Unit 4

Static and Current Electricity

Part 1 Static Electricity

Charges in Nature

Charge

Electric charge can be defined as a fundamental property of subatomic particles that gives rise to
the phenomenon of experiencing force in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. These
fields exert influence on charged particles, resulting in observable effects.

Electric charge comes in two main types: positive and negative charges. Positive charges are
associated with protons, which are subatomic particles residing in the nucleus of an atom. They
are represented by the symbol “+”. On the other hand, negative charges are linked to electrons,
which orbit the atomic nucleus and are denoted by the symbol “-“.

Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles. In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by
electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the nuclei of atoms. If there are more
electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it
will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral.

Unit of Charge

The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C). 1 coulomb is the quantity of charge in 6.24 x
1018 electrons. You know that an electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6×10−19 C. In
electrostatics, you often work with charge in micro coulombs (1µC = 1×10−6 C) and nano
coulombs (1nC = 1×10−9 C).

Properties of Electric Charges

 There are two types of electric charges: Positive charge which is carried by subatomic
particles called protons and Negative charge which is carried by subatomic particles
called electrons

 Opposite charges, such as positive and negative, attract each other, while like charges, such
as positive and positive or negative and negative, repel each other.
 Conservation of Charge: In an isolated system, electric charge is conserved. This means
that the total electric charge within the system remains constant over time. The algebraic sum
of all the charges present in the system remains the same.

 Electric charge is quantized. Electric charge comes in discrete, indivisible units called
elementary charges. This quantization of charge implies that electric charge cannot be
divided into smaller parts. Thus, an object's charge can be exactly 0 e, or exactly 1 e, −1 e,
2 e, etc., but not e, or −3.8 e, etc.

o According to the quantization of electric charge, Electric charges are defined as the Integral
multiple of the charge present on them, hence, in any system, The charges will be,

Q = ne

Where, n = Integer numbers

e = value of the charge ( 1.6× 10-19 C)

Positive charges or protons have a charge of +1.6 × 10-19 Coulomb.

Negative charges or Electrons have a charge of -1.6 × 10-19 Coulomb.

 Additivity of Electric Charges: Electric charges when they are considered as point charges
are scalar in nature. With that, it is important to note that charges can be point charges, but
they are still positive and negative charges. The additive property of electric charges says that
if there are n numbers of charges present inside, The total charge present will be the algebraic
sum of the individual charges.

o Q = q1+ q2+ q3+….. qn

Methods of Charging a Body

Charging is the process of electrifying bodies, i.e., removing from or adding charges to a body.

The following are the different methods of charging a body:

i. Charging by rubbing
ii. Charging by conduction
iii. Charging by induction
Charging by rubbing

Charging by rubbing occurs when two different neutral materials are rubbed together and electric
charges are transferred from one object to the other. Some materials are more likely to attract
extra electrons (example silk) and become negatively charged while others are more likely to
give electrons (example glass and ebonite rod) and become positively charged. This is because
some kinds of atoms are more strongly attracted to electrons than others.

For example, when a plastic rod is rubbed with a piece of cloth, electrons are transferred from
the rod to the cloth. As a result, the rod becomes positively charged and the cloth becomes
negatively charged.

Note: Charging by rubbing leaves the two bodies with opposite sign of charges

Charging by Conduction

The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing it in contact with another charged
object is called charging by conduction.

A charged object has unequal number of negative (electrons) and positive charges (protons).
Hence, when a charged object is brought in contact with the uncharged conductor, the electrons
get transferred from charged object to the conductor.

Consider an uncharged metal rod A kept on an insulating stand and a negatively charged
conductor B as shown in below figure (1).
If we touch the uncharged conductor A with the negatively charged conductor B, transfer of
electrons from charged conductor to uncharged conductor takes place. Hence, uncharged
conductor gains extra electrons and charged conductor loses electrons. Thus, uncharged
conductor A becomes negatively charged by gaining of extra electrons.

Similarly, uncharged conductor becomes positively charged if it is brought in contact with

positively charged conductor.

Note: Charging by conduction leaves the charged body and the uncharged body with the
same sign of charge but weaker in strength than the original object.

Charging by induction

The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged object near to it, but
not touching it, is called charging by induction.

Consider an uncharged metal sphere and negatively charged plastic rod as shown in below figure
(1). If we bring the negatively charged plastic rod near to uncharged sphere as shown in below
fig (2), charge separation occurs.
The positive charges in the sphere get attracted towards the plastic rod and move to one end of
the sphere that is closer to the plastic rod. Similarly, negative charges get repelled from the
plastic rod and move to another end of the sphere that is farther away from the plastic rod. Thus,
the charges in the sphere rearrange themselves in a way that all the positive charges are nearer to
the plastic rod and all the negative charges are farther away from it.

