INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS PLANT

A process plant is defined as a complete Set of process unit and direct Supporting infrastructure
required to provide total operational function to product or products.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CODE AND STANDARD

CODES

It is Set of rules &regulation required for the safer design, construction &erection of a plant.

The failure of implementation of code can be challenged by the law.

Codes Provides.

i. Design calculation such as pipe thickness reinforcement, supports span & allowable stresses
for different material which is required for a safer plant.
ii. It provides a safer working site for employee.
iii. Application of code which minimizes the shutdown of a plant & hence minimizing the financial
loses.

STANDARDS

It is also called as dimensional standards used for maintaining dimensional uniformity throughout
the world.

SCOPE OF PIPING IN PROJECTS

i. Oil & Gas Industries.

ii. Hydrocarbon Industries.
iii. Power Sector.
iv. Paper Industry
v. Alcohol Industry.
vi. Chemical Industry.
vii. Food & Beverage Industry.
viii. Mining Industry. Etc…..
• To convey oil, gas and other thuds in refineries petrochemical plant, oil producing offshore
platforms etc…..
• To carry liquids, chemicals, gases, vapors etc. from one location to another in chemical
plants, paper mills food processing plants and other similar industrial establishments.
• To convey high pressure and high temperature steam in a thermal power plant.

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 • To transport water from sources of water supply to points of distributor.

PLANT PIPING SYSTEM AND TRANSPORTATION PIPELINES.

PIPING SYSTEM

It carries Fluids from & to various equipment within a plant boundary.

• Fluids like oil, gas etc. flows between various equipments within a refinery.
• Piping Network within a chemical plant, Petrochemical plant, power plant etc.

PIPELINES

Transport Fluids from one Facility to another facility.

• Crude oil from an offshore platform is transported to an onshore refinery through

a Sub-sea pipelines.
• By products from a refinery is transported to a petrochemical plant through Pipeline.
• Crude oil from one country or state can be transported to another country or state
through pipeline.

DEFINITION & APPLICATION OF PIPE

PIPE

Pipe is a cylindrical object use to transfer fluid from one end to another end or from one area to
another area. It can be made of metals or non metals.
SMALL BORE

Pipes having size range” ½ - 1 ½ “ are termed as small bore.

BIG BORE

Pipes having size range 2” & above are termed as big bore.

DIFFERENCE BEWTEEN PIPE AND TUBES

S/N PIPES TUBES

Tubes are specified by outside diameter.
1. Pipes is specified by Nominal Bore (NB).
Wall thickness in expressed in BWG
2. Wall thickness is expressed in schedule.
( Birmingham wire gauge).
Available in small bore as well as big bore. Available in small Bore only.
3.
Generally used in tracing lines, tubes for
Used in all process & utilities line.
4. exchanger & in instrument connection.

The outside dia of pipe up to size 12" are Outside dia of tubes are numerically
5. numerically larger than corresponding size Eq.ual to the corresponding sides.

PIPE DESIGNATIONS

Pipe is identified by three different size categories:

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS)

outside diameter (OD)

inside diameter (ID)

Nominal pipe size (NPS)

It is a dimensionless designator of pipe size. It indicates standard pipe size when followed by the
specific size designation number without an inch symbol.

• ASME Standards for Pipe Dimension

• ASME B36.10M Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
• ASME B36.19M Stainless Steel Pipe

Diameter nominal (DN)

It is also a dimensionless designator of pipe size in the metric unit system, developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO). It indicates standard pipe size when followed by the
specific size designation number without an millimeter symbol.

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IRON PIPE SIZE (IPS)

IPS is the pipe representation which represents the inner dia of pipe and here the outer dia will be
fixed. It is used for above 12” pipes.

PIPE WALL THICKNESS & SCHEDULE

Pipe Wall Thickness is designated by schedule is expressed in numbers

• Pipe schedule for carbon steel (CS) and Alloy steel (AS)

(5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160).

Standard

XS – extra strong

XXS – double extra strong

• Pipe schedule for stainless steel (SS)

(5S, 10S, 40S, 80S, 160S).

SCHEDULE

The pipe thickness is designated by schedule no: and the corresponding thickness is specified in
the ASME B 36,10 for carbon steel pipe & ASME B 36.19 for stainless steel pipes. Stainless steel
pipe are available in schedule 5S, 10S, 40S, 80S Carbon steel pipes are available in schedule
10,20,30,40,60,80,100,120,140.160,STD,XS,XXS

PIPE LENGTHS

Pipe available as per length

The terms use to designate the length of steel pipe are SRL and DRL.
SRL (Single Random Length)

SRL means that the pipe has any random size between 5 – 7 meters. Generally pipe below
to inch in dia meter are manufacture with SRL.

DRL (Double random Length)

It means that the pipe has any random size between 11 – 13 meters. Pipe above 2” in dia
meter are available in DRL.

PIPE GRADES
ASTM & ASME pipe designation for grades of Steel are very similar

For example: A 106B is a Specification Published by ASTM (The ASME Specification would be
SA 106B).
The "A" designates ferrous materials. "106" is an arbitrary number that designates it as a
seamless Carbon Steel for high-temp service.

PIPE ENDS
Pipe ends can be supplied in several variations, these are the most commonly specified within
ASME B31.3 are

1. Plain end (PE), usually use for pipe 2" and below.
2. Threaded end (TE), usually use for pipe 2" & below
3. Butt weld (BW) or weld end.

Plain end pipe is simply a cut 90° perpendicular to the outside diameter of the pipe that passes
through the centerline of the pipe to the opposite side. It is also called a square cut, because of
the 90° angle. Plain end pipe can be re-prepared to form either threaded or butt-weld ends.
A threaded end joint also has a specific geometry, depending on the wall thickness of the pipe. A
butt-weld (or weld-end) joint also has specific geometry depending on the wall thickness of pipe,
and this is specified in ASME B16.25

METHOD OF JOINING PIPES.

1. WELD CONNECTION

(a) BUTT WELD CONNECTION:

A butt-weld joint is made by welding the beveled ends of pipe together. Beveled ends (BE)
indicate that the ends of the pipe are not cut square, but rather are cut or ground to have a
tapered edge. In preparation for the welding process, a welder will separate two pieces of pipe by
a 1/16" space, known as a root gap.

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During the welding process, the two ends are drawn together and the 1/16" gap disappears. In
small pipes butt weld causes problems for flow.

ADVANTAGES

• Most economical method of joining big bore lines.

• Joint is leak proof.
• Joint can be radiographed.

DISADVANTAGES

• Weld intrusion will affect the flow.

• End preparation is necessary.

(b) SOCKET WELD CONNECTION:

When assembling pipe with socket-weld fittings, the pipe is inserted into the fitting before welding,
unlike a butt-weld connection that has the pipe and fitting placed end-to-end. Inside the socket-
weld fitting is a collar that prevents the pipe from being inserted too deeply into the fitting.

ADVANTAGES

• Alignment is easier than butt welded.

• No intrusion of weld metal inside the pipe.
• Leak proof joint
• Generally used to connect small bore lines.
DISADVANTAGES

• The 1 1/16 recess pocket.

• Not suitable when service fluid is corrosive in nature.
• Not suitable when vibration is anticipated.

2. SCREWED OR THREADED CONNECTION

Typically used on pipe 3" and smaller, threaded connections are generally referred to as screwed
pipe, With tapered grooves cut into the ends of a run of pipe, screwed pipe and screwed fittings
can easily be assembled without welding or other permanent means of attachment. Screwed pipe
and its mating fittings will have threads that are either male or female. Male threads are cut into
the outside of a pipe or fitting, while female threads are cut into the inside of the fitting.

ADVANTAGES

• Easy to made it at site.

• Can be used where welding is prohibited due to fire hazard.
• Generally used to connect small bore lines.

DISADVANTAGES

• Leak proof joint cannot be guaranteed.

• Not suitable when service fluid is corrosive in nature.
• Not suitable when vibration is anticipated.
• Not suitable when operating temperature is above 925 F.
• Thread reduces the wall thickness, consequently reducing the strength.

3. FLANGED CONNECTION

Flanged joints are a mechanical, nonpermanent method of joining two flanged piping components
and one of the most commonly used methods of joining together pipe to pipe, pipe to fitting, and
pipe to valve. It is a mechanical joint that, if assembled correctly, using the correct components
and the right bolting procedure, results in a leak free connection that can be dismantled and
reasse33mbled, if necessary. A flange is an integral fitting with two distinct areas; the flange blade
with the bolt holes and the sealing face. The flange hub with the pipe connection ends.

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ADVANTAGES

• Easy to made it at site.

• Can be used where welding is prohibited due to fire hazard.
• Dismantling is very easy.

DISADVANTAGES

• Leak proof joint cannot be guaranteed.

• It’s an expensive method of joining pipes.
• Not suitable when high bending moment is anticipated.

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE.

Carbon steel pipe can be manufactured using several different techniques, each of which
produces a pipe with certain characteristics. These characteristics include strength, wall thickness,
corrosion resistance, and temperature and pressure limitations. For example, pipes having the
same wall thickness but manufactured by different methods may vary in strength and pressure
limits.

The manufacturing methods are given below

• Seamless
• Butt-welded
• Spiral-welded pipe

SEAMLESS PIPE
It is formed by piercing a solid, near-molten, steel rod, called a billet, with a mandrel to
Produce a pipe that has no seams or joints.

E=1.0 [joint efficiency factor]

There are no welding joints involve in pipe manufacturing process. This pipes are used for
category 'M' fluids like high pressure, high temperature toxic and flammable & hazardous Field.
Pipes are manufactured upto 14'.

BUTT-WELDED PIPE

Longitudinally welded pipe is created by feeding hot steel plate through shapers that roll the plate
into a hollow circular section. The two edges of the pipe are squeezed together and welded.
Welding can be two types

Electric Resistance Welding (ERW)

The edges of the pipe are heated to the welding temperature by their resistance to the flow of
electric current. At the appropriate welding temperature, roller forces the edges together. ERW is
not strong as EFW. It is cheaper compared to the other. This type of welding is used in water
service pipe. Quality factor E is 0.85 for ERW.

If the method of joining is passing high voltage is called ERW.

Electric Fusion Welding (EFW)

Welding of CS and low alloy steel is accomplished by submerged arc welding, an automatic
electric arc process is used with the filler metal coming from the electrode supplying the electric
arc. This welding is more strong compared to ERW. factor E is 1 for EFW if 100% RT is done

The joint efficiency factor E depends on the types of inspection then for the weld joint this pipes
are also called seam pipe.

Joint Efficiency factor

E =0.8 for No Radiography

for spot Radiography = 0.9

for 100%. Radiography = 1.0

Category M Fluids

• Those Fluids which harm the human body

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SPIRAL-WELDED PIPE

Spiral-welded pipe is formed by twisting strips of metal into a spiral shape, similar to a barber's
pole, then welding where the edges join one another to form a seam. This type of pipe is restricted
to piping systems using low pressures due to its thin walls.

the chance of leakage is more these pipes a used For slurry , waste water , Sea water where
leakage is permitted .these pipes are also called spiral welded pipe.

used, for 8" and above.

.OVERVIEW OF AN ENGINEERING DESIGNORGANIZATION

ROLE OF PIPING ENGINEER.

• Design
• Construction
• Commissioning
• Operation

RESPONSIBILITY OF PIPING ENGINEER.

• Piping engineer is responsible for accurate design
• Piping design must satisfy the P&ID & specification constraints.
• Standardization of engineering design method.
• To achieve adequate design at an economic cost.
• To co-ordinate with other departments.
• Co-ordination with the site.
• Much of the piping data is used by other engineering group so it must be correct, clear,
consistent & reliable.
• To complete the project within the planned completion period.

WHAT PIPING ENGINEERING SHOULD KNOW ABOUT.

• A piping engineer should have good knowledge about industrial process, mechanical, civil,
electrical & instrumentation so as to discuss & understand the problem with the specialist.
• A piping engineer should have good knowledge of materials.
• A piping engineer should have good understanding of engineering economics & cost of
method of pipe fabrication & erection.
• A piping engineer should have good knowledge of international codes & standards.
• Piping engineer should be well conversant with drafting procedures & practices.
• A piping engineer should have good knowledge of safety code and practices.
• A piping engineer should have good knowledge of Metallurgy.

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 • Sufficient knowledge of structural engineering since the piping systems has to be properly
designed & supported so as to avoid any overstresses, forces and movements on the
connected equipments like pumps, compressors, vessels etc on the supporting structures
or on the piping system itself.

INPUTS TO PIPING

• PFD, P&ID, Process description, Line list, Equipment list, Site data, Licensor etc.
• Instrument & cable tray width on pipe rack.
• Equipment data sheet.
• Anchor bolt drawing.
• Civil information drawings.
• Vendor drawing of package drawings
• Architectural drawings of all process & non-process buildings.
• Instrument hook-up drawing.
• HVAC ducting layout.

OUTPUT FROM PIPING

• Plot plan
• Piping material class
• Equipment layout
• General, arrangement of pipe rack.
• Civil in Formation drawings
• Piping layout.
• Support layout.
• Nozzle orientation drawing.
• Vessel cleats location drawings,
• Isometric drawings.
• M.T.O

LEGEND

A document used to define symbols, abbreviations, prefixes, and specialized equipment

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INTRODUCTION TO PIPING

Piping System in an Industrial Plant is similar to the Arteries & Veins of Human Body. Piping is
used for marine, transportation, civil engineering and for commercial purposes. Process piping is
used to transport fluids between storage tanks and processing urfits. Service piping is used to
convey steam, air, water etc for processing. Liquids, Vapors, Slurries, Solids etc. flow through a
Piping System under Various Conditions (Pressure, Temperature etc.) depending on the Industry
Service. The piping System are an essential and integral part of our modern civilization as arteries
and veins are essential to the human body.

