent, positive feedback focused on elaborating what students have learned
and understood
 attributing success to effort and strategies rather than ability
8. Set appropriate goals and provide regular feedback for learning
Goals can motivate students by providing a purpose for using different learning strategies
and encourage students’ persistence and effort over time, especially when goals are related to
mastery of content and strategies rather than to specific performance. What is more, when
students perceive praise or feedback as intended to facilitate their task mastery, they tend to feel
their autonomy has been supported and are consequently motivated by the feedback. However,
when students feel that the teacher is trying to control their learning and behaviour, there is a
negative impact on motivation.
Goals direct attention and action, and they also mobilise effort and motivation. For example,
research has found that when students were given goals for reading focused on conceptual
themes and knowledge content, they applied reading comprehension strategies with greater
interest, effort and attention. Harder goals (that are acceptable to, and achievable by, the student)
lead to higher levels of motivation and performance. Difficulty can be interpreted as a need to
increase attention and therefore heightens motivation. Perceiving a task as too easy makes it
seem not worth any effort, and motivation is consequently reduced. Likewise, perceiving a task
as impossible halts motivation and effort abruptly. Between these extremes, increased difficulty
enhances motivation.
Set goals with students that are clear, measurable and provide a structured
progression through incremental goals to the final goal. Plan points at which to stop and
measure progress towards the goal. Provide feedback that indicates to students how they are
progressing towards the goal and perhaps offers suggestions to foster achievement of the goal.
Feedback is most motivating when it:
 allows and empowers students’ choice in subsequent learning strategies
 reflects a belief in the students’ capability to learn/complete a task
 is positive, frequent and elaborative
 is used to help students develop understanding
  is linked to clearly articulated high standards
9. Provide opportunities for co-operative learning
Meeting students’ need for connection with others can enhance motivation for the related
learning activity. Students show increased motivation when teachers provide frequent
opportunities for them to share their questions and what they have learned with their
peers. Students also often demonstrate increased work effort when there is a sense of collective
responsibility for learning. In addition, research shows students given collaborative learning
opportunities engage in deeper-level processing of information.
Plan for student-to-student dialogue within a lesson, and identify activities that can be
undertaken in pairs or groups. Develop group tasks in which tasks are divided between students.
Ensure each student has a clear responsibility and accountability in relation to a group goal.
10. Explicitly teach the concept of motivation and talk about how motivation supports
learning
Supporting students’ understanding of motivation can aid their ability to self-regulate their levels
of motivation and help them to identify strategies and behaviours that increase or lower their
motivation. Although motivational support strategies should be embedded into instruction, it
can also be worthwhile to explicitly discuss motivation with students. This helps students to
understand the importance of effort in learning and how finding ways to get motivated can help
them put in the necessary effort.
Emphasise the importance of motivation for success in learning. Talk regularly about how
students must work hard and how effort helps them to get smarter by linking effort to outcomes.
Ensure that you and your students have the same perception of effort: discuss what it means to
try. Help students differentiate between productive and non-productive effort by explaining
that effort is more than the time spent on a task but also means using effective strategies,
practising and seeking help. Take the mystery out of learning something new by demonstrating
that it is all about strategy and motivation.
MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR MOTIVATION
Motivation is the will to do, and the will to do well. Motivation may be self-directed, or one may
be motivated by others and by the environment, and one can motivate others as well. What
motivates the self and how can one motivate the others? Since the entire emphasis of motivation
is on one’s or other’s action or good performance it is worthwhile to see what performance
(which is essentially behaviour) depends upon. Performance depends on two factors.
(1) The first is competence, which comes from knowledge, skill and experience and is an
acquired character.
(2) The second is motivation or the willingness to do the job well. Self-motivation is the ability
to change one’s behaviour to strive for better performance.
The motivation of others is the ability to influence the behaviour of other people in such a
manner as to get them to do what you expect them to do, because the person motivated enjoys
doing it. The entire stress is on change in behaviour. Thus it is pertinent to understand human
behaviour. Not only to determine the ‘whys’ of past behaviour but to some extent to predict, to
change, and even to control future behaviour.
BEHAVIOUR
Behaviour is 'need' based and goal oriented. The basic unit of behaviour is an activity. In fact all
behaviour is a series of activities. As human beings we are always doing something: walking,
talking, eating, sleeping, working and the like. Why do people engage in one activity and not
another? How can we understand, predict, and even control what activity or activities a person
may engage in at a given moment? To predict behaviour one must know which motives or needs
of people evoke a certain action at a particular time.
Motives: People differ not only in their ability to do but also in their will to do, or motivation.
The motivation of people depends on the strength of their motives. Motives are needs, wants,
drives, or impulses within the individual. Motives are directed towards goals, which may be
conscious or sub-conscious.
Goals: Goals are outside an individual; they are sometimes referred to as “hoped for” towards
which motives are directed. These goals are also called incentives, which may be tangible
rewards, such as increased pay or intangible rewards, such as praise or power.
Motive Strength: All individuals have several needs and all of them compete for their behaviour.
The need with the greatest strength at a particular moment leads to activity. Satisfied needs
decrease in strength and no longer motivate behaviour to seek goals to satisfy them. In the

figure Motive B is the highest strength need, and therefore it is this need that determines
behaviour.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is what makes us do things. It's really important if you want to get something done,
like finishing a project or reaching a goal. Sometimes, the push to act comes from wanting to feel
good about ourselves or enjoying what we do. Other times, it might be because we want to get a
reward, like money or praise, or to avoid something we don't like. It helps us keep going, even
when things get tough, and makes sure we stick with our tasks until we're done. Motivation
affects everything we do, from the big goals we chase to the small choices we make every day. It
could be wanting to do well at work, living healthier, or helping others. Motivation keeps us

moving, helps us focus, and gives us the energy to act.

1. Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation is when you do something because you really like it, not because you get a
reward from outside. It's about doing things for the joy or interest they bring you, not for a
prize or to avoid trouble. For example, when you're intrinsically motivated, you might read a
book because you love the story, solve puzzles because it's fun, or play sports because you
enjoy how they make you feel, not because you want a trophy or someone's approval. This
kind of motivation makes you really get into what you're doing, be creative, and keep going
even when it gets tough. People who find their motivation from inside themselves often keep
doing their activities even when there's no outside reward. They do it because they love it, and
this can make them feel really satisfied and happy with what they're doing.
Example:
1. Enjoying Reading: Picking up a book because the story interests you or you want to
learn, not because it's homework.
2. Playing Music: Spending time with your guitar or piano because it feels good and you
like getting better, and not to pass a test or impress someone.
Features of Intrinsic Motivation:
 Doing What you Love: The biggest thing about intrinsic motivation is that you do
things because they make you happy, not for rewards like money or prizes.
 Following your Interests: You choose to do things that grab your attention or that
you're passionate about. It's all about what you find fun and interesting.
 Getting Really into It: When you're doing something you're intrinsically motivated to
do, you can get so focused that you lose track of time. This is when you're really into what
you're doing.
 Feeling Free: Intrinsic Motivation is all about feeling like you're choosing to do things
on your own, without anyone telling you to. This sense of choice really matters.
Advantages of Intrinsic Motivation:
 Better Learning and More New Ideas: When you're motivated, you're more curious
and creative. You like to try new things, which helps you learn better and come up with cool
ideas.
 Doing Better at Tasks: People usually do a better job when they like what they're
doing. They work harder and produce better results.
 Feeling Happier: Doing things you enjoy can make you happier and more satisfied
with life. It meets important needs, like feeling free, good at what you do, and connected to
others.
Disadvantages of Intrinsic Motivation:
 Missing Out on Rewards: Sometimes, focusing just on what you enjoy might mean
you miss out on external rewards like money, promotions, or praise that are also important.
 Feeling Left Out: If your interests are very different from those around you, it might
make you feel lonely or like you don't fit in, especially when others are doing things
together.
 Hard to Support and Measure: For teachers or bosses, it can be tough to figure out
how to encourage intrinsic motivation, especially when things, like grades or pay are
usually what motivate people.

2. Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation happens when we do things to get a reward or to avoid something we
don't want. It's different from intrinsic motivation, which is when we do things just because we
enjoy them. With extrinsic motivation, the reason we act is for things like money, awards,
praise from others, good grades, or to stay away from trouble, like being fined or getting
negative comments. Basically, we're motivated by something outside of ourselves to do
something, not because we find the task itself fun or rewarding. This kind of motivation is used
in a lot places like jobs, schools, and sports to help people reach their goals, finish their work,
or do better at something.
Example:
1. Extra Work for More Money: Working more hours than usual because you'll get paid
extra for it.
2. Studying Hard for Grades: Putting in a lot of study time not because you like the
subject, but because you want to get good grades.
Features of Extrinsic Motivation:
 Outside Rewards: The main thing about extrinsic motivation is that it's all about
getting rewards like money, prizes, or praise from others, which are not part of the activity
itself.
 Rules and Goals: This motivation type often follows rules or goals set by others.
People do things to get a reward or avoid trouble, following guidelines to reach these
external rewards.
 Focus on Results: When people are motivated by external things, they're usually trying
to finish a task to get something in return, not because they like the task.
Advantages of Extrinsic Motivation:
 Clear Targets: When there are rewards for doing something, it's easier to know what
you're aiming for. This helps people understand what they need to do to get what they want.
 Quick Motivation: If there's a reward for doing something, even if it's not something
you love doing, you might start it quicker. This is handy for tasks at school or work that
might not be fun but need to be finished.
 Simple to Use: It's pretty easy to set up rewards, like bonuses at work, grades at school,
or prizes for winning something.
Disadvantages of Extrinsic Motivation:
 Losing Interest: If people get rewards all the time, they might start to care less about
doing things just for fun. Once the rewards stop, they might not want to do the activity
anymore.
 Waiting for Rewards: People might start to expect a reward for everything they do,
which can make it hard to keep doing things without getting something in return.
 Choosing Easy Over Good: When the goal is to get a reward, some might just do the
bare minimum to get it, which can mean the work isn't done as well as it could be.
3. Achievement Motivation
Achievement Motivation is all about wanting to do well, reach goals, and be successful. It's the
feeling that makes people want to overcome challenges, get better at something, and take pride
in doing tough tasks. People who really focus on achieving things like to set goals that are hard
but possible to reach, keep trying even when things get difficult, and choose tasks that test their
skills and effort. These motivated individuals usually care more about the satisfaction of
finishing a goal than getting rewards like money or praise. They enjoy tasks where they can see
how well they're doing and learn how to improve.
Example:
A student putting in extra study time not just to get through exams, but aiming to be the best in
their class because they really want to excel in their studies; an athlete doing more than the
usual training, trying to set new personal records or win big competitions, because they love
their sport and want to be the best; or a worker taking on tough projects, not just for a bonus or
a higher position, but to challenge themselves and grow in their job.
Features of Achievement Motivation:
 Focused on Goals: People driven by achievement motivation have clear and
challenging goals they want to reach. They make plans to achieve these goals and stick to
them.
 Keeps Going: They don't give up easily, even when things get tough. They see setbacks
as chances to learn and get better.
 Likes a Challenge: They prefer tasks that are just right in terms of difficulty—not too
easy but not too hard either. These tasks should test their skills and require effort.
Advantages of Achievement Motivation:
 Doing Better: People who want to achieve tend to do a better job because they're
always aiming to reach tough goals. They work hard and keep going, which usually leads to
better results.
 Staying Strong and Not Giving Up: Being focused on goals helps people keep going,
even when things get hard. They see problems as chances to learn and don't easily quit.
 Finding Creative Solutions: Wanting to reach goals makes people think outside the
box and solve problems in smart ways. They're always looking for new ways to succeed.
Disadvantages of Achievement Motivation:
 Feeling Burned Out: Always trying to achieve more and more can lead to feeling
super tired, both in your body and mind. It's important to take breaks and relax.
 Worrying about Failing: If you're really focused on achieving, you might start to
worry a lot about not making it. This worry can make you stressed and afraid to try new
things.
 Less Time for Friends and Family: Spending a lot of time on reaching your goals
might mean you don't have much time left for the people you care about. This can make
relationships tough.
4. Affiliation Motivation
Affiliation Motivation is when people really want to make friends, be part of a group, and get
along with others. It's all about wanting to feel connected and accepted by people around us.
This motivation makes us value being part of a community, enjoying being with friends, and
caring a lot about getting along well with others. People who are driven by this kind of
motivation prefer to work with others rather than compete against them. They're good at
noticing how others feel, really care about being liked, and worry about being left out or not
fitting in.
Example:
An example of someone being motivated by wanting to make friends and connect with others
is when a person who enjoys reading joins a book club. This person is looking for more than
just reading books; he want to meet people who like reading as much as he do. In the book club,
he talk about books, share his thoughts, and appreciate being around others who also enjoy
reading. His main aim is to feel included and make friends in this group, showing how
important it is for him to have connections with others. This shows how the need to be around
others and feel part of a group can motivate people.
Features of Affiliation Motivation:
 Making Friends: People who really want social connections put a lot of value on
friendships and being part of groups. They love feeling connected to others.
 Worrying about Fitting In: A big part of wanting to be close to others is worrying
about being left out or not accepted. This worry can make people try really hard to be liked.
 Liking to Work Together: Those who are driven by this motivation prefer doing things
as a team rather than competing. They're the ones who enjoy group projects and teamwork.
Advantages of Affiliation Motivation:
 Stronger Support Networks: Having a strong circle of friends and family provides
emotional support, help when needed, and a sense of belonging, which is especially
important during tough times.
 Better Talking and Listening Skills: People who seek out social connections tend to
get really good at communicating because they talk and listen to others often. These skills
help a lot in life and work.
 More United Teams: Those who value being part of a group help make teams stronger
and more together. They help everyone get along and work better as a team.
Disadvantages of Affiliation Motivation:
 Relying too much on Friends: People might start depending too much on their friends
for making decisions or feeling good about themselves, which might make them less
confident on their own.
 Worrying about being Left Out: The strong wish to be part of a group can make
people really scared of being left out, stopping them from being their true selves or trying
new things.
 Taking Criticism Hard: Those who really want to fit in might get upset by criticism,
even when it's meant to help, making it hard for them to improve.

Theories of Motivation
Definition: There are several Theories of Motivation that are developed to explain the concept
of “Motivation”. The motivation is a drive that forces an individual to work in a certain way. It is
the energy that pushes us to work hard to accomplish the goals, even if the conditions are not
going our way.

With the establishment of human organizations, people tried to find out the answer to, what
motivates an employee in the organization the most. This gave birth to several content theories
and process theories of motivation.

The content theories deal with “what” motivates people, whereas the process theories deal
with, “How” motivation occurs. Thus, theories of motivation can be broadly classified as:

A. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory:

This is the most well-known theory of motivation of Abraham Maslow, a clinical psychologist. A
basic assumption of this model is that as we satisfy one type of need, other needs then occupy
our attention. Once we satisfy our need for food, air and shelter, then we can move on to safety
needs, love needs and so on. Although Maslow argued that most people tend to experience these
needs in the order that he described, for some people, the so-called higher-level needs will
dominate lower-level needs. Some people will be so enthralled by a book or a movie that they
will forget they are really hungry. Maslow described the hierarchy of needs as follows:

i. Physiological needs: These refer to physical or biological needs meant for survival and
maintenance of life. These include food, clothing, shelter, air, sleep and other basic needs.
ii. Safety needs: Once the physiological needs are satisfied a person aspires for safety needs.
These includes security for life, job, protection from environment, animals etc. As a manager,
you can account for the safety needs of your employees by providing the safe and secure
working conditions, proper compensation (such as a salary) and job security, which is especially
important in a bad economy.
iii. Social needs: After the first two needs are satisfied, social needs become important in the
need hierarchy. Since man is a social being , he has a need to belong and to be accepted by
various groups. It includes need for acceptance, need for belonging, need for love, affection,
friendship etc. As a manager, you can account for the social needs of your employees by making
sure each of your employees know one another, encouraging cooperative teamwork, being an
accessible and kind supervisor and promoting a good work-life balance.
iv. Esteem and status needs: these needs are concerned with self-respect, self-confidence, a
feeling of personal worth, feeling of being unique, and recognition. As a manager, you can
account for the esteem needs of your employees by offering praise and recognition when the
employee does well, and offering promotions and additional responsibility to reflect your belief
that they are a valued employee.
v. Self-actualisation needs: Self-actualisation is the need to maximize one’s potential whatever
it may be. These needs arise only after the four categories of need are fulfilled. These needs are
more like mission, lifetime aspiration, e.g., leprosy eradication mission, mission of Mahatma
Gandhi to liberate India from British Rule.
Maslow’s needs theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers.
This can be attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and ease of understanding. Following are
some problems which are not solved by this theory:
a) This theory is common with many other theories also, that there is lack of direct cause-effect
relationship between need and behaviour. Thus a particular need may cause behaviour in
different ways in different needs.
b) There is another problem in applying the theory into practice. A person tries for his higher-
level need when his lower-order need is reasonably satisfied. What is this reasonable level is a
question of subjective matter. Thus, the level of satisfaction for particular need may differ from
person to person.
B. Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregor has proposed two models i.e., Theory X and
Theory Y. Under Theory X, managers believe that employees inherently dislike work and must
therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it. In this type of theory, workers generally
shirk work and do not like to work. They avoid responsibility and need to be directed. While
under theory y , manager assume that employees can view work as being as natural as rest or
play and therefore the average person can learn to accept, and even seek responsibility. Good
motivation makes workers readily accept responsibility and self-direction.

C. Hezberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Frederick Herzberg proposed a two-factor theory or the

motivator- hygiene theory in 1959. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result
in satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to
Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the opposite of
“Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.
Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-
i. Hygiene Factors: Herzberg used the term ‘hygiene’ to describe factors which are related to the
conditions under which job is performed such as compensation, job security, organizational
politics, working conditions, quality of leadership, and relationships between supervisors,
subordinates, and peers. These factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as
dissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. Since any
increase in these factors will not affect employee’s level of satisfaction, these are of no use for
motivating them.
ii. ii. Motivational Factors: According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as
motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to
work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called
satisfiers. These are: achievement, recognition, advancement, works itself, possibility of growth
and responsibility. Most of these factors are related with job contents. Any increase in these
factors will satisfy the employees; however any decrease will not affect their level of satisfaction.
D. McClelland’s Theory of Needs: This theory was developed by David McClleland and his
associates. The theory focuses on three needs, defined as follows:
 Need for achievement (nAch): it is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed. McClleland has identified four basic features of high
achievers:
i. Always ready to take risks.
ii. provide immediate feedback
iii. accomplish the task easily on time.
Iv. Preoccupied the task till its completion.
 Need for Power (nPow): it is the need to manipulate others or the drive for superiority
over others. People with high power need have a great concern for exercising influence
and control.
 Need for Affiliation (nAff): It is a need for open and sociable interpersonal relationships.
In other words, it is a desire for relationship based on co-operation and mutual
understanding. Such individuals are effective performers in a team. These people want to
be liked by others. They prefer having friends rather than experts as work partners, and
they avoid conflict whenever possible.
E Alderfer’s ERG Theory:
Clayton Paul Alderfer, an American psychologist further expanded Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth). Alderfer
has categorized the various needs into three categories:
 Existence Needs: it consists of physiological and safety needs such as hunger ,thirst etc
(Maslow’s first two levels)
 Relatedness Needs: it consists of social and external esteem needs that involve
relationship with other people. (Maslow’s third and fourth level).’
 Growth Needs: it consists of self-actualization and internal esteem needs like feeling of
being unique, feeling of personal growth etc. (Maslow’s fourth and fifth level)

ERG Theory recognizes that the importance of the three categories may vary for each individual.
Managers must recognize that an employee has multiple needs, which must be satisfied
simultaneously. According to the ERG theory, if you focus exclusively on one need at a time, this
will not effectively motivate. In addition, the ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher level
need remains unfulfilled, the person may regress towards lower level needs, which appear easier
to satisfy. This is known as: the frustration-regression principle.
F. Vroom Expectancy Theory:

