Electron Configuration

An electron configuration of an atom is a particular distribution of electrons

among available subshells.
The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can
have the same four quantum numbers.
Consider an atom has two electron. If one electron has the quantum
numbers of n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, and s = +1/2, then, other electron must has n
= 1, l = 0, m = 0, and s = -1/2.
Each subshell holds a maximum of twice as many electrons as the number of
orbitals in the subshell. Thus, a 2p subshell, which has three orbitals (with l =
-1, 0, and 1), can hold a maximum of six electrons. The maximum number of
electrons in various subshells is given in the following table.
Subshell Number of orbitals Maximum number of electron

s (l=0) 1 2
p (l=1) 3 6
d (l=2) 5 10
f (l=3) 7 14
 Building up principle’ or Aufbau Principle
In the ground state of an atom, the electrons tend to occupy the available
orbitals in the increasing order of energies, the orbitals of lower energy
being filled first.
The energy of an orbital is determined by the sum of principal quantum
number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l). This rule is called (n + l)
rule. There are two parts of this rule :
(a) The orbitals with the lower value of (n + l) has lower energy than the
orbitals of higher (n +l) value. For example, let us compare the (n + l) value
for 3d and 4s orbitals. For 3d orbital n = 3, l = 2 and n + l = 5 and for 4s
orbital n = 4, l = 0 and n + l = 4. Therefore, 4s orbital is
filled before 3d orbital.
(b) When two orbitals have same (n + l) value, the orbital
with lower value of n has lower energy. Similarly, for 4p
and 5s orbitals, the (n + l) values are (4 + 1) and (5 + 0)
respectively. In this case 4p orbital has lesser value of n
and hence it has lower energy than 5d orbital and is filled
first. Aufbau order of orbitals
 Hund's rule
Hund's rule states that:
1.Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly
occupied.
2.All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin (to
maximize total spin).
Consider the correct electron configuration of the nitrogen (Z = 7) atom:
1s2 2s2 2p3
The p orbitals are half-filled; there are three electrons and three p orbitals.
This is because the three electrons in the 2p subshell will fill all the empty
orbitals first before pairing with electrons in them
consider oxygen (Z = 8) atom, the element after
nitrogen in the same period; its electron
configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p4
Oxygen has one more electron than nitrogen; as
the orbitals are all half-filled, the new electron
must pair up.
 Periodic Table
A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns,
highlighting the regular repetition of properties of the elements, is
called a periodic table.

Dobereiner's Triads
Triads Groups of three elements which showed similar
properties
Johann
Atomic mass of the middle element is approximately the
Wolfgang mean of the atomic masses of other two elements
Dobereiner

In the triad of Li, Na and K the

Element Atomic mass
atomic mass of Na (23) is the
Li 6.9
mean of the atomic masses of
Na 23
Li and K
K 39
6.9 + 39 = 45.9 ÷ 2 = 22.95
Element Atomic mass
Li 6.9
Na 23
K 39 Features
Ca 40.1
Sr 87.6 Only a few triads could be
Ba 137.3 identified
Cl 35.5
Br 79.9 System of triads could not
I 126.9 continue
S 32
Se 79
Te 128
John Alexander
Reina Newlands

Newland’s Octaves
Fifty-six elements were discovered.
Newlands arranged them in the increasing order of
their atomic masses.
Every eighth element had properties similar to the
first.
Features
Out of the 56 elements, elements up to Ca could
be arranged.
After Ca every eighth element did not possess
properties similar to the first.
To fit the existing elements two elements were
placed in the same position which differed in their
properties.
Inert (noble) gases were not included because
they were not discovered.
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Examined the relationship between

the atomic masses of elements and
Dmitri Ivanovich
their physical and chemical
Mendeleev
properties
Believed that atomic mass was the most
fundamental property in classifying the elements
 Mendeleev’s
Periodic Law
The physical and
chemical
properties of
elements are a
periodic function
of their atomic
masses
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
The tabular arrangement of the elements based on
the periodic law
Features