TYPICAL SERVICE CONDITIONS

Piping Network is subjected to various server conditions such as:

• High Temperature
• Cryogenic Zero) Temperature
• High pressure
• Low pressure (Vacuum)
• High Flow velocity
• Erosion
• Corrosion
• Hazardous Toxic Substances

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 • Combination of Above Conditions

Depending on the Criticality of the Service Conditions, Piping System has to be designed to
withstand the process conditions.

IMPACT OF PIPING ON PLANT INVESTMENT

(TYPICAL FOR REFINERY, PETROCHEMICALS. AND CHEMICAL PLANT ETC)

MATERIAL COST

It can be seen that excluding the major equipment cost. piping is the largest plant cost
Component

DESIGN OFFICE MAN HOURS

Typically, 45% of the total design office man hours will be for Engineering design and 50% of the
engineering man hours will be consumed by piping department

FIELD LABOUR COST

It can be seen that 47% of the field Labor cost (Fabrication & Erection) is attributed to Piping.
RESPONSIBILITY OF A PIPING ENGINEER

• Completion of Piping activities on time is critical to completion of the project in time.

• Piping Engineer is responsible for substantial part of total project cost.
• A piping Engineer should pay specific attention to the following aspects.

ADEQUACY

Piping design must be adequate to meet the process specification & Physical conditions

in which the plant is to operate.

ECONOMY

Adequate design must be achieved at an Economic cost with in the project budget. Design
should be optimized to minimize the overall project cost as well as operations & Maintenance
costs of the facility

CLARITY ACCURACY
Piping Engineer has to Interact with various other departments like process, Mechanical. civil
Structural, instrumentation, electrical Piping Engineer will require data from many or all of the
above departments to carry out his design similarly Piping design data will be used by various
departments to finalize their design. Hence clarity &accuracy of piping design works is very
important to avoid mistakes and rectifications at a later stage which many prove to be very costly
and can delay the project completion

PIPING CODES & STANDARDS

The integrity of a piping system depends on the considerations and principles used in design,
construction and maintenance of the system.

Piping systems are made of many components as pipes, flanges, supports, gaskets, bolts, valves,

strainers, flexible and expansion joints.

The components can be made in a variety of materials, in different types and sizes and may be
manufactured to common national standards or according a manufacturers proprietary item. Some
companies even publish their own internal piping standards based upon national and industry

sector standards.

Piping codes and standards from standardization organizations as ANSI, ASME, ISO, DIN and
others, are the most common used in pipes and piping systems specifications.

The difference between piping codes and piping standards can be defined as:

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Piping Codes :- Piping codes defines the requirements of design, fabrication, use of materials,
tests and inspection of pipes and piping systems.

Piping Standards:- Piping standards define application design and construction rules and
requirements

for piping components as flanges, elbows, tees, valves etc.

Each country has its own codes & standards but American National Standards is most widely
used & excepted all over world.

Following table lists some of the major organization for standards.

List of some American standards referred by Piping engineers.

The American National standard Institute. (ANSI)

The American Society for Testing & Materials. (ASTM)

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

The American Petroleum Institute. (API)

The American Iron & Steel Institute. (AISI)

The American welding Society. (AWS)

The Manufacturers Standardization Society of valves & fitting industry-standard practice.

(MSS-SP)

PIPING COMPONENTS

To connect the various process and utility equipment contained within a process plant, it is
necessary to use an assortment of piping components that, when used collectively, are

called a piping system. It conveys fluid between locations.

Piping system includes:

• Pipe
• Fittings (e.g. elbows, reducers, branch connections, etc.) • Flanges, gaskets, bolting
• Valves
• Pipe supports

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PIPE

It is a tubular item made of metal, plastic, glass etc meant for conveying liquids, gas or any thing
that flow. Pipe is the main artery that connects the various of process and utility equipment within
a process plant. Although it can be considered to be the least complex component within a piping
system it is not without its peculiarities. Pipe used within a process plant designed to one of the
ASME B31 codes generally is of a metallic construction such as carbon steel, stainless steel,
duplex, or to a lesser degree, one of the more exotic metals like Monel or titanium. Nonmetallic
pipe such as one of the plastics, like PVC, glass epoxy, or glass-reinforced plastic, are not
prohibited, and each has its own set of characteristics. Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is a plastic
reinforced by fine fibers of glass. The plastic most commonly used is polyester or vinyl ester, but
other plastics, such as epoxy, can be used to make glass-reinforced epoxy (GRE). As metallic
pipe is by far the most commonly used material used in a piping system Circular in shape, pipe is
identified in the various industry codes, standards, and specifications as a nominal pipe size
(NPS), in U.S. customary units, or in diameter nominal (DN) metric units, with a wall thickness.

Cast pipe

Cast-Iron Pipe. There are four basic types of cast iron: white iron, gray iron, ductile iron and
malleable iron. is used primarily in gravity flow applications such as storm and sanitary sewers,
and waste and vent piping installations Residential, commercial, and industrial facilities routinely
are built with some form of gravity flow systems. The corrosion resistance properties of cast iron
pipe make it the ideal product for permanent belowground gravity flow installations. Cast-iron pipe
is extensively used for underlying water, sewage, and gas distribution Systems because of its long
life expectancy.

PIPE NOTATION

Pipe can be represented on drawings as either single line or double line. Pipe 12" and smaller is
typically drawn single line and pipe 14" and larger is drawn double line. Single line drawings are
used to identify the centerline of the pipe Double lines are used to represent the pipe's nominal
size diameter.
Schedule-Number Selection

After calculating “T the nominal wall thickness which is required for design conditions, one can
order the pipes provided the quantity is large enough for special rolling. Otherwise, as per ANSI
B36.10 for Carbon steel and ANSI B36.19 for stainless steel Pipes are readily available in various
thickness specified by their schedule numbers It is recommended to make use of these standard
pipe thicknesses, which are available. Schedule number selected should have nominal thickness
equal or greater than the

calculated nominal thickness required for design condition.

PIPE FITTINGS

Pipe fitting components complement straight pipe, and within a piping system, both must be
chemically and mechanically compatible Pipe fitting components are used for one or
more functions:

• Produce change in geometry

• Modify flow direction
• Bring pipes together
• Alter pipe diameter
• Terminate pipe

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1. ELBOW
• 90° ELBOW
• 45° ELBOW
• 90° ROLLED AT 45°
• MITERED ELBOWS
• REDUCING ELBOWS
2. TEE
• STRAGHT TEE
• REDUCING TEE
• CROSSE TEE
3. THE STUB-IN CONNECTINS
4. COUPLING
5. REDUCER
• CONCENTRIC REDUCER
• ECCENTRIC REDUCER
6. WELD CAP
7. SCREWED AND SOCKET-WELD UTIONS FITTINGS
• UNIONS
• PLUGS
• COUPLING
8. PIPE NIPPLES
9. SWAGE
1. ELBOW

Simply put, the elbow, or ell, is used when a pipe changes direction. Elbows can turn up,

turn down, turwen left, right, or any angle in between

• 90° elbow
• 45° elbow
• 90° rolled at 45°

90° ELBOW

Ninety degree ells can be classified as follows

• long-radius ell
• short-radius ell
• mitered ell
• reducing ell

Long-radius elbow

Nominal pipe size x 11/2 = fitting's length.

Manufacturers issue dimensioning charts containing lengths for a particular fitting.

ELBOWS. Based on end connection elbows are of following types.

• Batt-welded elbow.
• Socket elbow,
• Threaded elbow.

➢ Available in 90 & 45 elbows.

➢ Available in short radius Long radius
pattern.
➢ Available as reducing elbow.

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Short-radius elbow
The 90°short-radius ell makes a much shaper turn does the long-radius ell.
Nominal pipe size x 1 = fitting’s length.
MITERED ELBOWS

The mitered elbow is not an actual fitting, but instead is a manufactured turn system. This elbow is
made by making angular cuts in a straight run of pipe and then welding the cuts together after
they have been rolled to a different angle. The mitered ell may be classified as one, two, three, or
four weld miters. The number of welds used depends on the smoothness of flow required turn. A
two weld miter will create more turbulence within the pipe than will a four-weld miter.

Miter bends are not standard fittings they are fabricated from pipes. Usually they are preferred for
size 10 & above because large size elbow is expensive & not easily available in the market. Use
of miter bend is restricted to low pressure.. Miter bend can be fabricated in 2,3, & 5 piece.

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RETURNS

Reducing elbows are used to make 180 change in direction. Available in short & long pattern.
Mainly used in heating coil, heat exchanger etc.

Reducing elbow

Normally reducing elbows are not used the pressure drop due to reducing elbows are large. it
is not efficient one.
There are two reasons for changes the direction pressure drop, one is the size reduction and the
other one is it also changes the direction. Reducing elbows are highly expensive, it used only in
the un avoidable
situation.

This elbow is also used to make changes in direction within the piping system. The obvious
difference between the 90° and 45° elbows is the angle formed by the turn. It is logical, therefore,
to assume a design using two 45° ells to make a directional change instead of two 90° elbows
would result in considerable savings. These savings are not only related to the cost of the fittings
but also to savings in the physical space needed to route the pipe. Unlike the 90° ell, there is not a
formula that can be applied to establish the center-to-end dimension of the 45° ell. Simply dividing
the length of the 90° elbow by two will not work.
90° Elbow Rolled at 45°

Many times to avoid using two 90° elbows in succession, designers will use one 90° ell and a 45°
ell welded together. In some orthographic views, these elbows will appear at an angle to our line
of sight. In those views where the open end of the elbow appears at an angle to our line of sight,
ellipses must be used to represent the end of the fittings.

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BRANCH CONNECTIONS

TEES
Tees are used for making 90° branch from main run of pipe Branch size may be of same size or
less than the main header size.
OR
It is a three-way fitting used to make perpendicular connections to a pipe. Lines that connect to
the main run of pipe are known as branches. The main run of pipe is often called the header
CROSS
Straight cross are usually stock items. Reducing cross may not be readily available hence it is
Proffered to use TEE instead of reducing Cross-except where space is restricted.

LATERALS
It permits entry of branch to 2 main header at 45 angles. It is used where low resistance to flow is
required especially in flare lines Branch size may be of equal size or reducing Branch angle other
than 45° angles is possible only to special order

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STUB-IN

Stub-in is not any standard fittings .This term is used for branch pipe directly welded to main pipe
run. If required it may be re-inforced. This is the most common & least expensive method to
branch full size or reducing size from main header,

Another method of making a branch connection is called a stub-in. The stub-in is most commonly
used as an alternative to the reducing tee. The stub-in is not an actual fitting but rather a
description of how the branch connection is created. A hole is bored into the header pipe, either
the size of the OD or ID of the branch, and the branch is then stubbed into it. The two pipes are
fitted together and then welded. Although the branch connection can be the same together and
then welded. Although the branch connection can be the same pipe size or smaller as the header,
it cannot be larger. How close stub-ins are made is an important consideration. A general rule is to
allow a minimum of 3" between welds. This means a minimum of 3" should be allowed between
the outsides of branches made from a common header, and a header should be attached no
closer than 3" to a fitting.
It classified as given below:

2.1 Straight Tee

In this all three outlets are the same pipe size.

2.2 Reducing Tee

In this all branch outlet is a smaller pipe size.

2.3 Crosse Tee

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STUB-IN REINFORCEMENTS

Its chief advantage over the tee is cost. Not only can the cost of purchasing a fitting be avoided,
but the stub-in requires only one weld; whereas, the tee requires three. When internal conditions
such as pressure or temperature of the commodity or external forces such as vibrations or
pulsations are placed on a stub-in, special reinforcement may be necessary to prevent the branch
from separating from the header.

THREE REINFORCING ALTERNATIVES ARE LISTED BELOW

REINFORCING PAD
Resembling a metal washer that has been bent to conform to the curvature of the pipe, the
reinforcing pad is a ring cut from steel plate that has a hole in the center equal to the diameter of
the branch connection. It is slipped onto the branch pipe then welded to both branch and header.

WELDING SADDLE
A purchased reinforcing pad, the welding saddle has a short neck designed to give additional
support to the branch.
O-LETS
Purchased fittings, o-lets have one end shaped to the contour of the header and the other end
manufactured to accept the type of end connections being used on the branch. Weld olets are
manufactured for butt-weld fittings. Sockolets are made for socket-weld fittings. And thread olets
are available for screwed fittings. Other o-lets are manufactured to be used to make connections
at angles other than 90°.

'O' LET FITTINGS: - These are the special fittings available readymade in the market. It does not
require any reinforcement. They are preshaped to the curvature of the run pipe & end preparation
is pre done.

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The different types of O-lets are given below:

• Weld O-let
• Socket O-let
• Thread O-let
• Elbow O-let
• Sweep O-let
• Lateral O-let

WELDOLET

Weld-o-let is the most common of all over branch connection and is welded on the outlet pipes.
The ends are bevel to Facilitate this process and therefore weld-o-let is consider as butt welded
fitting
or
Weldolet is used for 90° degree branch on pipe and for branch size of 2" and higher
Where socket welding fittings are used for pipe sizes upto 1 1/2".
• weldolet is used in line 2" and above.

SOCKOLET

Are used for branch size below 2". It will have plain end and socket welding will be done.
Sockolets are used to connect
small bore socketwelding piping to
larger size Buttwelding Piping
Header.
THREADOLET

Thread-o-let are used for branch size Less than 2" and it will have female/Inside thread.
Threadolets are used to connect small bore threaded fittings to Buttwelding Piping Network.

NIPPOLET
It is a combination of ö-let & flange. it is a single purchase fitting which is used for
instrumentation connection like Pressure gauge, temperature gauge etc.

It is a one piece fitting for valve take-offs, drains and vents. Manufactured for Extra Strong and
Double Extra Strong applications in 3.1/2in to 6.1/2in lengths. Available with male-socket-weld or
male threaded outlets.
These are used to directly attach drain valves, pressure instruments etc. to header. It helps save
extra fittings and installation work.