This theory was first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management in 1964.
Expectancy theory says that employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when
they believe:
 That effort will lead to a good performance appraisal;
 That a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards, such as bonus, a salary increase,
or a promotion; and
 That the rewards will satisfy the employees’ personal goals.
Expectancy theory must focus on three things i.e. Efforts (E), Performance (P) and Outcomes (O).
In order to be motivated to act or perform their job, employees must perceive that their efforts (E)
are likely to lead to good performance (P). In other words, effort has to be instrumental to good
performance. Second, people must expect that their performance is clearly linked to certain
outcomes (O). And finally they have to value (V) the outcome they obtain when they perform. If
all these paths and linkages are clear, the person will be motivated. Two other factors that can
affect motivation are ability and role clarity. A person might be highly motivated, but if she does
not have the ability to perform the job or task and a clear understanding of how to direct her
efforts in a manner that is appropriate to her organizational role, then the task might not be
accomplished.
One of the important features of this theory is that it recognizes individual differences in work
motivation and suggests that motivation is a complex process as compared to Maslow’s or
Herzberg’s simplistic models. It also clarifies the relationship between individual and
organizational goals. Further, this theory is difficult to research and apply in practice. This is
evident by the fact that there have been only a few research studies designed specifically to test
the Vroom theory.
G. Equity Theory:

As per this motivation theory, an individual’s motivation level is correlated to his perception of
equity, fairness and justice practiced by the management. Higher is individual’s perception of
fairness, greater is the motivation level and vice versa.The theory states that when a person
compares himself to his co-workers and finds the results to be fair, he will be more motivated. If,
on the other hand, he compares himself to his co-workers and finds the results to be unequal or
“unfair,” he will be less motivated. The essence of the Equity Theory lies in this sense of
motivation through perceived fairness.
A referent group is a selection of people an individual relates to or uses when comparing
themselves to the larger population. If a salesperson compares themselves to the rest of the sales
staff, the referent group is the sales staff.
There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use:
a. Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current
organization.
b. Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the employee’s
current organization.
c. Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.
d. Other-outside: Another individual or group of individual outside the employee’s organization.
There are two assumptions on which the theory works:
a. Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they expect certain rewards (outcomes).
b. Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is satisfactory, by comparing their
inputs and outcomes with those of others and try to rectify any inequality.
Various types of inputs and outcomes of an individual which are as follows:
Inputs: Efforts, Time, Education, Experience, Training, Ideas, Ability
Outcomes: Pay, Promotion, Recognition, Security, Personal Development, Benefits, Friendship
opportunity
Employee might compare themselves to friends, neighbours, co-workers or colleagues in other
organizations or compare their present job with past jobs. Which referent an employee chooses
will be influenced by the information the employee holds about referents as well as by the
attractiveness of the referent. This has led to focusing on moderating variables, such as gender.
Exchange relationship between a person’s inputs/outcomes in relation to those of other persons
may be of three types: overpaid inequity, underpaid inequity and equity.
Overpaid Inequity: In this case, the person perceive that his outcomes are more as compared to
his inputs in relation to others. In this case, the person experiences satisfaction.
The impact of inequity on the person is as follows:
i. Perceived inequity creates tension in the person.
ii. The amount of tension is proportional to the magnitude of inequity.
iii. The tension created in the person will motivate him to reduce it.
iv. The strength of the motivation to reduce inequity is proportional to the perceived inequity.
Elements of Sound Motivation System:
1. Adequate Motivation: The motivation system should be adequate covering the entire
workforce in the organisation and it should also cover entire activities of the workforce.
Sometimes, the presence of a motivational factor fails to produce any effective result,
particularly when its amount is too small.
2. Analysis of Motives: A good motivation system also attempts at analysing the factors which
motivate the employees in the prevailing organisational environment.
3. Simplicity in Motivation System: The system should be simple both in terms of its
understanding by the employees and its applicability in the organization.
4. Uneven Motivation: In an organization, all the employees are not of same type. They differ in
education, attitude, ambition, etc. Thus, more educated, ambitious persons can be motivated up
to very high level, while others cannot be.

Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation

Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a comprehensive theory of motivation,
combining the various aspects. Porter and Lawler's model is a more complete model of
motivation. This model has been practically applied also in their study of managers. This is a
multivariate model which explains the relationship that exists between job attitudes and job
performance. This model is based on four basic assumptions about human behaviour :
(i) As mentioned above, it is a multivariate model. According to this model, individual behaviour
is determined by a combination of factors in the individual and in the environment.

(ii) Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who make conscious decisions about
their behaviour in the organizations.

(iii) Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.

(iv) On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide between alternative behaviours and
such decided behaviour will read to a desired outcome.

The various elements of this model are explained in the Fig. 5.11.

In fact, Porter and Lawler's theory is an improvement over Vroom's expectancy theory. They say
that motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The model suggested by them
encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions made about the positive relationship
between satisfaction and performance. They proposed a multivariate model to explain the
complex relationship that exists between satisfaction and performance. What is the main point in
Porter and Lawler's model is that effort or motivation does not lead directly to performance. It is,
in fact, medicated by abilities and traits and by role perceptions.
The Various Elements of Porter and Lawler Model

1. Effort,

2. Performance and

3. Satisfaction.

Let us briefly discuss the main elements of the model :

Effort : Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How much
effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two factors: (i) value of reward and (ii)
perception of effort-reward probability.

Performance : One's effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal or may not be.
However, the amount of performance is determined by the amount of labour and the ability and
role perception of the employee. Thus, if an employee possesses less ability and/or makes wrong
role perception, his/her performance may be low in spite of his great efforts.

Satisfaction : Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the
amount of rewards achieved. If the amount of actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable
rewards, the employee will feel satisfied. On the contrary, if actual rewards fall short of
perceived ones, he/she will be dissatisfied.

Rewards may be of two kinds - intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Examples of intrinsic rewards are
such as a sense of accomplishment and self-actualization. Extrinsic rewards may include
working conditions and status. A fair degree of research supports that the intrinsic rewards are
much more likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance.
There is no denying of the fact that the motivation model proposed by Porter and Lawler is quite
complex than other models of motivation. In fact, motivation itself is not a simple cause effect
relationship rather it is a complex phenomenon. Porter and Lawler have attempted to measure
variables such as the values of possible rewards, the perception of effort-rewards probabilities
and role perceptions in deriving satisfaction. They recommended that the managers should
carefully reassess their reward system and structure. The effort-performance-reward-satisfaction
should be made integral to the entire system of managing men in organizations.
Integrating motivational theories

Integrating various motivation theories provides a more holistic understanding of what drives
individuals, encompassing both internal factors like needs and external factors like rewards and
goals.

Key Concepts and Theories:

Integrative Theory of Motivation:

This framework connects various theories to provide a comprehensive understanding of why
individuals behave in a certain way, considering both internal and external factors.
Content Theories:
These theories focus on the needs and desires that motivate individuals, such as Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, and McClelland's Theory of Needs.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Suggests that individuals are motivated to fulfill basic needs
(physiological, safety) before progressing to higher-level needs (social, esteem, self-
actualization).
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: Identifies hygiene factors (e.g., working conditions, salary)
that can lead to dissatisfaction and motivational factors (e.g., achievement, recognition) that can
lead to satisfaction.
McClelland's Theory of Needs: Proposes that individuals are driven by needs for achievement,
affiliation, and power.
Process Theories:
These theories focus on how individuals choose their actions and are motivated to achieve goals,
such as Vroom's Expectancy Theory, Reinforcement Theory, and Goal-Setting Theory.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory: Suggests that motivation is based on the belief that effort will
lead to performance, performance will be rewarded, and the reward is valuable.
Reinforcement Theory: Proposes that behavior is influenced by its consequences, with
positive reinforcement increasing desired behaviors and negative reinforcement decreasing
undesired behaviors.
Goal-Setting Theory: Emphasizes the importance of setting specific, challenging, and
attainable goals to motivate individuals.

ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth):

This theory, an alternative to Maslow's, suggests that individuals have needs for existence
(basic needs), relatedness (social needs), and growth (self-actualization).

Integrating Theories in Practice:

Understanding Individual Needs:
Managers can use these theories to understand the diverse needs and motivations of their
employees.
Designing Effective Rewards and Incentives:
By understanding what motivates employees, managers can design reward systems that are
more effective.
Setting Challenging Goals:
Goal-setting theory can be used to help employees set challenging but achievable goals that
motivate them to perform better.
Providing Opportunities for Growth and Development:
Managers can create opportunities for employees to learn new skills and advance their careers,
which can lead to increased motivation and job satisfaction.
Self-Determination Theory,
Self-Determination Theory, or SDT, links personality, human motivation, and optimal
functioning. It posits that there are two main types of motivation—intrinsic and extrinsic—and
that both are powerful forces in shaping who we are and how we behave (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
According to Deci and Ryan, extrinsic motivation is a drive to behave in certain ways based on
external sources and it results in external rewards (1985). Such sources include grading systems,
employee evaluations, awards and accolades, and the respect and admiration of others.

On the other hand, intrinsic motivation comes from within. There are internal drives that inspire
us to behave in certain ways, including our core values, our interests, and our personal sense of
morality.

It might seem like intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are diametrically opposed—with
intrinsic driving behavior in keeping with our “ideal self” and extrinsic leading us to conform
with the standards of others—but there is another important distinction in the types of motivation.
SDT differentiates between autonomous motivation and controlled motivation (Ryan & Deci,
2008).

Autonomous motivation includes motivation that comes from internal sources and includes
motivation from extrinsic sources for individuals who identify with an activity’s value and how it
aligns with their sense of self. Controlled motivation is comprised of external regulation—a type
of motivation where an individual acts out of the desire for external rewards or fear of
punishment.

On the other hand, introjected regulation is motivation from “partially internalized activities and
values” such as avoiding shame, seeking approval, and protecting the ego.

When an individual is driven by autonomous motivation, they may feel self-directed and
autonomous; when the individual is driven by controlled motivation, they may feel pressure to
behave in a certain way, and thus, experience little to no autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2008).

The Self-Determination Model, Scale, and Continuum

We are complex beings who are rarely driven by only one type of motivation. Different goals,
desires, and ideas inform us what we want and need. Thus, it is useful to think of motivation on a
continuum ranging from “non-self-determined to self-determined.”
At the left end of the spectrum, we have amotivation, in which an individual is completely non-
autonomous, has no drive to speak of, and is struggling to have any of their needs met. In the
middle, we have several levels of extrinsic motivation.

One step to the right of amotivation is external regulation, in which motivation is exclusively
external and regulated by compliance, conformity, and external rewards and punishments.

The next level of extrinsic motivation is termed introjected regulation, in which the motivation is
somewhat external and is driven by self-control, efforts to protect the ego, and internal rewards
and punishments.