If this sphere is connected to a ground through the wire as shown in fig (3), free electrons of the
sphere at farther end flow to the ground. Thus, the sphere becomes positively charged by
induction. If the plastic rod is removed as shown in fig (4) all the positive charges spread
uniformly in the sphere.

Note: Charging by induction leaves the charged body and the uncharged body with the
opposite sign of charge.

Electroscope

An electroscope is a scientific device that is used to detect the presence of an electric charge on a
body. In the year 1600, British physician William Gilbert invented the first electroscope with a
pivoted needle called versorium.

Electroscope detects the charge based on the Coulomb electrostatic force which causes the
motion of test charge. An electroscope can be regarded as a crude voltmeter as the electric
charge of an object is equal to its capacitance. An instrument that is used to measure the charge
quantitatively is known as an electrometer.

Working of Electroscope

The working principle of an electroscope is based on the atomic structure of elements, charge
induction, the internal structure of metal elements and the idea that like charges repel each other
while unlike charges attract each other.

An electroscope is made up of a metal detector knob on top, which is connected to a pair of

metal leaves hanging from the bottom of the connecting rod. When no charge is present, the
metal leaves hang loosely downward. But, when an object with a charge is brought near an
electroscope, one of the two things can happen.

 When the charge is positive, electrons in the metal of the electroscope are attracted to the
charge and move upward out of the leaves. This results in the leaves having a temporary
 positive charge, and because like charges repel, the leaves separate. When the charge is
removed, the electrons return to their original positions, and the leaves relax.

 When the charge is negative, the electrons in the metal of the electroscope repel and move
toward the leaves on the bottom. This causes the leaves to gain a temporary negative charge,
and because like charges repel, the leaves again separate. Then when the charge is removed,
the electrons return to their original position, and the leaves relax.

An electroscope responds to the presence of a charge by moving electrons either into or away
from the leaves. In both cases, the leaves separate. It is important to note that the electroscope
cannot determine if the charged object is positive or negative – it is only responding to the
presence of an electrical charge.

Types of electroscope

There are two classical types of electroscopes, and they are as follows:

 Pith-ball electroscope: Pith-ball electroscope was invented by John Canton in the year 1754.
It consists of one or two small light balls that are a lightweight, non-conductive substance
called pith. To find if the object is charged or not, it is brought near an uncharged pith ball. If
the ball gets attracted to the object, it means the object is charged.
Figure 1: The Pith ball electroscope from the 1870s showing attraction to a charged particle

 Gold-leaf electroscope: Gold-leaf electroscope was developed by Abraham Bennet in the

year 1787, which is more sensitive than pith-ball electroscope. It consists of a vertical metal
rod with two parallel strips of a thin, flexible gold leaf hanging from it. To prevent the gold
leaf from drafts of air, it is kept in a glass bottle. The gold leaves spread apart into an
inverted “V” when a charged object is brought near to it.

Figure 2: Gold Leaf Electroscope showing electrostatic induction

Uses of electroscope

Following are the uses of electroscope:

 It is used to detect the static charges

 The nature of electric charges can be determined using an electroscope
 The magnitudes of two different charges can be compared using an electroscope
4.4 Electrical Discharge

There is a technique of removing the excess electric charges from the charged object. This
process of removing electric charges from a charged body is called discharging. A charged body
can be made to lose its charges by touching it with a conductor. When a body is discharged, it
becomes neutral.

Key Concept: Once an object is charged, the charges are trapped on it until they are given a path
to escape. When electric charges are transferred very quickly, the process is called an electrical
discharge. Sparks are an example of electrical discharge

Lightning (assignment)

i. Explain what causes the lightning that is associated with a thunderstorm.

ii. What is grounding?

4.5 Coulomb’s law of electrostatics

Electrostatic Force

The electrostatic force is the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged particles. It is
also called Coulomb’s force or Coulomb’s interaction. The Coulomb attraction would be named
after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, a French scientist. . For example, the force between the
protons and electrons in an atom is electrostatic and is responsible for the atom’s stability. In
chemistry, the electrostatic bonding force is important and binds an ionic molecule.

Electrostatic forces are non-contact forces; they pull or push on objects without touching them.
Coulomb’s law of electrostatics

Coulomb's inverse-square law, or simply Coulomb's law, is an experimental law of physics that
calculates the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest. This electric
force is conventionally called electrostatic force or Coulomb force. Although the law was known
earlier, it was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.
Coulomb's law was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism and maybe
even its starting point, as it allowed meaningful discussions of the amount of electric charge in a
particle.