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Flangeolet, is a combination of a Welding Neck flange and a supposedly Weldolet or Nipolet. ...
These flanges are primarily in Branch connections.

ELBOWLET

It is a combination of Elbow and o-let which is a single purchase fitting it is used for drain
connection and instrumentation connection.

These are used to tap on Elbow to save space. Useful to attach thermowells & used in steam
lines
LATROLET

It is used for branching at angle Other than 90°

SWEEPOLETS

Sweepolets are primarily developed for high-

yield pipe used in oil and gas transmission
lines. Sweepolets provides good flow pattern,
and optimum stress distribution. Sweepolet is
a contoured, integrally reinforced, butt-weld
branch connection with a low stress
intensification factor for low stresses and long
fatigue life. The attachment weld is
easily examined by radiography,
ultrasound and other standard non-
destructive techniques. They are
manufactured to meet specific
reinforcement requirements.

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 Dimensional Standard
Major dimensional standard used is :
MSS-SP-97: Integrally Reinforced Forged Branch Outlet
Fittings – Socket Welding, Threaded, and Butt welding Ends.
Fittings Classes as per this standard are :
1. Standard: Butt welding: 1/8″ to 24″, for connecting STD thk
Pipe.
2. Extra Strong: Butt welding: 1/8″ to 24″ for connecting Extra
Strong Pipe
3. Schedule 160: Butt welding: 1/2″ to 6″: for connecting Schedule 160 Pipe
4. 3000: Threaded and Socket Welding: 1/8″ to 4″: for connecting Extra Strong Pipe
5. 6000: Threaded and Socket Welding: 1/2″ to 2″: for connecting Sch 160 Pipe.

Materials of Construction
These fittings are forged fittings. So they are made from the same materials as Flanges and
Socket Weld Fittings.
1. A105 : Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping Applications.
2. A181 : Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings, for General-Purpose Piping.
3. A182 : Standard Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe Flanges,
Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High-Temperature Service.
4. A350 : Standard Specification for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Forgings, Requiring Notch
Toughness Testing for Piping Components.

Sample Piping Material Specification.

1. Element: Nippolet , Elbolet , Latrolet , Sockolet and Weldolet
2. Length: 75 mm (Nipolets only)
3. Material: CS: ASTM A105
4. SS: ASTM A182 Gr. F304L
5. Class: 3000 (Only for Small bore branches)
6. Ends: Nippolet : Plain Ends
7. Sockolet : SW Ends
8. Elbolet : BW Ends
9. Latrolet : SW, BW Ends as per branch size.
10. Weldolet : BW Ends
11. Dim. Standard: MSS-SP-97

WELD CAP
It is used to seal an open end of pipe. When dimensioning the positional location of a weld cap on
a drawing, indicate only the length of the run of pipe. The cap will be welded to the end and need
not be included in the length dimension of the run of pipe. The weld cap is another fitting that is
drawn as a double- line symbol for all sizes of pipe. When representing the cap on a drawing, use
an ellipse to construct the round end of the fitting.

COUPLING (socket weld fitting)

A Pipe Coupling or Coupler plays an important role in connecting the pipe sections while
maintaining the integrity of the pipes in the process. It is a very useful pipe fitting for the piping and
plumbing industry. Most pipe installations require several lengths of pipe to be joined together or
cut to facilitate changes in direction and crossing of obstacles. Pipe Coupling is a very short length
of pipe or tube. It has socket or female pipe threads at one or both ends. Pipe coupling allows two
pipes or tubes of equal or different sizes to be joined together to make a long pipe run.
The various functions that a Pipe Coupling or Coupler can serve are as follows:

• It helps to extend or terminate pipe runs.

• It can be used to change pipe size.
• It can be used to repair a broken or leaking pipe.

The body of a pipe coupling (Coupler) is typically made of either the same or similar materials as
that of the pipes it joins. They may be rigid or flexible depending on the amount of movement the
pipe is subjected to and may also be permanent or removable.
A pipe coupling can be increased or reduced in internal diameter to join different sized pipes (like
T or cross-shaped) to join more than two pipes, or angled to form bends. Pipe couplings,
sometimes also include peripheral features like inspection openings, flow meters, or valves.

Categories of Pipe Coupling

Pipe Couplings can be categorized into two main groups.

• Permanent Coupling and

• Removable Coupling

Permanent Pipe Coupling

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Permanent pipe couplings create permanent piping joints using soldering or brazing in the case of
steel or copper pipes or adhesives in the case of PVC pipes. When correctly installed, these
permanent joints offer excellent rigidity and sealing characteristics. Permanent Pipe Couplings are
used where no future changes in the piping are foreseen.

Removable Pipe Coupling

Removable pipe couplings use threads to allow them to be screwed onto the pipes to be joined.
For example, A basic pipe section slightly larger than the pipes to be joined can be cut with an
internal thread to act as a removable pipe coupler. The ends of the pipes are also threaded, and
the coupler is simply sealed with hemp or sealing tape and screwed onto both pipes.

Pipe Couplings Types

There are three types of coupling available

1. Full Coupling
2. Half Coupling
3. Reducing Coupling
4. Compression Coupling
5. Slip Coupling / Repair Coupling

Full Coupling

• Full Coupling is used for connecting small bore pipes. It used to connect pipe to pipe or
pipe to swage or nipple. It can be threaded or socket ends types.

• A socket weld full coupling is used to join small-bore plain end pipes where the pipe spec
requirement is socket weld. A threaded full coupling is used to join small bore pipes with
threaded ends. If the two ends of coupling are different (e.g. one BSP threaded and one
NPT threaded), then it is usually referred to as an adapter.

Half Coupling

• Half Coupling is used for small bore branching from a vessel or large bore pipe. It can be
threaded or socket type. It has a socket or thread end on only one side.

• A socket weld half coupling can be directly welded to a large bore pipe, to make a branch
connection. It is used to take a small bore pipe branch-off from a large bore pipe where the
 pipe spec requirement is socket weld in small bore size. A threaded half coupling only has
one thread end and another end of the coupling should be butt welding end with either a
plain end or a bevel end.

Reducing Coupling

Reducing coupling is used to connect pipes of dissimilar diameters. A reducing coupling has two
different sizes of threads on each side. Reducing couplings are typically used where small
process feeder lines are joined into large supply circuits or where small diameter fittings are
installed.

Reducing couplers feature a simple, stepped down profile and screw onto the two lengths of pipe
in the same way a standard pipe joint does. Welded reducing coupler designs are similar to
threaded design without the threads.

Compression Coupling

A compression coupling connects two perfectly aligned pipes in which a slotted tapered sleeve is
placed over the junction and two flanges are drawn over the sleeve so that they automatically
center the pipes and provide sufficient contact pressure.

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Slip Coupling / Repair Coupling

A slip coupling (sometimes also called a repair coupling) includes two pipes, one of which slides
out of the other pipe to various lengths. Slip coupling is deliberately made without any internal
stop, to allow it to be slipped into place in tight locations, such as the repair of a pipe that has a
small leak due to corrosion or freeze bursting, or which had to be cut temporarily for some reason.
The installer should carefully measure the final location of the slip coupling to ensure that it is
located correctly as the alignment stop is missing.

Some important features of pipe couplings are as follows:

• Pipe Couplings come in all standard pipe sizes and are available for almost all types of pipe
• Mostly cylindrical in design.
• Available in several finishes.
• Couplings compensate for axial, lateral, and angular shaft misalignment.
• Couplings operate in a quiet and smooth way.
• There is a great degree of torsional stiffness.
• There is the right angular transmission of angular motion and torque.
• Usually long life.
• Easy mounting and dismounting.
• Low lateral stiffness etc.
Pipe Coupling Materials

Pipe couplings are made of various materials and the buyers should always consider the material
used for making them. Some of the materials used for making couplings are:

• Carbon Steel
• Brass
• Aluminum
• Cast Iron
• Stainless Steel
• Copper
• Bronze etc.

SCREWED AND SOCKET. WELD FITTINGS

Screwed and socket-weld fittings perform the same basic functions as butt-weld fittings Screwed
and socket-weld fittings are normally reserved for installations using fittings 3 and smaller.
Screwed and socket weld fittings are also available in cast iron, malleable iron, or forged steel.
Cast iron and malleable iron fittings are typically used on low pressure and temperature lines such
as air, water, or condensate. Lines containing high pressure and temperature commodities, which
are subject to movement and vibration, require fittings made of forged steel. Forged steel screwed
and socket-weld fittings are manufactured in two pressure classes --3000# and 6000# Screwed
and socket-weld fittings differ in size and shape, but they achieve the same purpose the butt weld.
fittings. Screwed and socket-weld fittings are drawn with square corners using short hash marks to
represent the ends of the fitting.

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UNIONS

The union is a fitting placed within a piping configuration that will allow the assembly to be
disassembled for inspection, repair, or replacement. Unions should be positioned in locations that
will facilitate the easy removal of critical pieces of equipment

PLUG
The plug, like a cap, is designed to close off the end of a run of pipe. Plugs are manufactured for
screwed fittings with male threads and are screwed into the end of a pipe to create a seal.

COUPLING

Although this fitting is used in bott welding applications as a branch connection, its primary use is
to connect lengths of screwed and socket weld pipe together,
PIPE NIPPLES

By design, screwed and socket-weld fittings cannot be assembled by placing one fitting directly in
contact with another fitting. Screwed fittings are manufactured with threads on the inside of the
fitting, and socket weld fittings have an internal socket that prevents filling makeup assembly. To
facilitate the assembly of screwed and socket-weld fittings, small lengths of pipe called pipe
nipples are used between fittings. Pipe nipples can vary in length depending upon the distance
required to fabricate the pipe configuration. A close nipple is one that provides the minimum length
pipe between fittings Remember, screwed and socket-weld fittings have a certain amount of lost
pipe due to thread engagement and socket depth. Therefore, each size pipe has a different
minimum length for the dimension of a close nipple. Many companies will use 3" as the standard
minimum for pipe nipples. This length will accommodate the amount of pipe lost inside the fitting
on each end as well as provide sulficient wrench clearance during assembly for the larger
screwed and socket-weld pipe sizes.

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SWAGE

One exception to the standard 3" minimum rule is the swage nipple. Swages are functionally
similar to reducers, but are specifically designed for screwed and socketweld pipe. Screwed
swages have male (external) threads and can be connected to other screwed fittings without the
use of a pipe nipple. They are used to make reductions in the line size on a straight run of pipe.
Swages, like reducers, are available in either a concentric or eccentric shape.

USE OF FITTINGS

Depending on the given situation, fittings will either be welded to each other or separated by
lengths of pipe. Welding one fitting directly to another is called fitting makeup. Most situations
involving the erection of the piping system require the designer to use pipe of various lengths
between the fittings. In these cases, pipe is cut to the required length and the ends are beveled in
preparation for welding to the fittings. When fittings are not assembled as fitting make-up and are
separated by a piece of pipe, most companies stipulate the pipe must be at least one pipe
diameter (nominal size) in length with a 3" minimum spacing for pipe 6" and smaller. By
maintaining this minimum spacing between welds, a pipe can conveniently be cut, beveled, and
welded without interference. The 3" minimum spacing is a standard used throughout the piping
industry.
57 of
REDUCER

A piping reducer is a type of pipe fitting that reduces the nominal bore from a bigger inner diameter to
a smaller inner diameter. Piping and Pipeline Systems are not of uniform size and there is a
requirement of reducing or expanding the lines depending on process requirement or availability of
material. Here comes the importance of a special pipe fitting called Reducers.
Piping Reducers are one of the most extensively used fittings in the piping industry to reduce or
expand the size of the straight part of the run pipe. Basically, reducers are available in two styles:

• Concentric reducers.
• Eccentric reducers.

Concentric Reducers

In concentric reducers the area reduction is concentric and the centerline of the pipe on a bigger end
and smaller end remains the same. These styles are normally used for vertical lines. So in concentric
reducers, the pipe axis remains the same. Reducers are reversible and can be used in any direction.

Eccentric Reducers

in eccentric reducer there is an offset in between the center lines of the bigger end and the centerline
of smaller end. This offset or eccentricity will maintain a flat side either on top or on the bottom side.
Eccentric Reducer

This offset or eccentricity can easily be found out by the following equation:
Eccentricity=(Bigger end ID-Smaller end ID)/2

Eccentric Reducer Installation

While using eccentric reducer, the user has the option of orienting the flat side. Usually, for horizontal
lines, eccentric reducers are oriented with either the flat side up or down, and the same with deviation
is mentioned in isometric.
Normally eccentric reducers with the flat side down are preferred for following cases on horizontal
lines:

• On Sleepers and Piperacks

• On lines requiring gravity flow
• On the pump suction line which handles slurry.

Eccentric reducers with the flat side up are used for all pump suction lines (excluding pumps
handling slurry) on horizontal lines. This way one can avoid air getting trapped inside the pipeline
during initial venting through pump casing and will help in avoiding Cavitation.

Types of Piping Reducers based on End Connection

Depending on end connections of this fitting with a straight pipe, reducers are grouped as follows:

Butt-welded piping reducers

The applicable pressure rating, dimensional and material standards for butt welding reducers are the
same as those applicable to butt welding elbows.

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Socket welded piping reducers
Such reducers are available in concentric type only & in the form of coupling with one end socket to fit
larger diameter pipe and another end socket to fit smaller diameter pipe. Standards are the same as
those applicable to socket welding elbows.

Socket Welded Reducers

Screwed piping reducers

Available only in the concentric type and are in the form of coupling having one end to fit bigger pipe
and another end to fit smaller pipe. ASME B16.11 is an applicable dimensional standard. Material
standards including pressure ratings are the same as of screwed elbows.

Flanged piping reducers

Their pressure rating, use, material, and dimensional standards are the same as those applicable to
flanged elbows. Regardless of reduction, their face to face dimensions is governed by the larger pipe
size.

