+

William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,
NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and Computer
Evolution
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 Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
•Attributes of a system visible •Instruction set, number of
to the programmer bits used to represent various
•Have a direct impact on the data types, I/O mechanisms,
logical execution of a techniques for addressing
program memory

Architectural
Computer
attributes
Architecture
include:

Organizational
Computer
attributes
Organization
include:

•Hardware details transparent •The operational units and

to the programmer, control their interconnections that
signals, interfaces between realize the architectural
the computer and peripherals, specifications
memory technology used

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+
IBM System
370 Architecture
■ IBM System/370 architecture
■ Was introduced in 1970
■ Included a number of models
■ Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having to abandon
original software
■ New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain the same
architecture so that the customer’s software investment is protected
■ Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s mainframe
product line

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+
Function
■ There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
■ Data processing
■ Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of processing
requirements is broad
■ Data storage
■ Short-term
■ Long-term
■ Data movement
■ Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to a device
(peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer
■ Data communications – when data are moved over longer distances, to
or from a remote device
■ Control
■ A control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the
performance of its functional parts in response to instructions

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 Structure

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+
✦ CPU – controls the operation of the
computer and performs its data
There are four
processing functions
main structural
components ✦ Main Memory – stores data
of the computer:
✦ I/O – moves data between the
computer and its external
environment

✦ System Interconnection – some

mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O

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+ ■ Control Unit
CPU
■ Controls the operation of the CPU and
hence the computer
Major structural
■ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
components:
■ Performs the computer’s data processing
function

■ Registers
■ Provide storage internal to the CPU

■ CPU Interconnection
■ Some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control unit,
ALU, and registers

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+
Multicore Computer Structure

■ Central processing unit (CPU)

■ Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions
■ Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers
■ Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit

■ Core
■ An individual processing unit on a processor chip
■ May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system
■ Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores

■ Processor
■ A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores
■ Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions
■ Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores

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+
Cache Memory

■ Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main memory

■ Is smaller and faster than main memory

■ Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache data from

main memory that is likely to be used in the near future

■ A greater performance improvement may be obtained by using

multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the core and
additional levels (L2, L3, etc.) progressively farther from the core

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 +

Figure 1.3
Motherboard with Two Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors

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+
History of Computers
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

■ Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic elements and

memory
■ IAS computer
■ Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept
■ Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann
■ First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC
■ Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
■ Completed in 1952
■ Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+ Registers
Memory buffer register • Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
(MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit

Memory address register • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or read
(MAR) into the MBR

Instruction register (IR) • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

Instruction buffer register • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a word in
(IBR) memory

• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from

Program counter (PC) memory

Accumulator (AC) and • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU operations
multiplier quotient (MQ)

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 Table 1.1

The IAS
Instruction Set

(Table can be found on page 17 in the textbook.)

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+
History of Computers
Second Generation: Transistors
■ Smaller

■ Cheaper

■ Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

■ Is a solid state device made from silicon

■ Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947

■ It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized computers
were commercially available

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+
Table 1.2
Computer Generations

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Second Generation Computers

■ Introduced:
■ More complex arithmetic and logic units and control
units
■ The use of high-level programming languages
■ Provision of system software which provided the ability
to:
■ Load programs
■ Move data to peripherals
■ Libraries perform common computations

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 History of Computers
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

■ 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit

■ Discrete component
■ Single, self-contained transistor
■ Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or
wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards
■ Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome

■ The two most important members of the third generation were the
IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+ ■ A computer consists of gates,
Integrated memory cells, and interconnections
among these elements
Circuits
■ The gates and memory cells are
constructed of simple digital
■ Data storage – provided by electronic components
memory cells

■ Data processing – provided by

gates ■ Exploits the fact that such
components as transistors, resistors,
and conductors can be fabricated from
■ Data movement – the paths among a semiconductor such as silicon
components are used to move data
from memory to memory and from ■ Many transistors can be produced at
memory through gates to memory the same time on a single wafer of
silicon
■ Control – the paths among
components can carry control ■ Transistors can be connected with a
signals processor metallization to form
circuits

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
Moore’s Law
1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that could be put on

a single chip was doubling every year

Consequences of Moore’s law:

