COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Introduction
Software is the collection of computer programs and data that run on a computer, and
which make the hardware useful. It refers to the intangible components of the computer
system. Regardless of the distribution model, computer software has two major
categories namely system software and application software.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SOFTWARE (PROGRAM)

Some of the most essential attributes of good computer program include
a) Efficiency: The software will do what it was designed to do without wasting resources
b) Maintainability: The ease with which modifications can be made to satisfy new
requirements or to
correct deficiencies.
c) Reliability: The software should have no defects i.e. do what it is designed to do.
d) Correctness: This is the degree with which a program meets its requirements.
e) Robustness: This is the degree with which software resist to users manipulations errors
f) Usability(Documentation): enough comment should be inserted in a program to facilitate
its
understanding by any computer user
g) Portability: The ability of an application to run on different platforms (operating systems)
with or
without minimal changes.
h) Flexibility (Testability): A program should be flexible enough to handle most of the
changes without
having to rewrite the entire program.
i) Readability: The program should be written in such a way that it makes other
programmers or users to
follow the logic of the program without much effort.
j) Security: The ease with which the software is able to protect its data against unauthorized
access

1. System Software
System software control and coordinate computer resources so that the computer user
and applications can smoothly interact. System software functions as a bridge between
computer system hardware and the application software. Without system software, a
modern digital computer would be virtually impossible to use. Examples include:
Operating systems, system BIOS, utility programs, device drivers and programming tools.
1.1. Operating System
An operating system is software that manages the computer’s resources both hardware
and software, and provides an interface through which a human can interact with the
computer. It also provides a platform that allows application programs to interact with
system resources like the CPU, memory and input/output resources. The operating
system is the most important software for a computer system.
Without an operating system, every computer program would have to contain
instructions telling the hardware each step the hardware should take to do its job, such
as storing a file on a disk or accessing an I/O device. The operating system containing
these instructions, any program can call on the operating system when a service is
needed. The most common OS are Windows (XP, Vista, 7 and 8), Mac OS x and Linux.
1.2. Device Driver
A device driver is software that allows interaction between the operating system and a
hardware device. It is an interface for communicating with the device through the specific
computer bus that the hardware is connected to. Without an appropriate device driver,
the system cannot communicate with a device, rendering the device useless. Installation
of device drivers usually happens automatically when hardware is connected, or from a
CD provided with the device. Sometimes a driver needs to be updated to stay functional.
1.3. Utility Programs
Utility programs are programs that are used to enhance the operating system, or in some
other way improve the usefulness of the system. They help analyse, configure, optimize
and maintain the computer. Rather than providing user-oriented or output-oriented
functionality, utility software focus on how the computer infrastructure operates. Most
major operating systems come with several preinstalled utilities. Examples of utility
software include: disk defragmenters, backup utilities, disk compression utilities, disk
cleaners, file managers and virus checkers.
• Disk defragmenters: detect computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
• Disk cleaners: find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaners help users decide what to delete when their
hard disk is full.
• Backup utilities: make copies of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the
entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental
deletion).
• Disk compression utilities: reduce the space that a file takes up on disk, increasing the
capacity of the disk.
• File managers: provide a convenient method of performing routine data management
tasks, such
as deleting, renaming, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
• Disk partition utilities: divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each
with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
• Disk formatters:
• Virus checkers: prevent, detect, and remove malware.
1.4. Programming Software
Programming software provide tools to assist a programmer in writing computer
programs. These tools include:
• Compilers: translate instructions written in a high-level language into machine
language instructions
• Interpreters: translates and executes instructions written in a high-level language into
machine language instructions one line at a time.
• Debuggers: detect and remove bugs. A bug is an error in a computer program.
• Linkers: link parts of a computer program together.

2. Application Software
Application software directs the computer to perform useful work for end users. They are
used to carry out productive work like typing a letter, designing and invitation card,
surfing the Internet, listening to music or watching a movie. Application software
includes a variety of programs that can be subdivided into general purpose software,
special purpose software and custom-written software.
2.1. General Purpose Software
General purpose software is designed for a variety of tasks. It is not limited to one
particular function. They also called generic software and can be found off-the-shelf. That
is, they can be bought from the market. Examples are:
• Word Processors like MS Word,
• Spreadsheets like MS Excel and Lotus 1-2-3
• Database Software like MS Access, dBase, MySQL and Oracle.
• Presentation software like MS PowerPoint, Hyper Studio and Digital Chisel
• Desktop Publishing (DTP) software like MS Publisher, and Adobe PageMaker
2.2. Special Purpose Software
Special purpose software is created to execute a specific task. Examples are web
browsers, game applications, weather forecasting applications, media players etc.
2.3. Custom-Written software
Custom-written software is designed for a specific user and purpose. It is created
specifically for the needs of a user or organization. It is tailored to their exact
requirements. It is also called tailor made software or bespoke software.