In identified regulation, the motivation is somewhat internal and based on conscious values and
that which is personally important to the individual.

The final step of extrinsic motivation is integrated regulation, in which intrinsic sources and the
desire to be self-aware are guiding an individual’s behavior.

The right end of the continuum shows an individual entirely motivated by intrinsic sources.
In intrinsic regulation, the individual is self-motivated and self-determined, and driven by
interest, enjoyment, and the satisfaction inherent in the behavior or activity he or she is engaging
in.

Although self-determination is generally the goal for individuals, we can’t help but be motivated
by external sources—and that’s not necessarily a bad thing. Both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation are highly influential determinants of our behavior, and both drive us to meet the
three basic needs identified by the SDT model:

1. Autonomy: people have a need to feel that they are the masters of their own destiny and
that they have at least some control over their lives; most importantly, people have a need
to feel that they are in control of their own behavior.
 2. Competence: another need concerns our achievements, knowledge, and skills; people
have a need to build their competence and develop mastery over tasks that are important
to them.
3. Relatedness (also called Connection): people need to have a sense of belonging and
connectedness with others; each of us needs other people to some degree (Deci & Ryan,
2008).

According to the developers of SDT, Deci and Richard M. Ryan, individual differences in
personality result from the varying degrees to which each need has been satisfied—or thwarted
(2008). The two main aspects on which individuals differ include causality orientations and
aspirations or life goals.

Causality orientations refer to how people adapt and orient themselves to their environment and
their degree of self-determination in general, across many different contexts. The three causality
orientations are:

1. Autonomous: all three basic needs are satisfied.

2. Controlled: competence and relatedness are somewhat satisfied but autonomy is not.
3. Impersonal: none of the three needs are satisfied.

Aspirations or life goals are what people use to guide their own behavior. They generally fall
into one of the two categories of motivation mentioned earlier: intrinsic or extrinsic. Deci and
Ryan provide affiliation, generativity, and personal development as examples of intrinsic life
goals, while they list wealth, fame, and attractiveness as examples of extrinsic life goals (2008).

Aspirations and life goals drive us, but they are considered learned desires instead of basic needs
like autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

SDT presents two sub-theories for a more nuanced understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. These sub-theories are Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) and Organismic
Integration Theory (OIT) which help explain intrinsic motivation with regards to its social
factors and the various degrees of contextual factors that influence extrinsic motivation (Deci &
Ryan, 2000).

GOAL SETTING THEORY

Goal setting theory of motivation is the one of most used process theory of motivation in all
the organizations or companies. The theory developed by Edwin Locke & Gary Latham in the
1960s and 1970s. It shows that setting specific and challenging goals can significantly enhance
an individual’s motivation and performance in various tasks.

Edwin Locke (1968) published his groundbreaking Goal Setting Theory in ‘Toward a Theory of
Task Motivation and Incentive’.

How to set the effective goals on subsequent performance.

Locke’s primary revelation was around the power of setting specific and measurable goals,
rather than keeping outcomes general. With his theory he demonstrated how targets like
“increase sales by 20%”etc are much more effective than vague direction such as “complete your
work to a higher standard”.

1.Clarity.
A goal must be specific and clear. Goals should be clear, well-defined, and easily measurable,
leaving no room for ambiguity. Specific goals provide a clear direction for the individual to
follow.

2.Challenge.
An easy or tedious goal is demotivating.

But keep a realistic balance: don’t expect anyone on your team to spin straw into gold.

Goals that are moderately difficult but attainable can stimulate individuals to put in more effort
and perform better than if the goals were too easy or too difficult.

3.Commitment.
Your employees have to understand and buy in to the goal from the outset.

Individuals must be committed to achieving the goals they set. Commitment ensures that they are
willing to invest the necessary time and effort to achieve their objectives.

4.Feedback.
Provide regular feedback throughout the whole process. This helps to keep the goal on track.

Regular feedback on progress toward the goal is essential. Feedback helps individuals monitor
their performance, make necessary adjustments, and stay on track.

5.Task complexity.
Think about realistic timescales, and break down the process into sub-goals with regular reviews.
The level of complexity of a task can influence the effectiveness of goal setting. For simple and
routine tasks, specific goals work well, but for complex and creative tasks, a more flexible
approach may be necessary.

Locke and Latham’s (1990) found in a comprehensive meta-analysis of more than 35 years of
research on goal setting, that a strong positive relationship between specific, challenging goals
and performance. The study concluded that setting specific and difficult goals led to higher
levels of task performance compared to easy or no goals.

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation Motivational techniques - introduction

Reinforcement theory of motivation is based law of effect, where behaviors are selected by their
consequences and overlook the individual’s internal state. ▸ iedunote.com/reinforcement-theory

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by B.F. Skinner and his associates. It states
that individual’s behavior is a function of its consequences.
It is based on “law of effect”-this law of effect is the idea that behaviors are selected by their
consequences, i.e., individual’s behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but
individual’s behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of the individual, i.e., the inner
feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner.
This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action.
Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be designed
effectively and positively so as to motivate the employee.
This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for individual’s behavior.
However, it does not focus on the causes of individual’s behavior. ▸
iedunote.com/reinforcement-theory
The managers use the following methods for controlling the behavior of the employees;
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and
required behavior.
For example – immediately praising an employee for coming early for the job. This will increase
the probability of outstanding behavior occurring again.
The reward is a positive reinforcement, but not necessarily. ▸ iedunote.com/reinforcement-
theory
If and only if the employees’ behavior improves, the reward can say to be a
positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behavior. It must be
noted that more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the greater reinforcement value it has.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement implies rewarding an employee by removing negative/undesirable
consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing desirable /
required behavior.
Punishment
Punishment reinforcement implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability
of repeating the undesirable behavior in future. In other words, punishment means applying
undesirable consequence for showing undesirable behavior.
For instance; suspending an employee for breaking the organizational rules, punishment can be
equalized by positive reinforcement from an alternative source.
Extinction
Extinction reinforcement implies the absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction
implies lowering the probability of an undesired behavior by removing reward for that kind of
behavior.
For instance – if an employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he
may feel that his behavior is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally
lower desirable behavior.
Implications of Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns behavior.
Managers who are making attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that they do not
reward all employees simultaneously.
They must tell the employees what they are not doing correctly. They must tell the employees
how they can achieve positive reinforcement.
The reinforcement theory suggests that managers should try to structure the contingencies of
rewards and punishments on the job in such a way that the consequences of effective job
behavior are positive while the consequences of ineffective work behavior are negative o:
unpleasant.
The focus of this approach is upon changing or modifying the behavior of people on the job.
That is why it is also regarded as organizational behavior modification.
The basic notion underlying reinforcement theory is the concept of reinforcement itself. An event
is said to be reinforcing if the event following some behavior makes the behavior more likely to
occur again in the future. ▸ iedunote.com/reinforcement-theory
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-Efficacy is the belief that you are capable of achieving a specific goal or performing a
particular task. Self-efficacy is task-specific. For example, if your boss asked you to manage a
simple project, then you might feel confident in your ability to complete this task.
Self-efficacy isn’t general. It’s not about being good at your job in a broad sense or believing
you’re a good manager or believing you’re intelligent. These are more general beliefs.
Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation
The higher your self-efficacy, the more you will believe you are capable of achieving a task or
goal. Conversely, the lower your-self-efficacy, the less you will believe you are capable of
performing a task.

Albert Bandura developed the Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation. Bandura, born 1925, is a
Canadian psychologist who described self-efficacy in detail in his 1997 book, Self-Efficacy: The
Exercise of Control.
How We Determine Our Self-Efficacy
We use four factors to determine our self-efficacy and, in turn, our performance for a task.
1. Experience
Experience refers to your past experience of completing similar tasks. This is the most important
factor in self-efficacy.
If you performed a similar task well in the past, then you are more likely to be confident that you
can complete similar tasks well in the future.
2. Vicarious Experience
You can develop self-efficacy vicariously by watching other people perform a task.
If you watch someone similar to you perform a task and succeed at that task, then your self-
efficacy will increase. Conversely, if you watch someone similar to you perform a task and fail,
this can negatively affect your self-efficacy.
3. Social Persuasion
You can increase your self-efficacy if others give you encouragement that you can perform a task.
Likewise, your self-efficacy will decrease if you receive discouraging or disparaging remarks
about your ability to perform a task.
4. Physiological Feedback
When confronted with a task, you experience a sensation from your body. How you interpret
these signals will impact your self-efficacy.
How do you interpret this feeling? If you interpret this feeling as being excited to get on stage,
this will increase your self-efficacy. If you experience these butterflies as stage-fright or anxiety,
this will decrease your self-efficacy for this and similar tasks.
In general, the more at ease you are with a particular type of task, the higher your self-efficacy
will be.
Using the Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation
To make use of the Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation, we need ways to build our self-efficacy.
There are four ways in which you can build self-efficacy.
If you’re a manager, you can also use these approaches to help build a team member’s self-
efficacy, which will boost not only their competence but also their motivation.
1. Master Tasks
To begin increasing your self-efficacy for a particular task, start by setting realistic but
challenging goals based on where you are right now. When you succeed with that goal, build on
it by setting a slightly more challenging goal.
Over time these accomplishments will grow to build you a high self-efficacy for this type of task.
Here is an example from the workplace. Suppose you are terrified of public speaking. You could
begin building your self-efficacy by merely attending a public speaking meeting in a safe
environment outside the workplace, such as Toastmasters.
Over time you might start to speak at these events, and your self-efficacy will grow further. Once
your self-efficacy is high enough, you’ll eventually feel confident enough (your self-efficacy will
be high) that you can transfer your newfound speaking prowess back into the more pressurized
environment of the workplace.
If you experience a setback at any point, reset your goal based on where you are now and repeat
the process. Resetting your goals and then continuing to progress after experiencing a setback
will help you build resilience.
2. Model Behavior
Find role models to observe who have high self-efficacy in the area or skill where you are
looking to build self-efficacy.
These role models can be a powerful motivating force especially if they have also built their self-
efficacy from a similar position as yours is now.
If you can’t find or don’t want to find role models from the workplace, then the Internet is a great
place to seek out role models.
3. Social Persuasion
While modeling behavior is about observing others who have achieved high self-efficacy in a
particular area and using this as motivation, social persuasion is about finding mentors and
coaches.
These are people who will work directly with you to build your self-efficacy step by step. As
they have themselves “been there and done that,” they can help lead you to high self-efficacy
more quickly than you could achieve under your own initiative.
4. Improve Your Emotional State
We all interpret our past experiences and the physical sensations coming from our bodies.
Sometimes we can misinterpret this information.
Suppose we get nervous before giving a presentation. This feeling is perfectly natural. But
suppose we believe that we’re bad at performing presentations. The feeling is so strong it affects
our performance in our presentation. This is obviously bad.
Because of our poor performance in our last presentation, we further believe in our minds that
we’re no good at presentations. Thus we get even more nervous the next time we have to do one.
Disadvantages
Most people can benefit from increasing their self-efficacy around tasks necessary to their jobs at
which they are not confident or competent. However, sometimes having a high self-efficacy has
disadvantages.
The Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation is a way to explain motivation. Studies have shown that
self-efficacy is a strong predictor of high-performance. By increasing our self-efficacy, or that of
our teams, we can raise our confidence and performance.
Management by objectives (MBO), as the name suggests, is a method of enhancing how the
company goals and strategies are understood by the managers and the employees.