Piping Reducer Fitting Dimension

The dimensions for butt welded piping reducers are provided by ASME B 16.9. In pipe Data Pro
software, you can easily get the required pipe reducers dimensions. The following image provides
part of the pipe reducer size chart as a reference.

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STUB-IN AND STUB-ON

Are methods for making a fabricated branch connection from the pipe. Both types are permitted by
many of the international codes and standards including ASME B31. However, both of these are
weak connections on piping systems and normally limited only for low pressure and temperature
applications.

STUB-IN

In case of a Stub-In, A larger hole is drilled in the Header or Run Pipe and branch pipe whose end is
contoured similar to the inside diameter (ID) of the Header is fitted inside the hole. Then both the
stub-in branch pipe and the run pipe are welded together to form a connection similar to reducing tee.
Stub-in is normally used when the Branch is more than one size smaller than the main pipe. For “stub
in” connection the branch pipe extends to the inside of the main pipe.

STUB-ON

On the contrary, In case of a Stub-On branch connection, the hole that is cut in the Run pipe is the
same as the inside diameter (ID) of the Branch Pipe (Not Header). The end of the Branch pipe is
contoured the same as the outside diameter (OD) of the header pipe and is then fitted outside the
hole on the Header pipe. It looks like the branch is seated “onto” the header pipe. Stub-on is generally
used when the Branch is equal to or one size smaller than the main Pipe. For “stub on,” the stub
extends only to the outside of the main pipe.

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ADDITIONAL FEATURES FOR STUB-IN AND STUB-ON

Both Stub in and Stub on branch connections can be made with or without a reinforcing Pad as per
requirement. This requirement is normally governed by pressure and stress criteria. The
reinforcement pad is basically a ring that is cut from the run pipe or from a plate with the same
material as the run pipe. At the center of the pad, is a hole is made (the size the same as the branch
pipe). When it is cut from a flat plate it is contoured to fit around the run pipe. The width of the
reinforcement pad is normally one half the diameter of the branch pipe. The aim of this reinforcement
is to substitute the material that was removed for making the branch connection from the header. A
small-diameter hole, known as weep hole (1/4″ NPT) is normally drilled in the pad which acts as a
vent during the welding process for the weld-generated gases to escape. Using full penetration welds,
The ring or pad is then welded to the branch and the run pipe. Once, the work is completed, the small
hole is fitted using a plug.

Both the stub-in and Stub-on connections, in a sense, reduce the cost of pipe fittings. It saves
installation time as well because only one weld is required around the stub hole instead of three
welds that is needed for joining welding tee connections.

Welding strength of Stub-in connection is as good as butt welding but welding steps are difficult in
actual conditions. So Stub-in is comparatively stronger than stub on connections.

STRESS CONSIDERATIONS FOR STUB-IN AND STUB ON CONNECTIONS

From Piping stress considerations calculated SIF of stub-ins and stub-on are much higher than weld-
olets and ASME tees, which is significant when a detailed stress
analysis is done on the system. While analysis extra caution needs to be considered as the stress
generated will be higher. The use of both this type of branch connection is not preferred for severe
cyclic applications, high-pressure temperature applications or category M fluid service applications.

• Type “A” Stub Ends are for use with standard Lap Joint Flanges. ...
• Type “B” Stub Ends are for use with standard Slip-On Flanges acting as Lap Joint Flanges. ...
• Type “C” Stub Ends are for use with standard Lap Joint Flanges and Slip on Flanges ….

Table of Contents

1. STUB END APPLICATION

2. STUB END TYPES
3. SHORT/LONG PATTERN STUB ENDS (ASA/MSS)
4. STUB END FINISH

What is a stub end and why should it be used? Stub ends are butt weld fittings that can be used (in
combination with a lap joint flange) alternatively to welding neck flanges to make flanged connections.
The use of stub ends has two advantages: it can reduce the total cost of flanged joints for piping
systems in high material grades (as the lap joint flange does not need to be of the same material of
the pipe and the stub end but can be a lower grade); it speeds up the installation process, as the lap
joint flange can be rotated to facilitate the alignment of the bolt holes. Stub ends are available in short
and long pattern (ASA and MSS stub ends), in sizes up to 80 inches.

STUB END APPLICATION

A stud end and a lap joint flange can be used together as an alternative way to make a flanged
connection than welding neck flanges.

The two devices to be combined, in this case, are:

• The stub end, which is essentially a piece of pipe, with one end flared outwards and the other
prepared to be welded to a pipe of the same bore size (NPS = nominal pipe size), material
and wall thickness. The most widely used fabrication tool for stub ends is the flaring machine,
which is able to flare the end of the pipe and then cuts it to length.
• A Lap Joint Flange, which is used to actually bolt the two lengths of pipe together.

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BENEFITS OF LAP JOINT STUB ENDS

The use of stub ends has these two advantages:

Reduces the overall cost of the flanged joint

Generally, the lap joint flange is of a lower grade than the material of the stub end and the pipe work,
thus saving the total weight of high-grade material used for the flanged joint.

Example:

For an SS316 pipe, instead of using a full 316 welding neck flange, a combination of an SS316 stub
end and a carbon steel lap joint flange would do the same exact job, but the total weight of SS316
material would be lower, and the cost as well.

Essentially, stub ends allow to minimize the weight of high-grade material in stainless, duplex, and
nickel alloy piping, saving costs. Of course, the bigger the diameter and the class of the flanges, the
higher the saving!

Facilitates the installation of the flange

The lap joint flange can be rotated on the pipe and simplify the alignment of the bolt holes of the
mating flanges

It shall be noted that stud ends are becoming popular also in high-pressure applications (whereas
they were used for low-pressure applications only in the past).

STUB END TYPES

• Stub ends are available in three different types, named “Type A”, “Type B” and “Type C”:
The first type (A) is manufactured and machined to match standard lap joint backing flange
(the two products have to be used in combination). The mating surfaces have an identical
profile to permit a smooth loading of the flare face
• Stub ends type B are have to be used with standard slip-on flanges
• Type C stub ends can be used either with lap joint or slip-on flanges and are manufactured
from pipes
SHORT/LONG PATTERN STUB ENDS (ASA/MSS)

Stub ends are available in two different patterns:

• the short pattern, called MSS-A stub ends

• the long pattern, called ASA-A stub ends (or ANSI length stub end)

PATTERN STUB ENDS (ASA)

SHORT PATTERN (MSS) AND
LONG
STUB END FINISH

Stub ends can be ordered with different ends finishing:

• Beveled Ends
• Squared Ends
• Flanged Ends
• Grooved Ends
• Threaded Ends (Male Only)

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PIPING MATERIALS

Carbon steel is the workhorse of industry, and coupled with an adequate corrosion allowance, this
material can cover most eventualities. Low-temperature carbon steel is used for subzero
temperatures and low-alloy carbon steel is used at elevated temperatures. After carbon steel,
stainless steel is the next most used metal, followed by the duplexes and more exotic metals. The
construction material for process piping still is dominated by the use of carbon steel, low-alloy carbon
steel, low-temperature carbon steel, and supported by the numerous stainless steels grades. The
selection of material to be used within a piping system is the responsibility of the metallurgist,
corrosion engineer, who creates material selection report that identifies what base material must be
used in both process and utility systems. This MSR forms the basis from which the piping material
classes are created to cover the numerous fluids at various pressures and temperatures within the
process plant. Piping engineers do not necessarily have to know the fine details of this specialist field;
however, they should aware why the metallurgist came to his or her conclusion.

The most common used piping material is API 5L Gr. B and ASTM 106 Gr.B

PIPING MATERIAL SELECTION

The selection of materials for piping applications is a process that requires consideration of material
characteristics appropriate for the required service. Material selected must be suitable for the flow
medium and the given operating conditions of temperature and pressure safely during the intended
design life of the product. Mechanical strength must be appropriate for long-term service, and resist
operational variables such as thermal or mechanical cycling. Extremes in application temperature can
raise issues with material capabilities ranging from brittle fracture toughness at low temperatures to
adequacy of creep strength and oxidation resistance at the other end of the temperature spectrum. In
addition, the operating environment surrounding the pipe or piping component must be considered.
Degradation of material properties or loss of effective load-carrying cross section can occur through
corrosion, erosion, or a combination of the two. The nature of the substances that are contained by
the piping is also an important factor. The fabricability characteristics of the materials being
considered must also be taken into account. The ability to be bent or formed, suitability for welding or
other methods of joining, ease of heat treatment, and uniformity and stability of the resultant
microstructure and properties all of a given piping material contribute toward or detract from its
attractiveness and economy. The selection process should lead to the most economical material that
meets the requirements of the service conditions and codes and standards that apply. Applicable
design and construction codes such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the ASME
B31 Pressure Piping Code identify acceptable materials for piping systems within their jurisdiction.
These codes specify the design rules, allowable design stresses, and other properties required to
accomplish the desi task. However, the information supplied is generally only adequate and intended
to assure safe operation under the thermal and mechanical conditions expected under steady-state
and sometimes (as in nuclear construction) cyclic operation. These codes do not directly and
explicitly address the many other environmental and material degradation issues that should be
considered by design and materials engineers in arriving at a piping system that is not only safe to
operate but will offer long-term, reliable service and function. Thus, simply designing to the Code"
when selecting materials can sometimes lead to premature end-of-life of piping system components.
What is piping material Engineer

The role of the piping engineer, who is responsible for the quality of pip material, fabrication, testing,
and inspection i in a project and the major activities such engineers are expected to perform. This
individual can be employed by either the EPC (engineering. procurement, and construction)
contractor or the operator/ end user.

1. Job Title

The piping engineer, the individual responsible for creating the project piping classes and the
numerous piping specifications necessary to fabricate, test, insulate, and paint the piping systems, is
titled either the piping material engineer or the piping spec writer.

2. Job Scope

Whatever the title, the piping material engineer (PME) is a very important person within the Piping
Design Group and should be dedicated to a project from the bid stage until the design phase has
been completed. He or she should also be available during construction and through to mechanical
completion. The lead piping material engineer, the individual responsible for all piping engineering
functions, usually reports directly to the project lead piping engineer, and depending on the size of the
project, the lead piping material engineer may be assisted by a number of suitably qualified piping
material engineers especially during the peak period of the project. This peak period is early in the
job, while the piping classes are being developed and the first bulk inquiry re-questions are sent out
to vendors.

3. The Piping Material Engineer's Responsibilities

The piping material engineer's responsibilities vary from company to company. Here is a list of typical
functions that he or she is expected to perform:

• Develop the project piping classes for all process and utility services.
• Write specifications for fabrication, shop and field testing, insulation, and painting.
• Create and maintain all data sheets for process and utility valves.
• Create a list of specials, such as hoses and hose couplings, steam traps,interlocks.
• Create and maintain data sheets for these piping special (SP) items.
• Assemble a piping material requisition with all additional documents. Assemble
• Review offers from vendors and create a technical bid evaluation.
• Make a technical recommendation
• After placement of a purchase order, review and approve documentation from vendors related
to piping components.
• When required, visit the vendor's premises to attend kickoff meetings, the testing of piping
components, or clarification meetings.
• Liaise with the following departments: Piping Design and Stress, Process, Instrumentation,
Vessels, Mechanical, Structural, Procurement, Material control.

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4. Qualities of an Engineer

Not only is it essential that a piping material engineer be experienced in several piping sectors, such
as design, construction, and stress, he or she must also be a communicator, to guarantee that
everyone in the piping group is aware of the materials of construction that can be used for piping
systems. The PME must also have understanding of other disciplines having interface with the piping,
such as mechanical, process, instrumentation, and structural engineering. He or she should be aware
of the corrosion characteristics of piping material and welding processes necessary for the fabrication
of piping systems. Both corrosion and welding engineering are specialist subjects, and if the PME has
any doubts, he or she must turn to a specialist engineer for advice.

5. Experience

There is no substitute for experience, and material engineer should have strengths in several sectors
and be confident with a number of others disciplines, to enable the individual to arrive at a suitable
conclusion when selecting material for piping systems. Strong areas should include piping design
layout and process requirements.

Familiar areas should include the following:

• Corrosion
• Welding
• Piping stress.
• Static equipment
• Rotating equipment.
• Instruments

PIPING MATERIAL ENGINEER'S ACTIVITIES

Outlined here are the principal activities of a piping material engineer. These are listed in
chronological order as they would arise as a project develops from preliminary to detailed design.

1. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT PIPING CLASSES

All process plants have of two types of principal piping systems: process (primary and secondary)
piping systems and utility piping systems.
Process piping systems are the arteries of a process plant. They receive the feedstock, carry the
product through the various items of process equipment for treatment and finally deliver the refined
fluid to the battery limits for transportation to the next facility for further refinement. Process piping
systems can be further divided into-primary process, which is the main process flow, and secondary
process, which applies to the various recycling systems.
Utility piping systems are no less important. They are Support the primary process, falling into three
groups:

• Support-instrument air, cooling water, steam.

• Maintenance-Plant air, nitrogen
• Protection-foam and firewater.

There are other utility services such as drinking water.

PIPING CLASS

Each piping system is allocated a piping class, which lists all the components required to
construct the piping. A piping class includes the following:

• Process design conditions.

• Corrosion allowance
• List of piping components.
• Branch table.
• Special assemblies.
• Support notes

Both process and utility piping systems operate at various temperatures and pressures,
and the following must be analyzed:

• Fluid type-corrosivity, toxicity, viscosity.

• Temperature range
• .Pressure range
• Size range
• Method of joining
• Corrosion allowance

After analyzing these characteristics, process and utility piping systems can be grouped into
autonomous piping classes. This allows piping systems that share fundamental characteristics (pipe
size range, pressure and temperature limits, and method of joining) to be classified together.