Periods
Horizontal rows, numbered 1 to 7
Properties of elements in a period show regular
gradation from left to right

Groups
Vertical columns, numbered I to VIII. I to VII are
further divided into A and B subgroups
Demerits
H resembles alkali metals and halogens. No fixed
position could be given to H.
Isotopes of same elements have different atomic
masses. Each of them should be given a different
position. As isotopes are chemically similar, they
were given same position.
Co with higher atomic mass (58.93) is placed
before Ni (58.71).
Mn is placed with halogens which totally differ in
the properties.
Merits
Successful classification of all known elements
Some vacant/ blank spaces were left for elements
yet to be discovered.
Mendeleev predicted properties of these elements
even before they were discovered.
Later they were found to be correct.
Noble gases were discovered later and placed in
the table without disturbing the positions of other
elements.
 Modern Periodic Table

Atomic number is the most fundamental

property of an element and not its
Henry
Gwyn atomic mass – Henry Moseley
Jeffreys
Moseley

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the

nucleus of the atom

Also represents number of electrons in the outer

shell
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law was modified into
Modern Periodic Law

The chemical and physical properties of elements

are a periodic function of their atomic numbers

Modern Periodic Table = Long Form of Modern

Periodic Table

Not much different from Mendeleev’s Periodic

Table
Position of elements in the Modern Periodic Table

Periods (number of shells)

Horizontal rows, Seven, numbered 1-7

Elements in the same period have same number of

shells which is equal to the period number. E.g.
Period 7 has 7 Shells

In each period a new shell starts filling up

Period no. Size Elements *Temporary
1 shortest 2 working names
and symbols
2 short 8 113 ununtrium,
3 short 8 Uut
115 ununpentium,
4 long 18 Uup
117 ununseptium,
5 long 18
Uus
6 longest 32 118 ununoctium,
Uuo
7 incomplete see box
*IUPAC announces the verification of the discoveries of four new chemical
elements: The 7th period of the periodic table of elements is complete.
Update 21 Jan 2016: Technical Reports available
http://www.iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/discovery-and-assignment-of-elements-with-atomic-numbers-113-115-117-and-118.html
Groups (number of valence electrons)

Vertical columns, Eighteen, numbered 1-18

Elements in the same group have

•same number of valence electrons/ same outer
electronic configuration,
•show same chemical properties

Group 1, alkali metals

Group 2, alkaline earth metals
Group 17, halogens
Group 18, inert/ noble gases
Metals – left hand side

Non-metals – right hand side

Normal elements – Groups 1, 2 and Groups 13-17.

One outermost shell incomplete

Transition elements – Groups 3-12. Two outermost

shells incomplete

Inert gases – Outermost shell contains 8 electrons

Group no. 1 2 3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10- 13-14-15- 17 18
11-12 16
Type Alkali Alkaline Transition Non- Halogens Inert or
metals earth elements metals, noble
metals metalloids, gases
metals
Normal elements Normal elements
Inner transition – at the bottom, contain two
series, viz. lanthanides, actinides
Lanthanides (Ce – Lu) – 14 elements, atomic
numbers 58-71. Placed along with La (57), Group 3,
Period 6. Close resemblance in properties to La
Actinides (Th – Lr) – 14 elements, atomic numbers
90-103. Placed along with Ac (89), Group 3, Period
7. Close resemblance in properties to Ac

Group 3
Period 6 Lanthanides 14 elements
Period 7 Actinides 14 elements
Elements can be classified into four categories
according to their electron configurations.
1.The noble gases. These are elements in which the outermost s
and p sublevels are filled.
The noble gases belong to Group 0. The elements in this group are
sometimes called the inert gases because they do not participate in
many chemical reactions. The electron configurations for the first
four noble-gas elements are listed below. Notice that these
elements have filled outermost s and p sublevels.