This gap between the company’s work strategy and the employee’s understanding of it leads to a
state of inefficient work output and lack of dedication. Management by Objective appears to
be the best method to resolve this issue.
In this article, we will explore the meaning of MBO, the steps involved in processing MBO and
its advantages.

What is MBO?
MBO stands for Management by Objectives.

MBO is also known as Management by Planning (MBP). The book ‘Practice of Management,
published in 1954 was the first time when the term was introduced to the world by Peter F.
Drucker and gained popularity over the years.

Management by objectives (MBO) is a strategy based model designed to enhance the overall
productivity and performance of a company. In this method, the company defines a clear set of
objectives that are addressed and adhered to by both the management and the employees.

How does MBO help an Organisation?

Management by Objective (MBO) assists managers in systematically updating, assessing and

assigning tasks to their employees by considering the goals of both the individual and the
company. Particular tasks are allocated to each employee and their work status and progress are
monitored on a regular basis.

MBO is all about planning, constructing and executing a particular set of actions dedicated to
certain goals. These actions are coordinated to the working teams with complete transparency to
prevent confusion and errors. A time frame is assigned to each action plan and regular
performance assessment infuses discipline and punctuality in the workspace.

Another benefit of MBO is that it serves as a base for contemplating bonuses, increments,
appraisals, promotions or demotions.

Management by Objectives works on the principle of SMART. SMART is a mnemonic that

stands for –

SMART objectives are:

S- Specific

M- Measurable

A- Achievable or Attainable

R- Relevant

T- Time-Bound or Time-limited

These are factors that must be kept in mind while formulating management objectives for a
business venture. The SMART strategy will guide you in formulating a plan that aligns
individual goals with the company goals.
Management by Objectives Process

MBO is an essential procedure for the benefit of an enterprise. In order to enjoy its advantages, it
is important to implement it in a correct manner.

There are 5 major steps in the MBO process. These steps are-

STEP 1: SETTING ORGANIZATIONAL OBJECTIVES

In the first step of MBO processing, Management by Objectives concentrates on either setting,
revising or amending organizational objectives. The objectives being assessed require to be
measurable and attainable. The most important factor to be considered is the relevance of the
goal to the company’s ultimate mission.

STEP 2: SETTING INDIVIDUAL OBJECTIVES

The second step in MBO processing is to align the organizational objectives of the company
with that of the employees. The SMART strategy will guide you through this step.

STEP 3: MEASURING PERFORMANCES

Step three is all about assessing the employees and giving them the liberty to plan their
individual objectives. So far the administration did all work for them, now is the time to give
them the control. This acquired ownership will give them a sense of responsibility, dedication
and motivation to achieve their goals which will ultimately benefit the organization.

STEP 4: EVALUATING PERFORMANCE

In the fourth step, the emphasis is on regulating and monitoring the work progress of employees.
It is aimed at ensuring that the mechanism is going smooth and the work output is on track with
the formulated work structure and deadlines.

STEP 5: REWARDING EMPLOYEES

The last step is the evaluation step. Here the managers need to prepare a list of their best-
performing employees and reward them for their dedication and good work. They can also
prepare a list of under-performing employees and give them constructive feedback and
suggestions to improve their work. This brings in healthy competition in the workspace and
motivates employees to give better work results.

How does the process of Management by Objectives work?

Management by Objectives (MBO) can be exercised in many ways. It is all about deriving
specific goals and leading the company on the path of success. There are many renowned
companies like Google, Puma and Apple, that use MBO to improve their work output and
performance.

Management by Objectives is a functional strategy and does not interfere in the execution
processes of the set goals. It is a result-oriented strategy and focuses mainly on the result.

The manager plays an important role in deducing the strategic objectives of the company. These
goals are all based on an estimation of conceivable goals within a specific time frame. This
highlights the role of a manager as an essential component in the successful implementation and
output of MBO.

Advantages of Management By Objectives

EFFICIENT MANAGEMENT

Management of a company is said to be efficient when the work output of their employees is
higher than the capital and resources that are invested in the input. In the absence of proper
management, this efficiency suffers a backlash.

Companies that work with MBO as a part of their strategic planning, witness better productivity
as their employees have a better understanding of their goals and a better work structure to
follow.

EFFECTIVE PLANNING

Planning aims to create a framework that guides the company in initiating every important step
towards strengthening and widening its business. Good planning automatically shows its impact
on the overall performance of the enterprise.

With the help of MBO, planning becomes easy and presents a clearer picture of instructions,
expectations, and goals to both the company and the employees.

GOAL SETTING

Setting a clear set of goals allows the managers and employees to plan their action strategy
around their primary objectives. This invokes a sense of awareness and allows the employees to
make better decisions after measuring the work assigned to them and the time given to complete
it.
The Management by Objectives strategic model allows goal setting with mutual involvement of
both the management and the employees. It gives everyone a say in the process and allows them
to get a clear picture of the company’s ultimate goal.

Job satisfaction
Job Satisfaction refers to the extent to which employees feel content and fulfilled with their
jobs. It encompasses an individual's overall attitude towards their role and is influenced by
various factors including the nature of the work, the working environment, relationships with
colleagues and supervisors, and compensation.