This standardization or optimization has benefits in the procurement, insp and construction phases of
the project. Too little optimization increases the number of piping classes, making the paperwork at all
stages of the project difficult to handle and leading to confusion, resulting in mistakes. Too much
optimization reduces the number of piping classes, however, as the piping class must satisfy the
characteristics of the most severe service and use the most expensive material. This means that less-
severe services are constructed using more expensive material, because the piping class is "over
specified." It is the responsibility of the piping material engineer to fine-tune this
optimization to the benefit the project.

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A typical oil and gas separation process plant may have 10 process piping classes and a similar
number of utility piping classes. More complex petrochemical facilities require a greater number of
piping classes to cover the various process streams and their numerous temperature and pressure
ranges. It is not uncommon for process plants such good as these to have in excess of 50 process
and piping classes. A typical line number is as follows:
SELECTION OF PIPING MATERIAL

Material selection is done considering the corrosion properties, strength and engineering
characteristics, relative cost and availability.

The main process considerations are;

• Corrosion properties of the fluid.

• Pressure temperature
• Mechanical consideration are Yield strength, Ultimate Tensile strength ,creep and
Fatigue strength

For process fluids the basic material of construction is specified by the process licensor or metallurgy
specialist. The piping engineer is expected to detail out the same on codes and standards, The
materials for utility service will be selected by piping engineer.

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3.2. PIPING MATERIALS

3.2.1 Metals

The most commonly used metallic piping materials are listed in ASME B31.3; however, materials
outside of this list can be used as long as they are supported by the appropriate data sheets and
independent testing reports. All materials have different chemical compositions, which have an effect
on the mechanical and physical characteristics and their resistance to corrosion at differing
temperatures and pressures. The most commonly used material in the oil and gas industry is carbon
steel, which perform satisfactorily at temperatures between -29°C and 427"C, and it can be used at
the highest ASME and AH pressure ratings. It is very cheap and readily available material.

Metals used for process piping systems can be divided into two groups:

• Ferrous (iron and iron-base alloys)

• Nonferrous (all other metals and alloys).

FERROUS METALS

The vast majority of piping materials are from ferrous metals. Iron is one of the most commonly used
metals, but it is rarely found in its purest form, and ferrous metals are defined as those that contain
iron as the base metal. The properties of ferrous metals may be changed by adding various alloying
elements. The chemical, mechanical, and physical properties need to be combined to produce a
metal to serve a specific purpose. The basic ferrous metal form is pig iron, which is produced in a
blast furnace charged with an iron ore, coke, and limestone. Iron can be found in the form of various
mineral oxides, the principal ones being hematite, limonite, magnetite, and faconite. All ferrous metals
are magnetic and give limited resistance to corrosion. The most commonly used ferrous metals are
cast iron, carbon steel, and stainless steel.

CARBON STEEL

Carbon steels have a nominal composition of iron with about 1% Manganese and carbon content
varying from 0.05 to 1 weight percentage. Plain carbon steel piping is used for the majority of service
encountered in the petroleum since it is cost effective, easily fabricated and readily available in the
market.

ASME B31.3 allows carbon steel piping to be used up to -20° without toughness testing, For lower
temperature, Impact tested carbon steel grades such as ASTM A333 Grade 1 ind ASTM A333 Grade
6

There are basically three general groups of carbon steel, based on their carbon content, which can
vary from between 0.05 and 1.0 weight percent low-carbon steels (0.05 0.25% carbon), medium-
carbon steels (0.25-0,50% carbon), and high-carbon steels (0.50% and greater carbon content).
LOW-CARBON (MILD) STEEL

Mild steel is the most commonly used ferrous metal. Its major are toughness, high tensile strength,
and ductility. It contains approximately 0.15-0.25% carbon. Because of the low carbon content, it
cannot be hardened and tempered. It must be case hardened. It is normally used in manufacturing of
girders, plates, nuts and bolts, and other general steel products.

MEDIUM-CARBON STEEL

Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content of approximately 0.25-0.50%. It is stronger and harder
than mild steels but has less ductility, toughness, and malleability. It is used in making steel ropes,
wire, garden tools, springs, and the like.

HIGH-CARBON STEEL

High-carbon steel is a ferrous metal that contains approximately 0.50% or more carbon. It is the
hardest of the carbon steels but is less ductile, tough, and malleable.

ALLOYING OF STEEL

Alloy Steels are steel to which one or more alloying elements other than carbon and added to give
them special properties.

Normally steel is considered as alloy steel when amount of Manganese, Silicon or copper exceeds
the maximum limits for carbon steel or purposeful addition of element like Chromium, Molybdenum,
Nickel, cobalt etc is done.

Each of the above alloying elements impart special properties to the steel for use in special services
like high temperature above 427° C. presence of Hydrogen in the service fluid causing Hydrogen
attack of the material, acid service etc. Carbon steel can be combined, alloyed, with a number of
other elements that modify the chemical composition to obtain a wide selection of desired mechanical
and physical properties and create engineering materials. The following list identifies the known
effects of adding certain elements, in known quantities to steel:

Chromium (Cr)

Chromium increases steel's response to heat treatment. It also increases depth of hardness
penetration. Most chromium-bearing alloys contain 0.50-1 SOYO chromium. Stainless steels contain
chromium in large quantities, 12-25%. frequently in combination with nickel, and possess increased
resistance to oxidation and corrosion.

Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum adds to the penetration of hardness and increases toughness. Molybdenum helps steel
to resist softening at high temperatures and is an important means of assuring high creep strength. It
generally is used in comparatively

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small quantities, ranging from 0.10 to 0.40%

Nickel (Ni)

Nickel increases strength and toughness but has 4%, although higher quantities are possible. Steels
containing little effect on hardenability. It is added in quantities of 1 to nickel usually have more impact
resistance, especially at low temperatures. Certain stainless steels employ nickel up to about 20%.

Silicon (Si)

Silicon is one of the common deoxidizers used in the manufacturing of steel. It also may be present in
varying quantities up to 1% in finished steel and has a beneficial effect on certain properties, such as
tensile strength. It is used in special steels in the range of 1.5 to 2.5% silicon to improve the
hardenability. In higher percentages, silicon is added as an alloy to produce certain electrical
characteristics in the so called silicon electrical steels and finds certain applications in some tool
steels, where it seems to have a hardening and toughening effect.

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur is an important element in steel, because when present in relatively large quantities, it
increases machinability. The amount generally used for this purpose is from 0.06 to 0.30%. Sulfur is
detrimental to the hot forming properties.

Manganese (Mn)

Next in importance to carbon is manganese. It normally is present in all steel and functions both as a
deoxidizer and to impart strength and responsiveness to heat treatment. Manganese usually is
present in quantities from 0.5 to 2'30, but certain special steels are made in the range of 10-1 5%.

Stainless steels

Stainless steels are used for their corrosion-resistance properties or for subzero centigrade
temperatures. Stainless steels are those ferrous alloys that contain a minimum of 12% chromium.
Austenitic stainless steels are the ones most commonly used in the process industry, and they
possess an excellent combination strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance.

Stainless steel types can be divided into the following groups:

Austenitic,
Martensitic,
Ferritic,
Duplex,

Austentic

Austenitic grades are the most commonly used stainless steels for process piping components.
Despite the iron present, the austenitic grades are not magnetic. The most common austenitic alloys
are iron/chromium/nickel steels, widely known as the 300 series. The austenitic stainless steels,
because of their high chromium and nickel content, are the most corrosion resistant of the stainless
group, providing unusually fine mechanical properties. They cannot be hardened by heat treatment
but can be hardened significantly by cold working.

Straight Grades

The straight grades of austenitic stainless steel contain a maximum of 0.08% carbon. The most
commonly used austenitic stainless steel grades for piping material components are 304, 316, and
321.

Low-Carbon Grades

The L sufffix after the grade number, for example, 316L, signifies that it is low in carbon. The low
carbon content helps with the weldability and provides extra corrosion resistance after welding

It is possible to specify dual certified stainless steel 316/316L. This material has the mechanical
strength of 316 and the chemical composition of 3 16. The most commonly used austenitic stainless
steel grades for piping material components are 304L, 316L, and 321L.

High-Carbon Grades

The H suffix after the grade number, for ex. 304H, means that the grade can be used at temperatures
higher than that of 304

Ferritic Grades

Ferritic grades, also 400 series, stainless steel are specified in the oil and gas industry. This type of
stainless steel also is magnetic but cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat treatment.
Generally, these steels are more corrosion resistant than the martensitic grades but inferior to the

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austenitic grades. Ferritic grades are straight chromium steels with no nickel and most commonly are
used for decorative purposes.

Duplex Grades

This material is a combination of austenitic and ferritic materials. The material has higher strength
and superior resistance to stress corrosion cracking than the stainless steels. Initially, duplex
stainless steels were introduced for offshore applications. The benefit from the use of duplex stainless
steel is that it combines the basic toughness of the more common austenitic stainless steels with the
higher strength and improved corrosion resistance of ferritic steels. A significant characteristic of
duplex stainless steel is that its pitting and crevice corrosion resistance is superior to that of standard
austenitic alloys. The two most commonly specified duplex stainless steels are duplex stainless steel
and super duplex steel. The most commonly used grade is UNS 31802. This has 22% chromium, and
5% molybdenum.

Super Stainless Steels

Super stainless steels are used when austenitic and ferritic/austenitic stainless steels are inadequate
to withstand corrosion attack. They contain very large percentages of nickel or chrome and
molybdenum. This makes them much more expensive than the usual 300 series alloys and not as
readily available. These alloys include alloy 20 and Hastelloy.

Nonferrous Metals

Commonly used nonferrous pare metals employed in alloying include aluminum, brass, copper, tin,
titanium, and zinc and their various alloyed types.
The commonly used materials are given below:
 • Cupro Nickel
• Monel
• Inconel

Cupro Nickel (90% Cu+ 10% Ni)

The material contained in this are 90% Copper and 10% Nickel, It is mostly used in sea
water service application

Monel (30% Cu + 67% Ni)

The material contained in this are 30% Copper and 67% Nickel. It is used in sea water application.
This material specially used for Sulphuric acid and Caustic soda solution application

Inconel
The materials contained in this are 76%Nickel, 16%Cromium and 8% Iron. It is used for
very high temperature, high resistance to corrosion and high resistance to oxidation at
high temperature application.

NON METAL

Lined Pipe

Carbon steel pipe coated with a protective line is used with corrosive water, brines and many
chemicals. Lines include Teflon, polypropylene, high density poly ethylene, epoxy and cement
materials etc.

3.3 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

There are numerous material standards for metallic piping components, but the two most commonly
used in ASME B31 code projects are from the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
and the Unified Numbering System (UNS).

American Society for Testing and Materials

It complete with a list of the extent of the coverage of the 67 volumes. Many of these are not relevant
to process piping systems and the process industry The most commonly referred to volumes for
process piping systems designed to ASME B31 codes are the following:

Section 1, Iron and Steel Products.

Volume 01.01, Steel-Piping, Tubing, Fittings Volume 01.02, Ferrous Castings: Ferroalloys.
Volume 01.03, Steel-Plate, Sheet, Strip, Wire.
Volume 01.04, Steel-structural, Reinforcing, Pressure vessel, Railway
Volume 01.05, Steel-Bars, Forgings, Bearing, Chain, Springs. LUTIONS
Volume 01.06, Coated Steel Products.
Volume 01.07, Shipbuilding.

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Section 2, Nonferrous Metal Products

Volume 02.01, Copper and Copper Alloys.

Volume 02.02. Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys.
Volume 02.03, Electrical Conductors.
Volume 02.04, Nonferrous Metals-Nickel, Cobalt, Lead, Tin, Zinc, Cadmium, Precious, Reactive,
Refractory, Metals, and Alloys.
Volume 02.05, Metallic and Inorganic Coatings; Metal Powders, Sintered P/M Structural
Parts.

Section 3, Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures.

Volume 03.01. Metals-Mechanical Testing: Elevated and Low-Temperature Tests,

Metallography
Volume 03.02, Wear and Erosion, Metal Corrosion.
Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing.
Volume 03.04, Magnetic Properties; Metallic Materials for Thermostats, Electrical
Heating and Resistance, Heating, Contacts, and Connectors.
Volume 03.05, Analytical Chemistry of Metals, Ores, and Related Materials (1).
Volume 03.06, Analytical Chemistry of Metals, Ores, and Related Materials (11).

Section 8, Plastics.

Volume 08.01, Plastics (I): C 177-D 1600.

Volume 08.02, Plastics (11): D 1601-D 3099.
Volume 08.03, Plastics (111): D 3100-Latest.
Volume 08.04, Plastic Pipe and Building Products.

SECTION 9, Rubber.

Volume 09.01. Rubber, Natural, and Synthetic-general

Test Methods: Carbon Black
Volume 09.02, Rubber Products, industrial- Specifications and Related Test Methods;
Gaskets; Tires.

Section 00, Index.

Volume 00.01, Subject Index and Alphanumeric List.

Unified Numbering System of Ferrous Metals and Alloys

The Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys provides methods of correlation many
internationally used metal and alloy numbering systems currently published by engineering bodies,
societies, trade associations, and producers of metals 2nd alloys. This numbering system is not
limited to the oil and gas industry, it is commonly referred to through most engineering industries. The
system helps avoid the confusion caused by the use of more than one identification number for the
same type of metal or alloy. Such uniformity provides an efficient method for referencing and cross
referencing material types.

The UNS identifies nine series of designations for ferrous metals and their alloys. UNS designation
consists of a single-letter prefix followed by five digits In most cases the letter is suggestive of the
family of metals identified for example, A for aluminum F for cast irons, T

for tool steel, and S for stainless steels. The cross-referenced specifications in Table 3-5 are
representative only and are not necessarily a complete list of specifications applicable to a particular
UNS designation. The table is an outline of the organization of UNS designations.

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PIPING CLASS

For any project a set of piping classes will be developed to cover the piping material to be used for
combination of various service fluids, pressure, temperature etc.