Helium 1s2 Notice that all of these elements

have filled outermost s and p
Neon 1s22s22p6 sublevels

Argon 1s22s22p63s23p6
Krypton 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6 21
2. The representative elements. In these elements,
the outermost s and p sublevel is only partially filled.
The representative elements are usually called the
Group A elements.
For any representative element, the group
number equals the number of electrons in the
outermost energy level.
For example, the elements in Group 1A (lithium,
sodium, etc.) have one electron in the outermost
energy level.
Notice the one
Lithium 1s22s1 electron in the
outermost energy
Sodium 1s22s22p63s1 level

Potassium 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
22
Carbon, silicon, and germanium, in Group 4A, have
four electrons in the outermost energy level.
Notice the four electrons
Carbon 1s22s22p2 in the outermost energy
level
Silicon 1s22s22p63s23p2
Germanium 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p2

3. The transition metals. These are metallic elements

in which the outermost s sublevel and nearby d sublevel
contains electrons.
The transition elements, called Group B elements, are
characterized by addition of electron to the d orbitals.
Scandium 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1
Yttrium 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d1
Notice the outermost “s” and
“d” electrons are filling.
23
4. The inner transition metals. These are metallic
elements in which the outermost s sublevel and
nearby f sublevel generally contain electrons.
The inner transition metals are characterized by the
filling of f orbitals.
Cerium [Xe]6s25d14f1
Thorium [Rn]7s26d15f1

Notice the outermost “s”

and “f” electrons are
filling.

If you consider both the electron configurations and the

positions of the elements in the periodic table, another
pattern emerges. The periodic table can be divided into
sections, or blocks, that correspond to the sublevels
that are filled with electrons. 24
Merits

Modern Periodic Table (atomic number) versus

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table (atomic mass)

All isotopes of the same elements have different

masses but same atomic number and occupy the
same position

Anomaly regarding Co (27) and Ni (28) disappears

Classification of elements into blocks based on their

electronic configuration
 Finding Location of Elements in Periodic Table with Examples
a) Finding Period of Elements:
Period of the element is equal to highest energy level of electrons or principal
quantum number. Look at following examples for better understanding;
2 2 6 2 4
16S: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3 is the highest energy level of electrons or principal
quantum number. Thus period of S is 3.
2 2 6 2 6 2 4
23Cr: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4 is the highest energy level of electrons or
principal quantum number. Thus period of Cr is 4.
b) Finding Group of Elements:
Group of element is equal to number of valence electrons of element or
number of electrons in the highest energy level of elements. Another way of
finding group of element is looking at sub shells. If last sub shell of electron
configuration is "s" or "p", then group becomes A.
2 2 6 2 6 1
19K: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s Since last sub shell is "s" group of K is A.
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 5
35Br: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p Since last sub shell is "p" group of Br is A.
Elements in group B have electron configuration ns and (n-1)d, total number
of electrons in these orbitals gives us group of element. Look at following
examples.
2 2 6 2 6 2 6
26Fe: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 6+2=8 B group
 Finding Location of Elements in Periodic Table with Examples
Here are some clues for you to find group number of elements.
Last Orbital Group
Last Orbital Group
ns1 1A 2(n-1)d6 8B
ns
ns2 2A 2(n-1)d7 8B
ns
ns2np1 3A
2 2 ns2(n-1)d8 8B
ns np 4A
2 3 ns2(n-1)d9 or ns1(n-1)d10 1B
ns np 5A 2(n-1)d10 2B
ns
ns2np4 6A
ns2np5 7A
2 6 Example: Find period and group
ns np 8A
of 16X.
Last Orbital Group 2 2 6 2 4
2 1 16X: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
ns (n-1)d 3B
3. period and 2+4=6 A group
ns2(n-1)d2 4B
2 3 Example: Find period and group
ns (n-1)d 5B
2 4 1 of 24X.
ns (n-1)d or ns (n- 2 2 6 2 6 2 4
5 24X:1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
1)d 6B
4. period and 4+2=6 B group
ns2(n-1)d5 7B
Periodic properties/ trends
Properties repeat after a certain interval of atomic
number
 Atomic size
•how big the atoms are
 Ionization energy
•How much energy to remove an electron
 Electronegativity
•The attraction for the electron in a compound
 Atomic size