The law states that the magnitude, or absolute value, of the attractive or repulsive
electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to the squared distance between them.

Thus, F ∝ q1q2 And, F ∝ 1/r2

Therefore, we can say that

Where: k is the constant for proportionality or coulomb constant, it presents the vacuum’s ability
to store electric energy.

The electrostatic force is a vector quantity and is expressed in units of newton. The force is
understood to be along the line joining the two charges.

Figure: The magnitude of the electrostatic force F between point charges q1 and q2 separated by a
distance r is given by Coulomb’s law. Note that Newton’s third law (every force exerted creates
an equal and opposite force) applies as usual the force on q1 is equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction to the force it exerts on q2. (a) Like charges. (b) Unlike charges.

4.6 Electric Fields

A field, in physics, is a physical quantity whose value depends on (is a function of) position,
relative to the source of the field.

An electric field (sometimes E-field) is the physical field that surrounds electrically charged
particles. Charged particles exert attractive forces on each other when their charges are opposite,
and repulsion forces on each other when their charges are the same. Because these forces are
exerted mutually, 2 charges must be present for the forces to take place. The electric field of a
single charge (or group of charges) describes their capacity to exert such forces on another
charged object. These forces are described by Coulomb's Law, which says that the greater the
magnitude of the charges, the greater the force, and the greater the distance between them, the
weaker the force. Thus, we may informally say that the greater the charge of an object, the
stronger its electric field. Similarly, the electric field is stronger nearer charged objects and
weaker further away. Electric fields originate from electric charges and time-varying electric
currents.

The direction of any electric field vector is the same as the direction of the electric force vector
that the field would apply to a positive test charge placed in that field. Such a charge would be
repelled by positive source charges (the force on it would point away from the positive source
charge) but attracted to negative charges (the force points toward the negative source).

Electric field lines

Electric field lines may be considered as a visual representation of the electric field existing
between or for a charge itself. It was introduced by Michael Faraday in the year (1791-1867)
who named them lines of force. A field basically is a function that specifies a particular quantity
everywhere in a region.

Electric field lines are imaginary lines in a region of space-time along which a free charge would
move if allowed to do so. This means that electric field lines or lines of force are a visual
representation of the electric field in a region, which exists between two charges.

When we say electric fiel2d lines, it gives us means of representing the electric field pictorially.
By looking into the electric field lines, its magnitude, orientation, and other properties can be
evaluated. As shown in the below figure electric field lines exist between positive and negative
charges. The lines of forces are directed outwards for positive charge and inwards for a negative
charge. The arrow represents the direction of the force. The magnitude can also be considered
based on a number of arrows and density around the charge. In other words, a number of lines or
arrows are proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in a particular region.

A B

C D

E F
Figure: Electric field lines of (a) a positive point charge, (b) a negative point charge, (c) two
equal positive charges, (d) a uniform field of oppositely charged parallel plat (e) two equal
positive charges and (f) two equal negative charges.

Properties of electric field lines

 The field lines never intersect or cross each other.

 The field lines are perpendicular to the surface of the charge.
 The magnitude of charge and the number of field lines are proportional to each other.
 Field lines originate at a positive charge and terminate at a negative charge.
 The lines of force bend together when particles with unlike charges attract each other. The
lines bend apart when particles with like charges repel each other.

Electric Field Strength

The electric field strength at any point in space, E is equal to the force per unit charge exerted on
a positive test charge.

Mathematically,

Thus, E is a vector. If q is positive, the electric field E has the same direction as the force acting
on the charge. If q is negative, the direction of E is opposite to that of the force F. On the other
hand, the SI unit of electric field is Newton per Coulomb (N/C ).

Electric field strength due to a point charge

In order to measure the electric field in a given region, you introduce a test charge and measure
the force on it. However, you should realize that the test charge qo exerts forces on the charge
that produce the field, so it may change the configuration of the charges.

Since the electric field is force per unit charge, you divide the force by the charge qo to obtain
the field due to q at the location of qo. That is

The above equation gives the field arising due to the charge q at any location which is at a
distance r from q. The direction of the field is taken as the direction of the force which is exerted
on the positive charge. Thus, the electric field is radially outwards from a positive charge and
radially in towards a negative point charge.

Just like the electric force, an electric field also obeys the superposition principle. Therefore, the
field at a given point due to two or more charges is the vector sum of the fields of individual
charges.

Example

1. What is the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on a 3.50µ C charge by a 250 N/C
electric field that points due east?
2. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field 2.00 m from a point charge of 5.00 mC.