Job Satisfaction refers to the extent to which employees feel content and fulfilled with their
jobs. High job satisfaction occurs when the expectations, needs, and desires of an employee
align well with what the job provides. However, lack of job satisfaction can lead to
disengagement, decreased productivity, and higher turnover rates. This subjective measure is
crucial not only for the well-being of employees but also for the health of organizations, as it
directly impacts performance and retention. Understanding and enhancing job satisfaction is
vital for employers aiming to maintain a motivated, effective, and stable workforce.
Components of Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction comprises of several key components that collectively influence how
employees feel about their jobs. Understanding these components can help organizations better
address the needs and expectations of their workforce:
1. Work: The nature of the work is crucial. Jobs that are interesting, engaging, and provide
variety can lead to higher satisfaction. Employees tend to feel more satisfied when their jobs
entail meaningful tasks, allowing them to use their skills effectively and offering a degree of
autonomy.
2. Compensation: Fair and adequate compensation including salary, bonuses, and benefits
plays a significant role in job satisfaction. Competitive and equitable pay that aligns with
industry standards and rewards employees for their contributions is essential.
3. Job Security: Stability and security at work are vital. Employees who feel that their job is
secure are more likely to be satisfied. Uncertainty about job continuity can significantly impact
employee morale.
4. Advancement Opportunities: Opportunities for professional growth and career
advancement also affect job satisfaction. Employees are more satisfied when they see a clear
path for progression and when they feel supported in their career development efforts.
5. Working Conditions: A safe, healthy, and comfortable working environment is important
for job satisfaction. This includes not only physical conditions but also work hours,
organizational culture, and the work-life balance offered by the employer.
6. Supervision: The quality of leadership and management within an organization is a
significant factor. Effective, fair, and supportive supervisors contribute to higher job
satisfaction. Employees value leaders who provide clear communication, feedback, and
recognition.
7. Coworker Relations: Good relationships with colleagues can enhance job satisfaction. A
supportive, friendly team environment where employees can form positive connections adds to
their job contentment.
8. Recognition and Feedback: Regular acknowledgment of employees' hard work and
achievements, along with constructive feedback, enhances job satisfaction. Recognition
programs and performance evaluations can motivate employees and make them feel valued.
9. Work-Life Balance: Managing the demands of work and personal life is crucial. Employers
who support work-life balance through flexible schedules, remote work options, and sufficient
time off tend to have more satisfied employees.
Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction
Several factors contribute to job satisfaction, influencing how content and motivated
employees feel in their workplace. These factors can vary significantly from one individual to
another, but there are common elements that frequently impact job satisfaction:
1. Work Conditions: The physical and psychological conditions of the workplace play a
crucial role. This includes the safety of the work environment, the tools and resources available
for employees to perform their duties, and the overall comfort and cleanliness of the work
setting.
2. Nature of the Work: Jobs that are intellectually stimulating, offer variety, and provide
opportunities to use skills effectively tend to increase job satisfaction. Employees generally
prefer roles that match their personal interests and skills.
3. Compensation and Benefits: Competitive wages, along with appropriate benefits like
health insurance, retirement plans, and paid leave, are fundamental for employee satisfaction.
Compensation also includes bonuses and other performance-related pay that recognize and
reward employee contributions.
4. Organizational Culture and Values: A positive, inclusive, and ethical culture that aligns
with personal values enhances job satisfaction. Employees feel more satisfied in environments
where there is a strong sense of community and shared purpose.
5. Relationships at Work: Good relationships with colleagues and supervisors can greatly
enhance job satisfaction. Respectful, supportive interactions and a collaborative work
environment are highly valued.
6. Job Security: Stability in employment ensures that employees don’t feel constant stress
about losing their jobs, which can significantly increase job satisfaction.
7. Work-Life Balance: The ability to balance work demands with personal life significantly
affects satisfaction. Flexibility in work schedules, telecommuting options, and policies that
support personal time off contribute to a better work-life balance.
8. Recognition and Rewards: Feeling valued and recognized for one’s work through formal
recognition programs, promotions, and positive feedback can boost job satisfaction.
9. Career Development Opportunities: Opportunities for professional growth, such as
training, education, and advancement prospects, are important. Employees who see a clear path
for career progression are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs.
10. Autonomy and Empowerment: The degree of control and independence, employees have
over their work can significantly affect their job satisfaction. Jobs that allow for decision-
making autonomy and provide empowerment tend to be more satisfying.
Importance of Job Satisfaction
The importance of job satisfaction extends beyond the individual employee to impact the
overall health and effectiveness of an organization. Here are several reasons why job
satisfaction is crucial:
1. Enhanced Productivity: Satisfied employees are typically more productive. When
employees are happy and engaged with their work, they are more likely to put in the effort and
dedication needed to achieve high levels of performance.
2. Reduced Turnover: High job satisfaction is a key factor in retaining employees. Workers
who are content with their jobs are less likely to seek employment elsewhere, reducing the
costs and disruptions associated with high staff turnover.
3. Improved Quality of Work: Job Satisfaction is often linked to a higher quality of work.
Employees who are satisfied are more attentive to detail and take greater pride in their work,
leading to better outcomes and fewer mistakes.
4. Employee Engagement: Satisfied employees are more engaged and committed to their
organization. This engagement can lead to greater loyalty and a willingness to go above and
beyond their regular duties, which benefits the organization as a whole.
5. Attracting Talent: Organizations known for high job satisfaction are more attractive to
potential employees. This reputation can help attract top talent, as prospective employees are
more likely to apply to companies where workers are known to be happy and well-treated.
6. Positive Workplace Environment: High job satisfaction contributes to a more positive,
energetic, and collaborative workplace atmosphere. This positivity can be infectious,
improving morale and reducing conflicts among staff.
Benefits of Employee Job Satisfaction
Employee Job Satisfaction offers a range of benefits that can profoundly impact the
functioning and success of an organization. Here are some key benefits of high job satisfaction
among employees:
1. Increased Productivity: Satisfied employees are generally more productive because they
are motivated to achieve their best and contribute positively to the organization. Their
enthusiasm often translates into higher quality work and better overall performance.
2. Enhanced Employee Retention: High levels of job satisfaction are closely linked to
reduced employee turnover. Employees who are content with their jobs are less likely to leave,
which helps the organization retain valuable talent and reduces the costs associated with hiring
and training new employees.
3. Improved Health and Well-being: Job Satisfaction contributes to better physical and
mental health among employees. This can lead to lower healthcare costs and fewer sick days,
benefiting both the employees and the organization.
4. Positive Organizational Culture: When employees are satisfied with their work, it fosters a
positive work environment. This positivity can boost morale and lead to a more cooperative
and collaborative culture.
5. Lower Levels of Absenteeism: Satisfied employees are less likely to take unnecessary days
off, which helps maintain consistent productivity and operational efficiency.
6. Better Customer Satisfaction: Employees who are happy in their jobs are more likely to
provide excellent customer service, leading to higher customer satisfaction and loyalty. This
can enhance the organization's reputation and lead to increased business opportunities.
7. Attracting Top Talent: Organizations known for high job satisfaction are more attractive to
potential employees. This reputation can help attract highly skilled individuals, thereby
enhancing the talent pool and contributing to innovation and growth.
Tips to Increase Job Satisfaction
Increasing job satisfaction is crucial for any organization aiming to enhance productivity,
reduce turnover, and foster a positive workplace culture. Here are some tips to help increase
job satisfaction among employees:
1. Provide Fair Compensation: Ensure that pay and benefits are competitive and
commensurate with the employees' roles and responsibilities. Regularly review and adjust
compensation to reflect market standards and individual performance.
2. Offer Career Development Opportunities: Facilitate opportunities for employees to grow
professionally through training, workshops, and continued education. Clear paths to
advancement within the company can also increase job satisfaction by giving employees goals
to strive toward.
3. Enhance Work-Life Balance: Implement flexible working hours, remote working options,
and policies that allow employees to better balance their personal and professional lives. This
can reduce burnout and increase overall job satisfaction.
4. Improve Work Conditions: Create a safe, healthy, and pleasant work environment. This
includes everything from ergonomic office furniture to a clean, well-maintained workspace, as
well as a positive organizational culture.
5. Encourage Autonomy: Whenever possible, allow employees more control over how they
accomplish their tasks. Autonomy can boost job satisfaction by making employees feel trusted
and valued.
6. Recognize and Reward Performance: Develop a system of recognition that acknowledges
employees' efforts and achievements. This could include formal award programs, public
recognition, bonuses, or simple thank-you notes.
7. Ensure Effective Management: Train managers and supervisors in effective leadership
techniques, focusing on communication, empathy, and constructive feedback.
Good management is key to employee satisfaction.
How to Measure Job Satisfaction?
Measuring job satisfaction is essential for organizations to understand how their employees
feel about their work and the workplace environment. Accurate measurement helps identify
areas needing improvement and assess the effectiveness of initiatives aimed at enhancing job
satisfaction. Here are common methods used to measure job satisfaction:
1. Employee Surveys: These are the most widely used tools for measuring job satisfaction.
Surveys can be comprehensive, covering various aspects like the nature of the work,
compensation, work conditions, relationships with colleagues and supervisors, and overall
workplace atmosphere. Surveys can be administered annually or biannually to track changes
and trends over time.
2. Exit Interviews: Conducting interviews with employees who are leaving the company can
provide insights into why they are dissatisfied with their jobs. This feedback can be invaluable
for understanding areas that may not be captured through regular surveys.
3. One-on-One Interviews: Regularly scheduled individual meetings between employees and
their managers can help gauge satisfaction levels and address any issues before they escalate.
These interviews allow for more in-depth understanding and personal feedback.
4. Focus Groups: Organizing focus group discussions among employees can uncover deeper
insights into job satisfaction levels. These sessions facilitate a more open conversation where
employees can discuss their views and experiences in a group setting.
5. Pulse Surveys: These are shorter, more frequent surveys that focus on specific areas of
interest. Pulse surveys can help track the immediate impact of any changes made within the
organization and are useful for quick assessments.
6. Performance Reviews: Although primarily aimed at evaluating employee performance,
these reviews can also provide insights into job satisfaction by assessing attitudes, workplace
behaviors, and engagement levels.
7. Job Satisfaction Metrics: Specific metrics such as turnover rates, absenteeism rates, and
productivity levels can indirectly indicate job satisfaction. High turnover and absenteeism
might suggest low job satisfaction, while increased productivity may indicate high satisfaction.
Job Enrichment : Meaning, Types, Advantages and Disadvantages
ob Enrichment is a strategy that enhances job roles to make them more stimulating. It involves
adding dimensions to existing jobs, such as additional tasks (job enlargement), diversifying
skills, infusing jobs with meaning, fostering autonomy, and providing feedback. The objective
of job enrichment is to create a job that motivates. This can be achieved by adding extra
responsibilities to a routine job, making it more meaningful to the employee. Job enrichment is
a component of job design and job redesign. The primary reason to invest in job enrichment is
its potential to boost motivation, making it particularly relevant for highly skilled, white-collar
service jobs.
Types of Job Enrichment
Job enrichment is a concept that revolves around enhancing an employee's job satisfaction by
modifying their work. This modification often involves adding more responsibilities and
variety to their role. Some of the common strategies that are used:
1. Empowering Employees: One of the most effective ways to enrich a job is by giving
employees more control over their work. This could mean allowing them to make decisions
about how they perform their tasks or even giving them the authority to make larger decisions
about the direction of their work.
2. Innovating Existing Tasks: Another strategy is to encourage employees to find new ways
to accomplish their tasks. This not only adds variety to their work, but also stimulates their
creativity and problem-solving skills.
3. Introducing New Tasks: Also known as job enlargement, this strategy involves adding new
tasks to an employee's role. This can help to keep their work interesting and challenging.
4. Diversifying Daily Tasks: By changing up the tasks that an employee does each day,
employers can help prevent their work from becoming monotonous. This increases
engagement along with productivity.
5. Expanding Skill Set: Encouraging employees to use a wider range of skills in their jobs can
help to keep them engaged and motivated. This increases growth along with development.
6. Increasing Task Load: Also known as job enlargement, this strategy involves increasing
the number of tasks that an employee is responsible for. This can help to keep their work
varied and interesting.
7. Adding Significance to Tasks: Making tasks more meaningful can greatly increase an
employee's motivation. This could involve explaining the impact of their work or showing
them how their tasks contribute to the larger goals of the organisation.
8. Implementing Incentive Programs: Rewarding employees for their hard work can be a
great motivator. This could involve financial rewards, recognition, or other forms of
appreciation.
9. Rotating Shifts: Changing an employee's working hours or shifts can add variety to their
work schedule. This can help to keep their work interesting and prevent burnout.
10. Promoting Employee Development: Providing opportunities for employees to learn and
grow can be a great way to enrich their jobs. This could involve offering training classes,
tuition reimbursement, or other forms of professional development.
These strategies aim to create a positive work environment that motivates employees from
within. They promote a culture of psychological safety, where managers encourage a growth
mindset, and employees are eager to take on more responsibility.
Advantages of Job Enrichment
Job enrichment, as defined, aims to foster motivation, enhance satisfaction, and improve the
quality of work for employees.
1. Impact: The impact of job enrichment can be divided into psychological states and personal
and work outcomes. Psychological states may include a sense of meaningfulness,
responsibility for work outcomes, and awareness of the actual results and influence of the work.
Work outcomes might encompass motivation, superior work performance, increased job
satisfaction, improved employee experience, and reduced absenteeism and employee turnover
(Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Orpen, 1979).
2. Perception: One might assume that job enrichment could lead to decreased satisfaction due
to the increased intensity and breadth of the work. Instead, the increased intensity and breadth
are perceived as motivational factors. The exception is for workers with low growth needs or
limited knowledge and skills. For these individuals, job enrichment is more likely to cause
frustration than satisfaction (Cummings & Worley, 2009).
3. Loyalty: Additional benefits include employees perceiving their jobs as more enriched,
exhibiting higher job involvement, intrinsic motivation, and increased loyalty. A study by
Niehoff and colleagues (2001) demonstrated that job enrichment led to higher loyalty in the
high-stress environment of a downsizing company. In this context, job enrichment was
effectively used as a strategy to retain employees.
4. Productivity: Interestingly, job enrichment does not necessarily result in increased
productivity. While employees may find the work more meaningful, it does not necessarily
translate into higher output.
Disadvantages of Job Enrichment
Cummings and Worley identify several impediments to job enrichment. These hindrances are
often embedded in the organizational system. Recognizing potential constraints to job
enrichment is crucial as they can influence the feasibility and efficacy of your intervention.
1. Technical System: Existing systems within the organisation may hinder job enrichment. For
instance, an assembly line where workstations are designed for a single activity. This results in
highly standardised work, making enrichment impossible without altering the technical system.
2. Human Resources System: The human resources system may have formalised jobs with
job descriptions that obstruct job enrichment. Roles may also be defined by labour unions or
collective labour agreements. Enriching jobs may require extensive negotiation between the
employer and unions, making it nearly impossible.
3. Control System: Budgets, production reports, and accounting practices may limit the extent
to which jobs can be enriched. Organisational departments may also pose a challenge. For
example, the sales department typically manages client relationships. If the product team seeks
to enhance customer connections, it may lead to internal competition and conflicts.
4. Supervisory System: The active participation of management is essential for any successful
HR intervention. The supervisory system can pose a significant obstacle when it comes to
granting autonomy, task completion, and feedback. A controlling manager can derail a job
enrichment intervention aimed at vertically loading a job.
5. Individual Motivation: The individual's motivation is another factor. Job enrichment is
particularly effective for individuals with a high growth need as they embrace the additional
change and challenge. However, for workers with a low growth need, job enrichment is more
likely to cause frustration than satisfaction.
Difference Between Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement
Basis Job Enlargement Job Enrichment