Each piping class specifies the fluid service, pressure, temperature conditions etc for which that
piping class has to be used. Then it specifies the details of all the piping components for the times
that meant those set of conditions. Each piping class will be identified by a unique alphanumeric
designation. The line will indicate the piping class number along with other details.

The line number will be indicate the piping class number along with other details A typical line is as
follows:

2"-R-2472-BIA-Th

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Sour Service Applications

A fluid is called 'sour' it if has hydrogen sulphide (H2S) contents. H2S will cause various types of
failures to the normal piping materials. Also, any type of the material and subsequent leak of HS gas
is extremely dangerous to human life.

Hence any material to use in sour services should meet special requirement mentioned in
the standard.

Eg: NACE-MR-0175/ISO-15156
85 of
PIPING MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR VARIOUS TEMPERATURES ARE ON FOLLOWS

• Carbon Steel 29°c to + 427°c

• Impact tested low temperature carbon steel -29°c to-46°c.
• Stainless steel - Below -46°c and corrosive services.
• Alloy steel-above 427°c

Killed carbon steel

Impact tested carbon steel

The activities of a piping material engineer in a project

1. Prepare Piping classes for the project

2. Prepare detailed specifications for the piping components.
3. Prepare data sheet for valves and specialty items.
4. Estimation of qualities from drawings
5. Grouping the items and prepare material requisition for purchase of the materials.
6. Technical evaluation of the bids received.
7. Vendor drawing checking and approval
8. Material control and receipt at site.
9. Substitution.
10. Material reconciliation.

1. Prepare the Piping classes for the project

Piping class is the base docume for material selection Base material is selected by process engineer
with metallurgical engineer.

2.Prepare detailed specifications for the piping components

3.Prepare data sheet for valves and specialty items.

4. Estimation of qualities from drawings (material take off)

Successful combination of projects depends on correct estimation of piping quantities. Piping material
engineer will prepare MTO from Layout, Isometrics etc. Following are the different stages of MTO:

a) Preliminary MTO:
We cannot weight till the piping design drawings are finalized to start the material procurement
activities. Hence at the beginning of the project itself some kinds of reasonable estimate has to be
done to get the piping quantities. This is called the preliminary MTO.

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For a preliminary MTO, the following documents are needed:

• P& ID from process dept

• Line list from process dept.
• Piping specifications (Classes)
• Equipment layout/piping studies

From the P&IDs all the major valves, specialty items etc can be to about 75-80% accuracy.

Also with the help of equipment layouts and piping studies, the pipe lengths and fittings can be
estimated to an accuracy of about 50-60%

b) Intermediate MTO:

Once the piping general arrangement drawings (GAD) are prepared, a second MTO called
intermediate MTO is taken with an accuracy of about 90-95%

c) Final MTO:
The final MTO is prepared based on final piping isometrics.

5.Grouping the items and material requisition for purchase of the materials.

6. Technical evaluation of the bids received.

7. Vendor drawing checking and approval

8.Material control and receipt at site.

9.Substitution.

10. Material reconciliation.

PIPING CODES AND STANDARDS

4.1 Introduction

Compliance to a code generally is mandatory, imposed by regulatory and enforcement agencies or

their representatives. Also, the insurance company for the facility requires the owner to comply with
the requirements of the relevant code or codes to ensure the safety of the workers and the general
public. Compliance to standards normally is required by the rules of the applicable code or the
purchaser's specification.

Codes are a broad-based set of guidelines that govern the total scope of a project.A code identifies
the general requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, erection, t and inspection of process
piping systems. For example, ASME B31.3-Process Piping is classified as a design code. This is the
most commonly used international design code for process plants.

A standard contains more detailed design and construction parameters and standard dimensional
and tolerance requirements for individual piping components, such as various types of valves, pipe,
tee, flanges, and other in-line items to complete a piping system. For example, ASME B16.5, Pipe
Flanges & Fittings, is classified as a dimensional standard, but it also references ASTM material
specifications.

A specification, as the word implies , gives more specific information and data on the component; and
ASTM's are considered to be material specifications, although they sometimes are ambiguously
called standard specifications. ASTM A105 is the "standard specification for carbon steel forgings for
piping applications."

To conclude and combine these definitions, ASME B31.3 is a design code, with flanges designed to
ASME B16.5 standard, which are constructed to the material specification ASTM A105.

4.2 CODES

A regulatory organization imposes mandatory compliance to a code, from the basic design through to
mechanical completion and eventual hand-over of a plant to the operator. For example, ASME B31.
3, Process Piping, is the refinery code. The insurer of the plant will make this a contractual
requirement to ensure safety for personnel and plant during construction, commissioning, and
ongoing operation.
The codes, standards, and specifications that relate to piping systems and piping components are
published by various organizations. These organizations have committees comprising representatives
from industry associations, manufacturers, EPC contractors, end users/operators, government
bodies, insurance anies, and other interested groups.A committee is responsible for maintaining,
updating, and revising codes, standards, and specifications, taking into consideration all technological
developments, research, experience feedback from end users, and any changes in referenced
codes, standards, specifications, or regulations.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler Pressure

The boiler pressure vessel (BPV) section covers major codes and standards related to piping.

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American Society of Mechanical Engineers

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is one of the leading engineering
organizations in the world. It develops and publishes engineering codes and standards.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code comprises 12 sections:

Section I, Power Boilers.

Section 11. Material Specifications.
Section 111, Rules for Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Division 1, Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Division 2, Concrete Reactor Vessel and Containments.
Division 3. Containment Systems and Transport Packaging for Spent Nuclear Fuel and
High Level Radioactive Waste.
Section IV, Heating Boilers.
Section V, Nondestructive Examination.
Section VI, Recommended Rules for Care and Operation of Heating Boilers. Section VII,
Section VII, Recommended rules for care of power boilers
Section VIII, Pressure Vessels.
Division 1. Pressure Vessels,
Division 2, Pressure Vessels (Alternative Rules).
Division 3, Alternative rules for construction of High-pressure vessels.
Section IX, Welding & Brazing qualifications
Section X, Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels.
Section XI, Rules for In-Service Inspection of Nuclear Power I
Section XII, Rules for Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks.

Code Cases: Boilers and Pressure Vessels.

Code Cases: Nuclear Components.

ASME Section I, Power Boilers

This ASME section provides requirements for all methods of construction of power. Electric, and
miniature boilers; high-temperature water boilers used in stationary service: and power boilers used in
locomotive, portable, and traction service. Super heaters, economizers, and other pressure parts
connected directly to the boiler without intervening valves are considered part of the scope of Section
I.
ASME Section II, Material Specifications (Scope)

ASME Section Il consists of four parts, three of which contain material specifications and the fourth
the properties of materials.

Part A, Ferrous Material Specifications.

Part B, Nonferrous Material Specifications.
Part C, Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals
Part D, Properties.

Part A
Ferrous Material Specifications, provides material specifications for ferrous materials adequate for
safety in the field of pressure equipment. These specifications contain requirements and mechanical
properties, test specimens, and methods of testing. They are designated by SA numbers and are
derived from ASTM A specifications.

Part B
Nonferrous Material Specifications, provides material specifications for nonferrous materials adequate
for safety in the field of pressure equipment. These specifications contain requirements for heat
treatment, manufacture, chemical composition, heat and product analyses, mechanical test
requirements, and mechanical properties, test specimens, and methods of testing. They are
designated by SB numbers and derived from ASTM B specifications

Part C
Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals, provides material specifications for the
manufactures, acceptablity, chemical composition, mechanical usability, operating characteristics, ,
surfacing testing requirements and intended uses for welding rods, electrodes, and filler metals.
These specifications are designated by SFA numbers and derived from AWS specifications:

Part D
Properties, provides tables of design stress values, tensile and yield strength values, and tables and
charts of material properties. Part D facilitates ready identification of specific materials to specific
sections of the boiler and pressure vessel code. Part D's appendices contain criteria for establishing
allowable stress, the bases for establishing external pressure charts, and information required for
approval of new materials

Subpart 1 contains allowable stress and design stress intensity tables for ferrous and nonferrous
materials for pipe, fittings, plates, bolts, and so forth. In addition, it provides tensile strength and yield
strength values for ferrous and nonferrous materials and lists factors for limiting permanent strain in
nickel, high-nickel alloys, and high alloy steels. Subpart 2 of Part D has tables and charts providing
physical properties, such as the coefficient of thermal expansion, moduli of elasticity, and other
technical data needed for the design and construction of pressure-containing components and their
supports made from ferrous and nonferrous materials.

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American Society of Mechanical Engineers B31. Codes for Pressure Piping

The group of ASME B31 codes, previously known as ANSI B31, covers pressure piping.
was created by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and includes power piping, fuel gas
piping process piping, pipeline transportation systems for hydrocarbons and other liquids,
refrigeration piping and heat transfer components, and building services piping.
The following sections of ASME B31. Code for Pressure Piping,

ASME B31.1. Power Piping piping typically found in electric power generating stations, in industrial
and institutional plants, geothermal heating systems and central and district heating and cooling
systems heating and cooling systems.

ASME B31.2, Fuel Gas Piping.

ASME B3 1.3, Process Piping: piping typically for petroleum refineries, chemical pharmaceutical,
textile, paper, semiconductor and cryogenic plants, and related processing plants and terminals.

ASME B31.4. Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids: piping
transporting products which are predominately liquid between plants and terminals and within
terminals, pumping, regulating, and metering stations.

ASME B31.5, Refrigeration Piping: piping for refrigerants and secondary coolants.

ASME B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems: piping transporting products which
are predominately gas between sources and terminals, including compressor, regulating, and
metering stations: gas gathering pipelines.

ASME B3 1.8S, Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines.

ASME B31.9, Building Services Piping piping typically found in industrial, institutional, commercial,
and public buildings, and in multi-unit residences, which does not require the range of sizes,
pressures, and temperatures covered in B31.1.

ASME B31.11. Slurry Transportation Piping Systems: piping transporting aqueous sluries between
plants and terminals and within terminals, pumping, and regulating stations

B31G. Manual for Determining Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines.

ASME B31, Standards of Pressure Piping,

B31.3, Process Piping

This ASME section covers the most commonly used code in the B31 series. It covers the design of
chemical and petroleum plants and refineries processing chemicals hydrocarbons, water, and steam.
The code contains rules for piping typically found in petroleum refineries, chemical, pharmaceutical,
textile, paper, semiconductor, cryogenic plants, and related processing plants and terminals. ASME

B3 1.3 also prescribes requirements for materials and compose a code applies to assembly, erection,
examination, inspection, and testing of piping piping for all fluids, including (1) raw, intermediate, and
finished chemicals; (2) petroleum products: (3) gas, steam, air, and water. (1) fluidized solids (5)
refrigerants: and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping that interconnects pieces or stages within
a packaged equipment assembly. To maintain high-quality workmanship that will result in a safe
environment

and the use of standard materials, components, and methods of construction and testing,

this code sets out a number of rules that cover

• Design.
• Material (strength).
• Flexibility (stress).
• Fabrication (welded joints).
• Erection (mechanical joints),
• Examination
• Testing

The basic function of ASME B31.3 code is to guarantee the safety of construction, commissioning
and operating personnel during the most critical periods of a plant's life. ASME B31.3. Process
Piping, assumes that the plant life, that is, the length of time that it will be in operation, is 20 to 30
years, based on a safety factor of 3 to 1. These are for commercial projects. Plants that demand a
very high level of reliability, because downtime has an

immediate impact on power delivered to the general public are designed to ASME B31.1, Power
Piping, which uses a safety factor of 4 to 1, which results in a plant life of approximately 40 years.
Between two facilities designed to ASME B31.3, the interconnecting pipelines are covered by ASME
B3 1.4 for oil transportation and ASME B31.8 for gas transportation. These two transportation codes
are very similar in format to ASME B31.3 but have additional factors to consider, because a pipeline
could be several thousands of miles long and travel through differing locations and encounter various
environmental changes and climatic variations. In comparison, a process unit is in one geographical
location that will be of several hundred acres but subjected to only one climate and, in a vast majority
of cases, a common elevation, also known as grade.

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The subjects covered within ASME B31.3 are.

Chapter I, Scope and Definitions.

Chapter 11, Design.
Part 1, Conditions and Criteria.
Part 2, Pressure Design of Piping Components.
Part 3, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping components
Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Joints
Part 5, Flexibility and Support.
Part 6, Systems.
Chapter 111, Materials.
Chapter IV. Standards for Piping Components.
Chapter V. Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection
Chapter VI. Inspection, Examination, and Testing
Chapter VII, Nonmetallic Piping and Piping Lined with Nonmetals,
Part 1, Conditions and Criteria.
Part 2, Pressure Design of Piping Components.
Part 3. Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Components.
Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Joints.
Part 5, Flexibility and Support
Part 6, Systems
Part 7, Materials.
Part 8, Standards for Piping Components.
Part 9, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection.
Part 10, Inspection, Examination, and Testing
Chapter VIII, Piping for Category M Fluid Service.
Part 1, Conditions and Criteria.
Part 2, Pressure Design of Metallic Piping Components.
Part 3, Fluid Service Requirements for Metallic Piping Components.
Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Metallic Piping Joints.
Part 5, Flexibility and Support of Metallic Piping.
Part 6, Systems.
Part 7, Metallic Materials.
Part 8, Standards for Piping Components.
Part 9, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection of Metallic
Part 10, Inspection, Examination, Testing, and Records oF Metallic Piping.
Parts 11 through 20 correspond to Chapter VIL
Part 11, Conditions and Criteria.
Part 12, Pressure Design of Nonmetallic Pio Components.
Part 13, Fluid Service Requirements for Nonmetallic Piping Components.
Part 14, Fluid Service Requirements for Nonmetallic Piping Joints.
Part 15, Flexibility and Support of Nonmetallic Piping
Part 16, Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic Lined Systems.
Part 17, Nonmetallic Materials,
Part 18, Standards for Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic-Lined Piping Components
 Part 19. Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection of Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic-Lined
Piping
Part 20, Inspection, Examination, Testing, and Records of Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic
Lined Piping.
Chapter IX, High Pressure Piping.
Part 1, Conditions and Criteria.
Part 2, Pressure Design of Piping Components.
Part 3, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Components.
Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Joints.
Part 5, Flexibility and Support
Part 6, Systems.
Part 7, Materials.
Part 8, Standards for Piping Components
Part 9, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection
Part 10, Inspection, Examination, and Testing Figures.