3. Operating System Platforms and Interfaces

In computing, a platform is an underlying computer system on which application
programs can run. It consists of an operating system, which in turn is built on the
instruction set for a processor or microprocessor, and the hardware that performs logic
operations and manages data movement in the computer. The operating system must be
designed to work with the particular processor’s set of instructions. For example,
Microsoft's Windows is built to work with a series of microprocessors from the Intel
Corporation that share the same or similar sets of instructions. Other operating system
platforms are Apple’s Macintosh OS, Amiga OS, Solaris, FreeBSD, OS/2 for computers and
Android, Blackberry OS, Windows Mobile, Firefox OS and Palm OS for mobile and
handheld devices. Regardless of their platforms, operating systems provide the
environment through which computer users communicate with the computer. This
means of communication is called a user interface. There are different types of interface,
which are useful in different situations and for different types of user.
3.1. Form Based Interface
A form-based interface is one that allows the user to communicate with the computer
through forms displayed on the screen. The characteristics of a form-based interface are:
✓ It has specified areas for data to be entered
✓ it has a cursor which moves to the next box to be filled in, sometimes the box is
highlighted to make it clear to the operator where the data is to be inserted.
✓ some of the boxes are more important than others and the cursor will not move on
until some data has been supplied
✓ it checks that what has been input is sensible for that box before moving on to the
next.
3.2. Command Line Interface
A command line interface is one that allows the user to type in the commands for the
computer to carryout. The user types the commands using a command prompt. It is also
called a text-based user interface. A command line interface can be found in MS Disk
Operating System and OS/2.
a. Advantages Of CLI
- It occupies and uses very little memory space
- They are generally fast and quick to operate
- They permit several commands to be grouped together and executed as a single batch
thereby enabling simple automation.
b. Disadvantages
- It is not user friendly as it is more suitable for computer professionals. The commands
must be learnt and memorized.
3.3. Menu based Interface
A menu-based interface is one that provides the user with a list of commands (menus)
from which to choose. The menus may contain submenus which in turn contain other
sub-menus. It is also called graphical character-based interface. Examples of such
interfaces are found in mobile phones.
a. Advantage
They are easy to use as one does not need to memorize the commands but rather to
choose from a list, the right option to work with.
b. Disadvantages
- They occupy a reasonable memory space
- They may be time consuming to scroll from a very long list of menu items
3.4. Graphical User Interface
A graphical user interface (GUI) also called WIMP interface is one that uses graphical
objects (pictures) to ease the user’s operation. Commands are issued by using a pointing
device to point and click on icons, buttons and select items from menus. Examples are
found in Microsoft Windows, Apple Macintosh and Linux.
a. Features of a GUI
GUI is rendered possible by the bit-mapping of the text and graphics displayed on the
screen. Bitmapping means that the characters and images are represented as a matrix of
dots.
i) Pointing device or pointer: a device that enables you to use a symbol (pointer or
cursor) displayed
on the screen to select and move objects e.g. mouse and trackball
ii) Icon: a small symbol or picture on the computer screen that represents a command, a
file, a folder or a program.
iii) Menu: a dialog box that enables you to execute commands by selecting options from
a list.
iv) Desktop: a display area on the computer screen comprising background and icons. It
represents the workspace, the surface on which we communicate with the computer.
v) Window: a rectangular frame on the computer screen that can be move around or
resized.
vi) Button: a small circle or rectangular bar within a windowed dialog box that
represents a choice to be made.
vii)Dialog box: a small rectangular box displayed on a computer screen that conveys
information to, or requires a response from, the user.
b. Advantages of GUI
• It is user friendly
• It is accurate (when you click on a button the corresponding command is executed
unlike in the command line where one can make a mistake typing the command)
• It can be configured to suite the user’s preference
• It groups similar items together. It groups many commands in a single click
c. Disadvantages
• They require a lot of memory space to store the graphics, images, programs and files in
the RAM
• They require a high processing power
• A lot of disk space is needed to hold all the functions
• It is difficult to automate functions for subsequent use
3.5. Natural Language Interface
A natural language interface is one that allows the user to give verbal commands to the
computer. The user communicates with the computer through speech. It is also referred
to as conversational or speech recognition interface.