Job enlargement is a method of job Job enrichment is a technique that enhances a

Definition design where the tasks associated job by adding more meaningful tasks to
with a single job are increased. make the work more rewarding.

Approach This process involves the The approach focuses on the job as a whole
quantitative expansion of a job’s and provides opportunities, recognition and
Basis Job Enlargement Job Enrichment

scope. increasing task variety and difficulty.

Aim It aims to reduce the monotony of The aim is to improve employee satisfaction
performing repetitive tasks. and performance.

The result can be a more engaged and

Result The impact of this process may motivated workforce, leading to higher job
vary and is not always positive. satisfaction, improved performance, and
reduced turnover.

Expansion It possesses horizontal expansion. It possesses vertical expansion.

Job Rotation : Meaning, Types, Methods, Advantages and Disadvantages

Job rotation is a powerful tool for human resource management that involves deliberately
shifting employees from one position to another within a company. This strategic approach
aims to develop a versatile workforce by giving individuals exposure to various roles and
responsibilities. It ultimately seeks to enhance employees' skills, broaden their experience, and
build a flexible pool of talent within the organization. In the dynamic practice of job rotation,
employees have the opportunity to explore different departments, teams, or functions,
providing them with a deep understanding of the organization's inner workings. This
invaluable exposure, not only enables their professional development, but also instils a
valuable sense of adaptability and versatility. As individuals navigate through diverse roles,
they not only acquire technical skills, but also gain a holistic perspective on the company's
structure, goals, and processes.