4.3 STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATION

ASME B31.3 is the design code supported by numerous standards and specifications that covers a
great detail of information and data regarding the individual components that make up a piping
system. These international standards and specifications cover

Materials-chemical composition, mechanical strength, and testing.

Dimensions and tolerances.
Examination.
Fabrication
Testing of piping systems and
Fabrication

The most commonly used standards and specifications under the umbrella of the ASME B31.3 code
are from the following organizations:

American Petroleum Institute (API). Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS).

American Welding Society (AWS).

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
American Water Works Association (AWA).
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT).
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valves and Fittings Industry (MSS).
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
Pipe Fabrication Institute (PFI).
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).

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The series of ASME standards that follow are primarily dimensional standards for components:

B1.1, Standard for Screw Threads.

B1.20.1. Pipe Threads, General Purpose, Inch. B16.1. Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
B16.3, Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings.
B16.4, Cast Iron Threaded Fittings.
B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
B16.9, Factory-Made Wrought steel butt welding fittings
B16.10, Face-to-face and End-to-end Dimensions of Valves
B16.11, Forged Steel Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded.
B16.14, Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings and Locknuts with Pipe Threads.
B16.15, Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings.
B16.18, Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings.
B16.20, Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges-Ring Joint, Spiral- Wound, and Jacketed.
B16.21, Nonmetallic flat gaskets for pipe flanges
B16.22, Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings.
B16.24, Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
B16.25, Butt Welding Ends.
B16.26, Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tubes.
B16.28, Wrought Steel, Butt Welding, Short Radius Elbows and Returns B16.34, Valves-Flanged,
Threaded, and Welding End.
B16.36, Orifice Flanges.
B16.39, Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions.
B16.42, Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150 and 300.
B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges: NPS 26 through NPS 60.
B16.48, Steel Line Blanks.
B36.10M, Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe.
B36.19M, Stainless Steel Pipe
VALVES AND FLANGES

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Valves are essential components of a piping system, and they allow the process fluid to be controlled
and directed on its journey through the process plant. Valves can control not only the flow, but also
the rate, the volume, the pressure, and the direction of a fluid within a pipe.

THE FUNCTIONS OF A VALVE

The main functions of valves are

Isolation: - On/Off
Regulation: - throttle flow.
Non-return: - check, prevent flow reversal.
Special Purpose: Pressure Relief

6.2 VALVE CLASSIFICATION

i.Based on Mechanical Motion

Linear Motion Valves:

The valves which the closure member, as in gate, globe, diaphragm, pinch, and lift check valves,
moves in a straight line to allow, stop, or throttle the flow

Rotary Motion Valves:

When the valve closure member travels along an angular or circular path, as in butterfly, ball, plug,
eccentric and swing check valves, the valves are called rotary modion valves

Quarter Turn Valves:

Some rotary motion valves require approximately a quarter turn, 0 through 90, motion of the stem to
go to fully open from a fully closed position or vice versa:

ii.Based on Operation

Manual: Manual operators employ levers, gears, or wheels to facilitate movement within a valve

Automatic Automatic operators known as actuators use an external power supply to provide the
necessary force required to operate valves. Automatic actuators use hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electrical power as their source for operating valves. Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators use fluid or
air pressure, respectively, to operate valves needing linear or quarter-turn movements. Electric
actuators have motor drives that operate valves requiring multiple turn movements.

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6.3 VALVE COMPONENTS

The following are the primary components of a valve: A valve body is the housing for all the internal
working components of a valve and it contains the method of joining the valve to the piping system.
The closure element, known as the disk or plug, is a valve component that, when allow the passage
of fluid through the valve. The mating opens or closes to of the disk bears against the seat. The
actuator is a movable component that, when operated, causes the closure element to open or close.
The stem is a movable component that connects the actuator to the closure element. The bonnet is a
valve component that provides a leak proof closure for the body through which the stem passes and
is sealed. The seat is a component that provides a surface capable of sealing against the flow of
fluids in a valve when contacted by a mating surface on the disk. The seat is attached to the valve
body. The stuffing box is the interior area of the valve between the stem and the bonnet that contains
the packing. Packing is the material that seals the stem from leaking to the outside of the valve. The
packing is contained by the packing nut on the bonnet. The backseat is a seat in the bonnet used in
the fully open position to seal the valve stem against leakage into the packing. A bushing on the stem
provides the mating surface. Back seating is useful if the packing begins to leak and it provides a
means to prevent the stem from being ejected from the valve. The stroke of a closure member is the
distance the member must travel from the fully opened to the fully closed position.

Two types of valve stems are rising stems and non rising stems. For a rising stem valve, the stem will
rise above the actuator as the valve is opened. This occurs because the stem is threaded and mated
with the bushing threads of a yoke that is an integral part of, or is mounted to, the bonnet. There is no
upward stem movement from outside the valve for a non rising stem design. For the non rising stem
design, the valve disk is threaded internally and mates with the stem threads.
6.4 TYPES OF VALVES

Due to the various environments, system fluids, and system conditions in which flow must be
controlled, a large number of valve designs have been developed. A basic understanding of the
differences between the various types of valves, and how these.

differences affect valve function, will help ensure the proper application of each valve type during
design and the proper use of each valve type during operation.

The most commonly used valves in projects designed to the ASME B31 code are Gate valves, Globe
valves, Check valves. Ball valves, Plug valves, Butterfly valves, Pinch or diaphragm valves, Control
valves, Pressure relief valves. Each of these can be subdivided in other groupings based on their
design and materials of construction.

i.Gate Valves

The gate valve is the most frequently used valve in piping systems. It is a general service valve that
is used primarily for on-off, non-throttling applications. Gate valves, use a wedge-shaped disk or gate
as the closure member operating perpendicular to the flow; it is raised to open and lowered to close
the valve. As the disk closes, it fits tightly against the seat surfaces in the valve body. A gate valve is
used fully opened or closed only. It should not be used for throttling service (partly open), as the gate
will vibrate and quickly become damaged and subject to wire drawing caused by the velocity of the
liquid flowing past the disk.

Three dimensions are crucial when drawing a valve symbol: face-to-face, hand wheel height, and
hand wheel diameter. The length of a valve is represented on most dimensioning charts as the face-

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to-face dimension. Another important dimension is the diameter of the flanged faces on flanged
valves. When representing flanged valves, the diameter of the valve's flanges must be drawn to
match the size and pound rating of the flange or nozzle to which it is being bolted. Gate valves are
available with a variety of disks. Classification of gate valves is usually made by the type disk used:
solid wedge, flexible wedge, split wedge, or parallel disk.

ii. Globe Valves

Standard Globe Valve

Globe valves are so named due to the globular shape of the valve body. Globe valves are used
where throttling and/or frequent operation is desired. Each uses the same method of closure-a round
disk or tapered plug-type disk that seats against a round opening (pont). This design deliberately
restricts flow, so globes should not be used where full, non obstructed flow is required. By simply
rotating the hand wheel, the rate at which the commodity flows through the valve can be adjusted to
any desired level. Having the valve seat parallel to the line of flow is an important feature of the globe
valve. This feature makes the globe valve efficient when throttling commodities as well yielding
minimal disc and seat erosion. This configuration, however, creates a large amount of resistance
within the valve. The design of the globe valve body forces the flow of the commodity to change
direction within the valve itself. This change in direction creates substantial pressure drop and
turbulence. The globe valve is therefore not recommended when flow resistance and pressure drop
are to be avoided. There are basic types of globe valve: the standard globe, the angle globe valve
and the needle valve Y type globe valve
iv. Angle Valves

Angle valves are identical to standard globe valve in seat designs and operation. The basic difference
is that the body of the angle valve acts as a 90 elbow, eliminating the need for a fitting at that point in
the system. Angle valves also have less resistance to flow than the combination of globe valves and
the fittings they replace.

v.Needle valves

Needle valves are generally small in size and are intended to provide precise flow control. Many turns
of the handle are required to adjust flow in order to achieve precise control.

This design is a remedy for the high pressure drop inherent in globe valves. The seat and stem are
angled at approximately 45: The angle yields a struighter flow path (at full opening) and provides the
stem, bonnet, and packing a relatively pressure resistant envelope.

vi. Plug Valves

A plug valve is a rotational motion valve used to stop or start fluid flow. The name is derived from the
shape of the disk, which resembles a plug. A plug valve is a quarter-turn valve that uses a tapered
cylindrical plug that fits a body seat of corresponding shape. When the port in the plug is aligned with
the body opening, flow is permitted in a way similar to a ball valve. A one-quarter (90) turn operates
the valve from opened to closed and vice versa. Plug valves are available in either a lubricated or non
lubricated design and with a variety of styles of port openings through the plug as well a a number of
plug designs.

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vii. Ball Valves

A ball valve utilizes a ball with a hole drilled through it as the opening/ closing device. It is a quarter-
turn valve. The ball seals by fitting tightly against resilient seat rings on either side. How is straight
through, and pressure los depends on the size of the opening in the ball (port). The ball valve is an
inexpensive alternative to other valves. When the valve handle is tumed to open the valve, the ball
rotates to a point where the hole through the ball is in line with the valve body inlet and outlet. When
the valve is shut, the ball is rotated so that the hole is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve
body and the flow is stopped. Most ball valve actuators are of the quick-acting type, which require a
90° turn of the valve handle to operate the valve. Other ball valve actuators are planetary genr-
operated. This type of gearing allows the use of a relatively suall lundwheel and operating force to
operate a fairly Large valve.

The split body design consists of a two-part body, a cover, ball, seat rings, stem and other internals.
The two-part body is held together by a flange connection. One body part is smaller than the other.
The ball is inserted in the larger body part and the staller body part is assembled by a bolted
connection Top-entry ball valves allow access to valve internals for assembly, disassembly, repair, or
maintetiance lig helnoval of the valve bonnet-cover. The valve is not required to be removed from the
pipeline. End-entry ball valves have a sinytle-piece body. The ball is inserted from one end and is
retained by an insert. These valves have flanges hot screwed-end connections. This design is
commonly used for inexpensive small valves.
viii Butterfly Valves

A butterfly valve has a wafer-shaped body with a thin rotating disk as the closing device. Like the ball
valve, the butterfly operates with a one-quarter turn from fully opened to fully close. The disk is
always in the flow path, but since it is relatively thin, it offers little restriction to the flow. When the
valve is closed, the disk edge fits tightly against a ring-shaped liner (seat).

These valves generally have one-piece bodies that fit sandwich-style between two pipe flanges. The
two most common body types are wafer and lug body. The wafer body is placed between pipe
flanges, and the flange bolts surround the valve body. The lug body has protruding lugs that provide
bolt Holes matching those in the flanges. Butterfly valves have continued to grow in popularity,
generally at the expense of gate valves, because they are lightweight, easy to install, low in cost,
easy to actuate, and easy to insulate and also because they feature one-quarter tum operation, tight
shutoff (due to resilient seal), and a variety of construction materials.

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ix.Diaphragm Valves

A diaphragm valve uses a rubber, plastic or elastomer diaphragm to seal the stem. The diaphragm
not only seals the stem but forms the closure element. There are two styles of diaphragm valves, one
having a body with a weir and the other having a straight-through body. On the weir type, the stem is
connected to a finger arrangement, which in turn presses the diaphragm down onto a weir. This
creates an extremely tight seal that will seal even on some solids.

Since the diaphragm is not metallic and forms the closure, the valve is severely limited in pressure
and temperature. A wide variety of diaphragm materials are available for use with different fluids. To
enable draining of horizontal the weir valve must be mounted 15° from the horizontal plane (because
of the wear) installation, especially with air actuators. This complicates

x. Pinch Valves

A pinch valve uses a round connected to the valve body from inlet to outlet that completely isolates
the liquid passing through the valve from all internal valve components. Closure is made by a
movable closure element outside the sleeve that pinches the sleeve between the element and the
valve body. This type of valve is used for slurry and other with highly corrosive Properties.
Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These valves are
activated by the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid passing through the system
opens the valve, while any reversal of flow will close the valve. Closure is accomplished by the weight
of the check mechanism, by back pressure, by a spring, or by a combination of these means. Basic
types are the swing check, lift check, ball che cha and wafer check designsThe swing check valve
has a hinged disk, sometimes called a flapper that swings on a hinge pin. When flow reverses, the
pressure pushes the disk against a seat. The flapper may have a composition disk, rubber or Teflon,
rather than metal when tight closure is required. Swing checks offer little resistance to flow.

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Swing check valve

The lift check valve has a guided disk that is raised from the Seat by upward flow pressure. Reversal
of flow pushes the disks down against the seat, stopping back flow. Lift checks have considerable
resistance to flow, similar to that of a globe valve. They are well suited for high-pressure service.
Lift check valve

The tilting-disc check valve is designed to overcome some of the weaknesses inherent in
conventional swing check valves. A combination of design features enables the valve to open fully
and remain steady at lower flow velocities and to close quickly upon cessation of forward flow.

Tilting Disc Check Valve

Another common check is a wafer design which fits between flanges in the same fashion as a
butterfly valve. Wafer checks come in two types: a dual flapper that is hinged on a center post and a
single flapper that is similar to the standard swing check. They are generally used in larger size piping
(4 in and larger) because they are much lighter and less expensive than traditional flanged end swing
check valves.

A demand check valve is of two-piece construction, with one piece having a spring loaded closure
similar to the air values found on automobile tires. The second piece, when inserted into the first,
opens the valve, allowing free passage of air. The demand check valve is used for connecting
gauges, allowing removal without permitting air to escape from the pipe.