}
Radius
 Atomic radius is the distance between the centre
of atom and the outermost shell
 Atomic Radius = half the distance between two
nuclei of molecule
 Trends in Atomic Size

• Influenced by two factors

• Energy Level
• Higher energy level is further away
• Charge on nucleus
• More charge pulls electrons in closer
 Trends in Atomic Size
H
Group trends Li
• As we go down a group Na
•New shells are added,
thereby pushing outermost K
electrons farther from the
nucleus
• So the atoms get bigger Rb
 Periodic Trends
• As you go across a period the radius gets
smaller.
•Electrons are added to same shell

•Experience greater pulls from the nucleus

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
 Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule
to draw bonding electrons to itself.
• Big electronegativity means it pulls the electron toward
it.
 Group Trend

• The further down a group

• The more electrons an atom has.
• Less attraction for electrons
• Low electronegativity.
 Periodic Trend
• Metals - left end
• Low nuclear charge
• Low attraction
• Low electronegativity
• Right end - nonmetals
• High nuclear charge
• Large attraction
• High electronegativity
• Not noble gases- no compounds
Energy Levels
& Shielding
Nuclear Charge
Ionization energy, electronegativity
INCREASE
 Ionization Energy
The minimum amount of energy required to remove
the outermost electron from an atom in the gaseous
state is called the FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY.

First ionization energy (I1): amount of energy

required to remove the most loosely bound electron
from an isolated gaseous atom to form a cation.

Second ionization energy (I2): amount of energy

required to remove a second electron from the
gaseous monopositive cation to form dipositive
cation.
 Ionization energies are usually expressed in
electron volts (eV) per atom or in kilojoules per mol
(kJ/mol)
1eV/atom=96.48 kJ/mol
 Value of each ionization energy will increase with
each removed electron, since the attractive
influence of the nucleus increases and will and will
require more energy for the removal of an electron
from more positive charges.
 Ionization energies measure hoe tightly
electrons are bound to atoms. Low energies
indicate ease of removal of electrons and vice versa.
Factors affecting the magnitude of Ionization
Potential:

1. Effective nuclear charge

2. Atomic size i.e. atomic radius
3. Principle quantum number
4. Shielding effect
5. Half filled and completely filled orbitals
6. Nature of orbitals
7. The extent of penetration of valence electrons
Effective Nuclear Charge:
Greater the magnitude of effective
nuclear charge, higher is the amount of energy needed to
remove the outermost shell electron. Thus with the increase
of the magnitude of effective nuclear charge, the magnitude of
ionization potential also increases. The effective nuclear
charge increases from left to right in a period.
The effective nuclear charge is the positive charge that an electron
experiences from the nucleus, equal to the nuclear charge but
reduced by any shielding or screening from any intervening
electron distribution. Consider the effective nuclear charge on
the 2s electron in the lithium atom (configuration 1s22s1). The
nuclear charge is 3e, but the effect of this charge on the 2s
electron is reduced by the distribution of the two 1s electrons
lying between the nucleus and the 2s electron (roughly, each
core electron reduces the nuclear charge by 1e).
Atomic size:
Greater is the atomic size of an atom, more far is
the outermost shell electron from the nucleus and hence
lesser will be the force of attraction exerted by the
nucleus on the outermost shell electron. Thus higher the
value of atomic radius of an atom, lower will be the ionization
energy.
Principal Quantum Number (n):
Greater is the value of n for the valence
shell electron of an atom, further away this electron will
be from the nucleus and hence lesser will be the force of
attraction exerted by the nucleus on it so lesser energy
will be required to remove the valence shell electron.
Thus with the increase ot the principal quantum number of
the orbital from which the electron is to be removed, the
magnitude of ionization potential decreases.
Shielding Affect:
The magnitude of shielding effect
determines the magnitude of the force of attraction
between the nucleus and the valence-shell electron.
Greater is the magnitude of shielding effect working
on the valence shell electron. The larger the ionization
potential.