Types of Job Rotation

1. Horizontal Job Rotation: By implementing horizontal job rotation, employees have the
opportunity to shift between various roles and positions within the same hierarchical level.
This dynamic approach enables individuals to expand their scope of skills and expertise while
remaining in their current job level. For instance, a marketing specialist could gain experience
in product management, market research, and branding through rotation.
2. Vertical Job Rotation: Vertical job rotation offers employees the opportunity to transition
to various positions within the organizational hierarchy. This dynamic approach to career
development allows individuals to take on roles with escalating levels of accountability. For
example, a new engineer could rotate through positions such as project coordinator, supervisor,
and manager, gaining valuable experience and paving the way for advancement.
3. Lateral Job Rotation: Lateral job rotation involves shifting employees to new positions or
departments at the same level in the company's hierarchy. The purpose of this type of rotation
is to expand their knowledge and experience in various functions while maintaining their job
level. For instance, a finance analyst may take on roles in financial planning, budgeting, and
internal audit through job rotation. This allows them to gain a well-rounded understanding of
different areas within the finance department.
4. Functional Job Rotation: Functional job rotation is a dynamic process in which employees
are given the opportunity to work in various functional areas within the organization. This
allows them to gain exposure to a wide range of business functions, including marketing,
finance, operations, and human resources. By immersing themselves in different functions,
individuals can develop a comprehensive understanding of the entire organizational landscape,
expanding their knowledge and skills.
5. Geographical Job Rotation: One advantage of geographical job rotation is its ability to
give employees the opportunity to work in various locations and branches of the organization.
This leads to exposure to diverse work environments, cultures, and market conditions. An
example of this is a sales manager who can rotate through regional offices, gaining a
comprehensive understanding of multiple markets. This not only enhances their skills and
knowledge, but also allows for a more well-rounded and adaptable employee.
6. Task Rotation: An effective strategy for preventing workplace monotony and improving
employee adaptability is task rotation, where personnel move through various tasks and duties
within their own job. This approach not only diversifies skills and knowledge, but also reduces
the risk of burnout and enhances overall job satisfaction. A prime example of this is a customer
service representative who alternates between responding to customer inquiries, fulfilling
orders, and resolving service issues.
7. Time-Based Job Rotation: By implementing a time-based job rotation system, employees
will have the opportunity to spend a specified amount of time in a particular role before
transitioning to the next. This carefully planned method guarantees that individuals will
acquire valuable knowledge and skills in each position. For example, a software developer may
dedicate two years to software development before embarking on a new challenge in
cybersecurity.
8. Project-Based Job Rotation: Project-based job rotation offers employees the opportunity to
take on a diverse array of projects within their organization. This type of rotation not only
exposes them to new and exciting challenges, but also allows them to work with a variety of
teams and experience different project management scenarios. For instance, a project manager
could rotate between software development, system integration, and infrastructure projects,
gaining valuable insight and skills along the way.
9. Cross-Training: Cross-training is a valuable practice that involves equipping employees
with the skills to excel in areas beyond their main area of expertise. This not only adds to their
versatility but also secures backup resources within teams. For example, an administrative
assistant may undergo cross-training in basic graphic design, providing valuable support to the
marketing team during busy periods.
10. Special Assignment Rotation: Special assignment rotations give employees the chance to
temporarily take on new tasks or projects. This opportunity exposes them to different
challenges and chances outside of their usual duties. For example, a financial analyst could
rotate to a cross-functional team responsible for implementing a brand new financial system.
Methods of Job Rotation
1. Structured Departmental Rotation: The process involves employees actively cycling
through multiple departments within the company, providing them with valuable experience in
different areas. For example, a marketing expert may spend time in sales, finance, and
operations, allowing them to gain a deep understanding of the company's complete functioning.
2. Project-Based Rotation: Rotation is a valuable practice within our organization where
employees are given the opportunity to work on a variety of projects. By engaging in different
initiatives, individuals are able to hone their skills, build relationships with various teams, and
make significant contributions. Consider a scenario where an IT expert flexes their expertise in
software development, system integration, and cybersecurity projects through rotation.
3. Time-Bound Role Rotation: This process requires employees to dedicate a fixed period of
time to a particular role before moving on to a new one. This provides a well-organized
framework for job rotation, preventing individuals from becoming too entrenched in a single
position. As an example, a finance manager could spend two years in financial planning before
transitioning to internal audit.
4. Cross-Functional Task Rotation: In order to enhance their abilities within a specific
department, employees are encouraged to rotate through various tasks and responsibilities
within their current role. This approach not only diversifies their skill set, but also allows them
to remain in the same functional area. Take, for instance, a human resources specialist who
may undertake recruitment, employee relations, and training duties over a designated period of
time.
5. Leadership Development Rotation: This approach strives to cultivate the next generation of
leaders by guiding employees through a series of progressively challenging roles within the
company. By starting at an entry-level position and gradually moving upward to managerial
positions, individuals have the opportunity to acquire prominent leadership skills. For example,
a junior manager might undergo rotations across different departments before ultimately
assuming a leading role in operations or strategy.
Training Methods of Job Rotation
1. On-the-Job Training Sessions: By incorporating hands-on training, employees are able to
learn and develop the skills needed for their new roles through practical experience. This
allows them to directly apply their knowledge to assigned tasks during the rotation process.
2. Mentorship Programs: Mentorship programs can greatly enhance job rotation by pairing
experienced employees with those undergoing rotation. This creates a supportive and
collaborative learning atmosphere, allowing for valuable insights to be shared and knowledge
to be passed down from seasoned professionals.
3. Formal Classroom Training: To enhance employees' learning during job rotation,
organizations can include formal classroom training sessions. These sessions not only cover
theoretical concepts, but also industry best practices and specific skills relevant to the new
roles. This approach provides a well-organized learning environment for individuals.
4. E-Learning Modules: By utilizing online platforms and e-learning modules, organizations
can make training materials more accessible for employees undergoing job rotation. This
enables individuals to access digital resources, interactive modules, and virtual courses that are
tailored to the specific skills needed for their new roles.
5. Simulations and Case Studies: By utilizing simulations and case studies, employees can
actively engage with real-life scenarios that may arise during their job rotations. This practical
approach allows individuals to put their theoretical knowledge into practice without any
potential risks, promoting the development of critical thinking and problem-solving abilities.
6. Job Shadowing: As part of job rotation, employees may also have the opportunity to shadow
colleagues in similar positions. This firsthand experience provides a comprehensive
understanding of the daily duties and difficulties involved in the rotated role, allowing
employees to learn and grow from observation.
7. Cross-Functional Workshops: By organizing interactive workshops that involve
employees from various departments, companies can promote teamwork and the exchange of
knowledge. These workshops may center on specialized abilities or proficiencies related to the
rotated positions, promoting a sense of unity and mutual growth.
8. Feedback and Performance Reviews: Consistent feedback and performance evaluations
are essential for effective job rotation training. They allow employees to assess their
development, identify areas for growth, and engage in productive discussions with their
superiors.
9. Skill Certification Programs: By implementing skill certification programs for employees
transitioning into different roles, we can ensure that they are able to effectively showcase their
competency in specific areas. This formal recognition not only serves as a motivational factor,
but also validates their capabilities in their new position.
10. Networking Opportunities: In order to truly enhance job rotation training, it is crucial to
incorporate networking events and create opportunities for employees to connect with
professionals from various departments. This not only promotes knowledge exchange, but also
allows for a better understanding of different functions, ultimately contributing to a more
collaborative work environment.
Implementation of Training Methods of Job Rotation
Implementing job rotation and its associated training methods involves careful planning,
communication, and coordination. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to implement these
methods,
1. Create an All-Inclusive Work Rotation Schedule: Together, the leadership of the
organization and HR experts should create a comprehensive job rotation plan. This plan must
clearly outline the objectives of the program, the specific techniques that will be utilized, and a
set schedule for execution.
2. Determine Important Roles for Rotation: When considering job rotation, it is crucial to
identify the positions or departments that would reap the most advantages. This involves taking
into account the organization's strategic objectives as well as the growth and learning needs of
individual employees.
3. Communicate the Plan to Employees: Effective communication is paramount. It is
essential to clearly convey the objectives, advantages, and anticipated results of the job
rotation program to all employees. Take into consideration any potential worries and
emphasize the company's dedication to advancing their career growth.
4. Create Training Procedures: It is crucial to develop comprehensive training procedures
for each selected job rotation approach. This could involve crafting hands-on training resources,
mentorship protocols, online learning platforms, and arranging in-person classes or workshops.
5. Assign Mentors and Trainers: It is important to seek out proficient employees to serve as
mentors or trainers for individuals participating in job rotation. It is imperative that these
individuals possess the required expertise and are dedicated to facilitating the growth of their
colleagues.
6. Create a Training Calendar: It is also crucial to create a comprehensive training schedule
that details the timing and types of training. This schedule should encompass on-the-job
shadowing, mentorship discussions, classroom instruction, and other pertinent educational
experiences.
7. Utilize platforms for online learning: By incorporating e-learning modules into the
training plan, it's essential to seamlessly integrate them into the organization's learning
management system (LMS). This not only streamlines employee access, but also allows for
progress tracking and monitoring through the use of digital training materials.
8. Encourage Opportunities for Job Shadowing: It is essential to facilitate employee job
shadowing experiences by collaborating with relevant departments. And also guarantee that
employees are given the valuable opportunity to witness and absorb knowledge from their
colleagues in the positions they are transitioning into.
9. Track and Evaluate Development: Developing a comprehensive monitoring system is a
vital step in effectively tracking the progression of employees as they undergo job rotation.
Consistent evaluations, soliciting feedback, and adapting training methods or material
accordingly are all key elements of this process.
10. Celebrate Achievements and Provide Recognition: Acknowledging and commemorating
the accomplishments of employees who have successfully completed their job rotations is
essential. This could involve public recognition, granting certificates of achievement, or other
forms of acknowledgement to encourage and motivate their peers.
11. Assess and Improve the Program: Once the job rotation program has been put into action,
it is vital to assess its impact. This can be achieved by gathering feedback from those involved,
including participants, mentors, and supervisors. By utilizing this valuable information, the
program can be improved and fine-tuned for ongoing success.
Advantages of Job Rotation
1. Skill Development: Through taking on a variety of roles and responsibilities, employees
gain a diverse skill set that makes them adaptable and versatile professionals, capable of taking
on a multitude of tasks.
2. Professional Development and Progress: The practice of job rotation affords employees
the opportunity to gain exposure to various facets of the organization, thus promoting their
career advancement. It serves as a means of identifying and cultivating potential leaders,
preparing them for future leadership roles with the company.
3. Employee Engagement: Offering varied work experiences keeps employees engaged and
motivated. Monotony and routine can lead to disengagement, but job rotation introduces new
challenges, preventing boredom and fostering a sense of excitement in the workplace.
4. Talent Retention: Job rotation programs showcase an organization's dedication towards
empowering its employees through professional growth. Such an initiative can foster strong
employee allegiance and encourage them to stay longer with the company, as it presents a clear
pathway for career progression.
5. Planning for Succession: Introducing job rotation into an organization not only allows for
the identification of top-performing individuals, but also enables strategic succession planning.
By exposing employees to diverse roles, companies can ensure a continuous supply of talented
and experienced individuals who are prepared to take on crucial positions.
6. Enhanced Flexibility: When employees are exposed to different functions and departments,
they develop a higher level of adaptability. As a result, they become more adept at navigating
diverse work environments, tackling unique challenges, and adjusting to changing
organizational priorities.
7. Knowledge Transfer: One of the biggest benefits of implementing job rotation is the ability
to transfer knowledge between departments and teams. By experiencing different aspects of the
business, employees are able to gain a deeper understanding and collaborate more effectively
within the organization.
8. Improved Ability to Solve Problems: Another advantage is the exposure to various roles
and challenges, which helps sharpen employees' problem-solving skills. This diverse
experience encourages them to think outside the box and come up with creative and innovative
solutions to complex issues.
9. Cooperation and Communication within the Team: By implementing a job rotation
program, employees have the opportunity to work with a variety of teams, leading to enhanced
collaboration and communication. This diverse experience not only cultivates strong
interpersonal skills, but also builds stronger relationships throughout the entire organization.
10. Savings on Recruiting Expenses: Through implementing job rotations, organizations have
the opportunity to nurture and strengthen their current talent pool. This strategy can result in a
decrease in external hiring, ultimately resulting in cost savings related to recruitment,
onboarding, and training expenditures.
Disadvantages of Job Rotation
1. The initial decline in productivity: As employees take on new roles, they may encounter a
learning curve that temporarily affects their productivity. This initial adjustment period can
have an impact on the overall efficiency of the team.
2. Absence of Specialization: Consistently rotating employees can prevent them from
developing strong expertise in a specific area. Instead, they may become well-rounded
generalists, which could potentially impact the quality of their work in specialized roles.
3. Resistance and Discomfort: It is not uncommon for employees to resist change or
experience discomfort when tasked with unfamiliar roles. Unfortunately, this resistance can
have detrimental effects on job satisfaction, stress levels, and overall morale.
4. Variable Performance: The method of job rotation may create inconsistencies in an
employee's performance across various roles. For instance, while an employee may excel in
one area, they could struggle in another, making it difficult for supervisors to accurately
evaluate their performance.
5. Effect on Project Sustainability: The constant switching of roles among employees can
have a negative impact on the continuity of projects. This can lead to missed deadlines and
compromised deliverables, disrupting the project's flow.
6. Limitations on Time and Resources: Introducing job rotation programs takes considerable
effort in terms of planning, training, and monitoring. However, some organizations may face
limitations that hinder their ability to fully invest in these initiatives.
7. Burnout among employees: When employees are constantly thrown into new roles without
proper support or consideration for their workload, it can quickly lead to burnout. The constant
juggling and adapting can create a high level of stress and exhaustion that is detrimental to
their well-being.
8. Managerial resistance: Many managers may be hesitant to implement job rotation due to
valid concerns about how it may disrupt team dynamics, create knowledge gaps, and impact
overall team performance. Overcoming this resistance from managers can be a significant
challenge that requires delicate handling.
9. Measurement Difficulties for ROI: Determining the effectiveness of job rotation programs
can present a difficult task. Measuring their lasting impact on employee performance and
overall organizational achievement may demand advanced metrics and in-depth analysis.
10. Mismatch between Job Requirements and Skill Set: Employees placed in roles they are
ill-equipped for may encounter difficulties fulfilling job expectations. This mismatch can result
in discontentment, diminished job gratification, and even potential performance deficits.
What is Job Enlargement?
Job Enlargement involves expanding the scope of an employee's job by adding more tasks or
activities of a similar nature. It aims to reduce monotony and boredom by providing a greater
variety of tasks to perform within the same job role. For example, in a manufacturing setup,
an employee might be assigned additional responsibilities such as quality control or
maintenance tasks along with their primary production duties.

Features of Job Enlargement:

 Additional Tasks: Job Enlargement involves adding more tasks or activities to an

employee's job description. These tasks are typically similar in nature to the existing
responsibilities, providing a broader range of activities for the employee to perform.
 Horizontal Expansion: Rather than deepening the job vertically (as in job enrichment),
job enlargement expands the job horizontally. It aims to increase the variety of tasks within
the same level of skill and responsibility.
 Variety: One of the primary objectives of job enlargement is to reduce monotony and
boredom by providing employees with a greater variety of tasks to perform. This variety can
make the job more interesting and engaging for employees.
 Minimal Skill Upgradation: Job Enlargement may require minimal additional training
or skill development, as the tasks are often within the employee's existing skill set.
Difference between Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment
Basis Job Enlargement Job Enrichment

Job Enrichment involves enhancing

Job Enlargement involves expanding
the depth and complexity of a job by
the scope of an employee's job by
Meaning adding tasks that require higher-level
adding more tasks or activities of a
skills, creativity, decision-making
similar nature.
authority, and autonomy.

Job Enrichment focuses on enriching

Job Enlargement involves expanding
the job vertically by adding depth
the scope of the job horizontally by
Scope and complexity to existing tasks or
adding more tasks or activities of a
introducing new tasks that require
similar nature.
higher-level skills and responsibility.

Job Enlargement aims to alleviate Job Enrichment aims to enhance the

monotony and boredom by depth of the job by providing
Aim
increasing the variety of tasks within opportunities for skill development,
the job. autonomy, and personal growth.

Job Enlargement typically does not

Job Enrichment often involves
significantly alter the skill
Skill adding tasks that require higher-level
requirements of the job, as the
Requirements skills, creativity, decision-making,
additional tasks are usually similar in
and problem-solving abilities.
nature to existing ones.

Job Enrichment typically involves

Job Enlargement may not necessarily
empowering employees with more
Decision involve increased employee
control over their work, decision-
Making involvement in decision-making or
making authority, and opportunities
autonomy.
for self-direction.

Job Enrichment is more likely to

Job Enlargement can help improve
have a profound impact
motivation by reducing monotony
on motivation by providing
and increasing task variety, but it
Motivation employees with opportunities for
may not necessarily lead to
personal growth, achievement, and
significant improvements in job
fulfillment through challenging and
satisfaction or intrinsic motivation.
meaningful work.

A customer service representative

A factory worker who previously
Example might be empowered to
only assembled parts might be given
handle customer complaints
additional tasks, such as quality
independently, make decisions
Basis Job Enlargement Job Enrichment

checking or maintenance. regarding refunds or discounts, and

participate in problem-solving
initiatives.