Functions Of OS
An operating system executes many functions to operate computer system efficiently.
Among them, four essential functions are the followings.
➢ Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer
hardware resources by using a variety of programs. It manages computer system
resources, including its CPU, primary memory, virtual memory, secondary storage
devices, input/output peripherals, and other devices.
➢ Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the running
of many tasks. It manages one program or many programs within a computer system
simultaneously. That is, this function of operating system manages the completion of
users' tasks. A task management program in an operating system provides each task and
interrupts the CPU operations to manage tasks efficiently. Task management may involve
a multitasking capability.
➢ File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system
contains file management programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter,
change, ask, and access of files of data. They also produce reports on a file.
➢ User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to interact
with a computer. A user interface program may include a combination of menus, screen
design, keyboard commands. A well-designed user interface is essential for an operating
system to be popular. Because of the function, users can load programs, access files, and
accomplish other tasks.

4. Software Distribution License

There are five types of software licenses: Public domain, freeware, shareware and all
rights reserved
✓ Public Domain License: Public domain software has no owner and is not protected
by copyright law. It was either created with public funds, or the ownership was forfeited
by the creator. Public domain software can be copied, sold, and/or modified. It is often is
of poor quality or unreliable.
✓ Freeware License: Freeware is copyrighted software that is licensed to be copied
and distributed without charge. Freeware is free, but it is still under the owner’s control.
Examples are Eudora Light and Netscape.
✓ Shareware License: A shareware software license allows you to use the software for
a trial period, but you must pay a registration fee to the owner for permanent use. Some
shareware trials expire on a certain date. Purchasing (the right to use) the software may
also get you a version with more powerful features and published documentation.
✓ Open Source License: Open source software is software whose source code is
published so that a variety of people can add contributions.
✓ All Rights Reserved License: All rights reserved licensed software may be used by
the purchaser according to the exact details spelled out in the license agreement.
 VARIOUS TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS ARE AVAILABLE FOR USE.
➢ Single-user OS A single user operating system is an operating system which allows
only one user to work on the system at a time. No two or multiple users can work on the
system simultaneously.
Examples are Control Program for Microcomputers (CP/M) and Microsoft Disk Operating
System (MS DOS).
➢ Multi-user OS A multi-user operating system is an operating system which allows
multiple users to work on the system simultaneously. This type of operating system is
larger and more complex than a single user operating system. Features of multi-user
operating systems, which are not provided in single user operating systems, are:
• Time sharing (CPU devotes time to all the users in round robin fashion).
• Tight security features.
• Resource sharing among users.
• System administrator privileges Examples of multi-user operating systems are Linux,
Unix and VMS.
➢ Multi-programming OS A multi-programming operating system is an operating
system that allows multiple programs to be held in main memory at the same time. The
concept of multi-programming is that the operating system keeps several jobs in memory
simultaneously and decides which can be executed at a given moment.
➢ Single task OS A single task operating system allows a user to execute one and only
program at a time. The user cannot run two or more programs at the same time. It is not
possible to be preparing a worksheet on the computer while printing a report or listening
to music. Once a user invokes a program, the computer gets dedicated to that task only.
CP/M and MS-DOS are examples of single user single task operating systems.
➢ Multi-tasking OS A multitasking operating system allows a user to execute more
than one program at a time. It allows a user to be preparing a worksheet on the computer
while printing a report or listening to music. Multitasking is an extension of
multiprogramming as two programs cannot be executed simultaneously if they are not
found in memory at the same time. Windows Me, Windows XP, Macintosh operating
system, OS/2 are examples of single user multitasking operating systems.
➢ Network Operating System A network operating system is an operating system
which includes networking features. A NOS contains special functions, protocols and
device drivers that enable the computer to be connected to a network. Examples of
network operating systems are Windows-NT, Windows-2000 server, Windows server
3000, Novell Netware and Artisoft LAN static.
➢ Embedded Operating System An embedded operating system is an operating
system that is used in an embedded system. An embedded system is a computer that
forms part of a larger machine of some other kind. They must usually be extremely
reliable. They must also respond to events in real time (i.e., as they happen) without
undue delay. Embedded systems control many devices in use today such as digital
watches MP3 players, mobile phones, microwaves, washing machines, vehicles and very
large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers or the systems
controlling nuclear power plants. Embedded OS are ROM based. That is, they cannot be
modified as ROM is read only.