The pace slowed to a
doubling every 18
months in the 1970’s
but has sustained that The cost of
The electrical Computer becomes
computer logic Reduction in
rate ever since and memory
path length is smaller and is more
power and Fewer interchip
shortened, convenient to use in
circuitry has a variety of cooling connections
increasing
fallen at a environments requirements
operating speed
dramatic rate

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+
Microprocessors
■ The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
■ More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer
chips were needed to construct a single computer processor

■ 1971 Intel developed 4004

■ First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip
■ Birth of microprocessor

■ 1972 Intel developed 8008

■ First 8-bit microprocessor

■ 1974 Intel developed 8080

■ First general purpose microprocessor
■ Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(a) 1970s Processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(b) 1980s Processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(c) 1990s Processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(d) Recent Processors

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+
The Evolution of the Intel x86
Architecture
■ Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM architectures

■ Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of design effort

on complex instruction set computers (CISCs)

■ An alternative approach to processor design is the reduced instruction

set computer (RISC)

■ ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and

is one of the most powerful and best-designed RISC-based systems on
the market

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 Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel
Product Line:
8080 8086 80286 80386 80486
• World’s first • A more powerful • Extension of the • Intel’s first 32-bit • Introduced the use
general-purpose 16-bit machine 8086 enabling machine of much more
microprocessor • Has an instruction addressing a • First Intel sophisticated and
• 8-bit machine, cache, or queue, 16-MB memory processor to powerful cache
8-bit data path to that prefetches a instead of just support technology and
memory few instructions 1MB multitasking sophisticated
• Was used in the before they are instruction
first personal executed pipelining
computer (Altair) • The first • Also offered a
appearance of the built-in math
x86 architecture coprocessor
• The 8088 was a
variant of this
processor and
used in IBM’s
first personal
computer
(securing the
success of Intel

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Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel
Product Line:
Pentium
• Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in parallel

Pentium Pro
• Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow
analysis, and speculative execution

Pentium II
• Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently

Pentium III
•Incorporated additional floating-point instructions
•Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)

Pentium 4
• Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia

Core
• First Intel x86 micro-core

Core 2
• Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits
• Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip
• More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip
• An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set

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+
Embedded Systems
■ The use of electronics and software within a product

■ Billions of computer systems are produced each year that are

embedded within larger devices

■ Today many devices that use electric power have an embedded

computing system

■ Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to their

environment
■ This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by the need to
interact with the environment
■ Constraints such as required speeds of motion, required precision
of measurement, and required time durations, dictate the timing
of software operations
■ If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously this imposes
more complex real-time constraints

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Embedded Application Processors
Operating versus
Systems Dedicated Processors

■ There are two general approaches ■ Application processors

to developing an embedded ■ Defined by the processor’s ability to
execute complex operating systems
operating system (OS):
■ General-purpose in nature
■ Take an existing OS and adapt it ■ An example is the smartphone – the
for the embedded application embedded system is designed to support
numerous apps and perform a wide
■ Design and implement an OS variety of functions
intended solely for embedded
use ■ Dedicated processor
■ Is dedicated to one or a small number of
specific tasks required by the host
device
■ Because such an embedded system is
dedicated to a specific task or tasks, the
processor and associated components
can be engineered to reduce size and
cost

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Deeply Embedded Systems
■ Subset of embedded systems

■ Has a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe both by the programmer

and the user

■ Uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor

■ Is not programmable once the program logic for the device has been burned into
ROM

■ Has no interaction with a user

■ Dedicated, single-purpose devices that detect something in the environment,

perform a basic level of processing, and then do something with the results

■ Often have wireless capability and appear in networked configurations, such as

networks of sensors deployed over a large area

■ Typically have extreme resource constraints in terms of memory, processor size,

time, and power consumption

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 ARM

Refers to a processor architecture that has evolved from RISC

design principles and is used in embedded systems

Family of RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers

designed by ARM Holdings, Cambridge, England

Chips are high-speed processors that are known for their small die
size and low power requirements

Probably the most widely used embedded processor architecture and

indeed the most widely used processor architecture of any kind in
the world

Acorn RISC Machine/Advanced RISC Machine

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+
ARM Products

Cortex-M
• Cortex-M0
Cortex-R • Cortex-M0+
• Cortex-M3
Cortex-A/Corte • Cortex-M4
x-A50

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