Half-filled and completely-filled orbitals:

According to Hund’s rule, half-filled (ns1, np3,
nd5) or completely-filled (ns2. ns6, nd10) orbitals are
comparatively more stable and hence more energy is
needed to remove an electron from such orbitals.
Thus the ionization potential of an atom having half-filled
or completely-filled orbitals in its electronic configuration
is relatively higher than that expected normally from its
position in the periodic table .
Nature Of Orbitals:
The nature of orbitals of the valence-shell from
which the electron is to be removed also influences the magnitude
of ionization potential. The relative order of energy of s, p, d and f
orbitals of a given nth shell is as:
ns < np < nd < nf
This order clearly shows that to remove an electron from f-orbital
will be easiest while to remove the same from s-orbital will be the
most difficult.
The extent of penetration of valence electrons:
The degree of penetration of valence electrons in a
given principal energy level decreases in the order s>p>d>f, since
ns electron is more tightly bound than any np electron, which in
turn is more tightly bound than any nd electron etc.
 Trends in Ionization Potential:

Ionization energy generally increases from left to

right in a period because of the increase in nuclear
charge and decrease in atomic radius.
 Ionization energies generally decrease down a group
due to the shielding effect and increase in atomic size.
Departures from these trends can usually be traced to
repulsion between electrons, particularly electrons
occupying the same orbitals.
The minimum amount of energy required to remove the outermost
electron from an atom in the gaseous state is called the FIRST
IONIZATION ENERGY.

 Ionization energies display a periodic variation when plotted against

atomic number. Within any period, IE values tend to increase with atomic
number.
 The increase in ionization energy with atomic number in a given period—
can be explained as follows: The outer-shell electrons in the elements of
the same period are arranged in the same shell, hence, the positive
charge on the nucleus increases whereas the distance between the
nucleus and valence electrons decreases. Therefore more energy is
required to remove an electron as we go from left to right in the Period.
Small deviations from this general trend occur. A IIIA element (ns2np1) has
smaller ionization energy than the preceding IIA element (ns2). Apparently,
the np electron of the IIIA element is more easily removed than one of the
ns electrons of the preceding IIA element. Also note that a VIA element
(ns2np4) has smaller ionization energy than the preceding VA element
(ns2np3). As a result of electron repulsion, it is easier to remove an electron
from the doubly occupied np orbital of the VIA element than from a singly
occupied orbital of the preceding VA element.

•Ionization energies tend to decrease going down any column of main-

group elements.
•This is because new shells are added, thereby pushing outermost
electrons farther from the nucleus, so the atoms get bigger, and IE is
decreases.
 Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity: energy that occurs when an electron is
added to a neutral atom in the gaseous state to form a
negative ion.
X(g) + e- X- (g)
DE = electron attachment energy

Electron affinity = - DE (electron attachment)

Second Electron Affinity: Second electron affinity of n

element M(g) is defined as the amount of energy required
to add one more electron to its mononegative anion, to
form dinegative anion.
Factors Affecting Electron Affinity:
Nuclear charge:
More the nuclear charge of the atom more
strongly will it attract additional electron. Therefore,
electron affinity increases as the nuclear charge increases.
Atomic size:
The smaller the size of atom smaller will be the
distance between the extra electron and the nucleus.
Therefore, electrostatic force of attraction will be more and the
electron affinity will be higher.
Electronic Configuration:
Atoms having stable electronic
configuration (i.e. those having completely filled or half
filled outer orbitals) do not show much tendency to add
extra electron, so have either zero or very low electron
affinities.
Electron Affinity
Electron affinities increase (numerical value
becomes more negative) from left to right for a
period and bottom to top for a group.

The greater (more negative) the electron affinity,

the more stable the anion will be.

51