A stop check valve is a combination of a lift check valve and a globe valve. It has a stem which, when
closed, prevents the disk from coming off the seat and provides a tight seal (similar to a globe valve).
When the stem is operated to the open position, the valve operates as a lift check. The stem is not
connected to the disk and functions to close the valve tightly or to limit the travel of the valve disk in
the open direction.

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xii. Relief and Safety Valves

Relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving accidental over pressurization of
fluid systems. The main difference between a relief valve and a safety valve is the extent of opening
at the set point pressure. A relief valve gradually opens as the inlet pressure increases above the set
point. A relief valve opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressure condition. A safety valve
rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressure setting is reached. A safety valve will stay fully open
until the pressure drops below a resct pressure. The reset pressure is lower than the actuating
pressure set point. The difference between the actuating pressure set and the pressure at which the
safety valve resets is called blow down. Blow down is expressed as a percentage of the actuating
pressure set point. Relief valves are typically used for incompressible fluids such as water or oil.
Safety valves are typically used for compressible fluids such as steam or other gases. Safety valves
can often be distinguished by the presence of an external lever at the top of the valve body, which is
used as an operational check.
System pressure provides a force that is to push the of the safety valve off its seat Spring pressure on
the stem is forcing the disk onto the seat. At the pressure determined by spring compression, system
pressure overcomes spring pressure and the relief valve opens. As system pressure is relieved, the
valve closes when spring pressure again overcomes system pressure. Most relief and safety valves
open against the force of a compression spring. The pressure set point is adjusted by turning the
adjusting nuts on top of the yoke to increase or decrease the spring compression.

Xii. Control Valves

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The control valve is an automated valve that can make precise adjustments to regulate and monitor
any commodity flowing through a piping system. The most common valve body style used as a
control valve is the globe valve. Although many other body styles are used, the globe valve provides
the most effective means to regulate and control flow. Control valves use signals received from
instruments positioned throughout the piping system to automatically make adjustments that regulate
the commodity within the pipe. Though control valves can perform many functions, they are typically
used to control the flow of a commodity within a pipe or to limit its pressure.

Control valves must be arranged within a run of pipe so that they can be easily operated. To achieve
this, control valve manifolds configured. Control valve manifolds make control valves readily
accessible to workers.

Types of Valves Summary

Gate valves are generally used in systems where low flow resistance for a fully open valve is desired
and there is no need to throttle the flow. Globe valves are used in systems where good throttling
characteristics and low seat leakage are desired and a relatively high head loss in an open valve is
acceptable. Ball valves allow quick, quarter turn on-off operation and have poor throttling
characteristics. Plug valves are often used to direct flow between several different ports through use
of a single valve. Diaphragm valves and pinch valves are used in systems where it is desirable for the
entire operating mechanism to be completely isolated from the fluid. Butterfly valves provide
significant advantages over other valve designs in weight, space, and cost for large valve
applications. Check valves automatically open to allow flow in one direction and seat to prevent flow
in the reverse direction. A stop check valve is a combination of a lift check valve and a globe valve
and incorporates the characteristics of both. Safety/relief valves are used to provide automatic over
pressurization protection for a system.
6.5 FLANGES

Flanges used when the joint needs dismantling. These are done mainly at equipments, valves and
specialties. In certain piping systems where maintenance is a regular feature, break out flanges are
provided at definite intervals on the piping. To erect the piping system, every piece of mechanical
equipment is manufactured with at least one outlet called a nozzle. The nozzle is the point where, via
the flange, the piping system is connected to the equipment. From this flange, the piping system is
begun

• Flanges are covered under the following standards.

❖ Size " to 24" - ASME -B16.5

• 26" and above - ASME -B16.47
• Flange strength increases with class number.
• Material and design temperature combinations without pressure indicated not acceptable.
• A flange has to be specified with the following details.
❖ Size
❖ Pressure rating
❖ Type of attachment to piping
❖ Facing of the Flange
❖ Material of construction

Rating Flanges

Rating may be defined as the maximum pressure allowed by the pressure piping code SERV ode for
the specific temperature at which the flange will be operating. Flanges and nozzles are sized
according to pressure ratings established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). These
pressure ratings, sometimes called pound ratings, are divided into seven categories for forged steel
flanges. Cast iron flanges have 4 categories.

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Forged steel Flanges pound rating

150#,300#,400#,600#,900#,1500#,2500#

Cast iron flanges pound rating

25#,125#,250# and 800#

6.7 Types of flange facing

The mating surface of a flange, nozzle, or valve is called the face. The face is usually machined to
create a smooth surface. This smooth surface will help assure a leak-proof seal when two flanges are
bolted together with a gasket sandwiched between

Flat face
Raised face
Ring type
Tongue and groove

Flat face: -
This is used for 150#flanges, especially when connected to cast iron equipments, valves etc, since
cast iron flanges can break due to the movement by bolting against a raised face.
Raised face: -
Mostly flanges if 150# to600# ratings used in the petroleum industry will be raised face. For 150# &
300# rating the raised face is of 1/16"and for higher ratings it is 4".
Ring type joint: -
These are used for high pressure service normally 900# and above.
Tongue and groove: -
These were used mainly for vacuum services, high temp/pressure services. How ever, these are not
recommended for use now-a-days due to corrosion in the grove and also the problem of matching
male &female flanges at each installation.
Type of finish on flange face

The face finish depends on the types of gasket used There are 2 types of finishes done to flange
facings

• Smooth finish
• Serrated finish

Smooth finish flanges are specified when metallic gaskets are used and serrated finish flanges are
used when with non metallic gasket are used. The finish as also specified by a term called Arithmetic
Averages Rough Lines Height(AARH). It indicates the depth of the serration in micro inches Smooth
finish will 250 AARH. Serr finish for It indicates the face finish of 125 - sed force flanges will have 250-
500 AARH. The serrations provided on the facing could be concentric or spiral concentric serrations
are insisted, when fluid being carried has very low density and can leak through these points,

6.8 FLANGE TYPE

Flanges have been designed and developed to be used in a myriad of applications. Each one has its
own special function requirements characteristics, and should be carefully selected to meet specific c
of flange is given below;

Welding Neck flange: -

These are attached to the piping by butt welding. There are generally used for sizes 2" and above
and critical services. The thickness of the welding end of these flanges shall be same as the pipe
schedule

Socket weld flanges: -

They are used on sizes 12 and smaller. Pipe is inserted in to the socked on the flanges and is fillet
welded.

Screwed flanges: -
These are used on small bore piping of non critical services.

Slip-on flanges: -
These are attached by welding inside as well as out side used for non critical services.

Lap joint flanges: -

This consists of a stub end which is welded on to the pipe and a loose flange. These are normally
used when the pipe material is costly for e.g.: - if the piping is stainless steel, the stub end will be
stainless steel and the loose flange will be carbon steel which is cheaper.

Blind flanges: -
These are used to close the ends which need to be reopened lare

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6.9 Materials of construction for flanges

• Flanges are normally are normally forged except in very few cases, where they are fabricated
from plates.

• The normal material standards for forged flanges are

❖ ASTM A105 - Carbon steel

❖ ASTM A181 - Carbon steel for general purpose
❖ ASTM A182 - Alloy steel and stainless steel
❖ ASTM A350 - Alloy steel for low temperature services.
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6.10 BOLTS & GASKETS

Bolts and gaskets are used at flange connections in piping

Bolting
• Bolt materials and type are selected based on service fluid & pressure temperature rating. For low
pressure & non critical services, machine bolts are used and for other services studs are used.
• Machine bolt has hexagonal head at one and threads at other end. It is used with a hexagonal nut
and a round washer.
• A stud doesn't have head and is fully threaded. It is used with two hexagonal nuts and two
washers.
• The length and diameter of studs / bolts required for flange joints of all pressure classes are
specified in ASME B16.5.

The most common bolting materials used in the petroleum industry

• ASTM A193-Alloy steel bolts for high temperature service

• ASTM A 194-Alloy steel nuts for high temperature service
• ASTM A320-Alloy steel bolting materials for low temperature service.
• ASTM A 307- Low carbon steel bolting material.

The dimensional standards for bolts are

• ASME B 18.2.1- Square and hexagonal head bolts

• ASM B 18.2.2- Square and hexagonal nuts
Gaskets
Selection of gasket depends upon the following factors.
• Compatibility of the gasket material with the fluid.
• Ability to with stand the pressure – temperature of the system..

There are 3 types of gaskets normally used

• Non metallic flat gasket
• Metallic gasket
• Ring joint gasket.

Non metallic flat gasket

• Non metallic flat ring gasket is the least expensive and most common. There are however an
unconfined gasket subject to blow out, and is normally used only for 150# rating.
• Flat ring gaskets are used with raised face flanges.
• Full face gaskets are used with flat face flanges.
• The most common material is the compressed fiber jointing gasket, consists of a fibrous
material, a binder and inert filler. Other nonmetallic materials used are PTPE (Teflon), Rubber
etc.
• Non metallic gaskets are manufactured to dimensional standard ASME B16.21

Metallic gasket
• Metallic gaskets are used for high pressure, high temperature services. They are used for
150#, 300# and 600# ratings.
• The most common type of metallic gasket is the spiral wound gasket. They are manufactured
from a thin V-shaped metal strip and a strip of gasketing material wound into a ring
• The metal strip is usually 55304, but other materials can also be used for corrosion resistance
depending on the fluid.
• Spiral wound gaskets are provided with carbon steel external ring known as centering ring,
which helps in positioning the gaskets between the two flanges. For critical services, an
internal ring is also provided to avoid over compression of the gaskets. The internal ring
material should be suitable for the service fluid.
• Spiral wound gaskets are covered under standard ASME B 16.20

Ring joint gasket

• Ring joint gaskets are used with Ring type joint flanges for high pressure services, normally 900#
and above.
• These gaskets have either octagonal or oval cross section; however octagonal type is preferred
because of its larger contact area with the flange groove..
• The material of the gaskets should be suitable for the service fluid.
• Their hardness should be less than that of the material flanges to assure a tight joint

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• Ring joint gaskets are covered under standard ASME B16.20

PIPE SUPPORTS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

All piping system requires pipe supports to withstand the following:

• weight of the piping system

• Thermal Expansion or contraction
• Vibration
• External influences such as wind, earthquakes etc.

Piping systems carrying hot fluids or low temperature fluids require special attention due to thermal
expansion or contraction of the piping. Detailed stress analysis may be required to decide the support
types and location for such lines. Piping for fluids with ambient or close to ambient temperature ( for
e.g. water piping) will not have much thermal movement and in such cases the supporting is relatively
simpler to take care of the weight effects only. Also, larger diameter pipe supports needs to be
carefully designed take the heavy loads.

THERMAL DITECTS:
Thermal effects are basically emanating from service temperatures which cause expansion of the
piping resulting in dimension change, reduction in material strength and stress in the material
strength and create stress the piping and any connected equipment.
WEIGHT EFFECTS:
Weight of the piping system will require adequate supports to avoid over stressing at a single
location, avoid sagging of the piping system or to avoid excessive forces on the connected
equipment

Following are some of the common terminology used with respect to pipe supports:

RESTRAINT:
Any device that prevents, resist or limits the free thermal movement of piping.

SUPPORT:
A device used specifically to sustain a portion of weight of the piping system.

ANCHOR:
A rigid restraint ( mostly welded or bolted) which restricts all the 6 degrees of freedom of pipe
movement. They are used wherever pipe movement may adversely affect the connected
equipment nozzle etc.

CROSS GUIDE OR LIMIT STOP:

A device which restricts axial movement of the pipe but permits vertical and lateral
movements as well as rotation.

GUIDE
A device preventing lateral movement as well as rotation about one or more axes.

RESTING /SLIDING SUPPORT:

A device providing support from beneath the pipe, but offering no resistance to the horizontal
movement of the pipe except frictional resistance.

HANGER:
A support by which piping is suspended from an overhead structure.

RIGID SUPPORT:
A support providing stiffener in at least one direction

RESILIENT SUPPORT:
A support which include one or more elastic member to allow pipe movement (e.g. spring
supports)

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RESTING SUPPORT ARE PROVIDED FOR:

• Where structure is available below the piping

• Where pipe movements are high
• Less space
• Also resting supports offers frictional resistance to the pipe movement.

HANGER SUPPORT ARE PROVIDED FOR:

• Structure is available above the piping.

• The pipe movement is limited in this case, since it is restricted proportional to the length of the
hanger
• A hanger supports needs more space to accommodate the hanger.
• There is practically no friction in the case of hanger supports.

SUPPORT SPACING AND SPANS:

All horizontal piping are subject to sagging unless the pipeline is continuously supported .The amount
of sag depends on the fluid weight, insulation, components such as valves etc. All these must be
taken into account when determining the span between pipe supports.

Allowable spans for horizontal lines are principally influenced by the need to

• Keep Stresses within limits

• Limit deflections (sagging) for appearances, avoiding pockets and avoiding interference.
• Control material frequency by limiting the span, so as to avoid undesirable vibration by
• limiting the span stiffener increases.

To simplify support spacing calculation, MSS-SP-69 standard has provided recommended support
spacing for various pipe sizes. These spans which have been accepted by ASME have been
determined by considering insulated standard wall, thickness pipe filled with water

limited to a maximum combined bending and shear stress of 1500 psi and maximum pipe sag of 0.1
inches ( 2.5 mm) .When these recommended support spacing are adhered to the stress levels in the
piping system due only to weight loading usually need not be explicitly computed.
10.2 PIPE ROUTING CONSIDERATIONS FOR EFFECTIVE AND ECONOMIC SUPORTING

• Piping lay out and routing has to be prepared keeping in mind the pipe support requirement.

• The piping system should be short and straight to be self supporting as far as without
compromising flexibility requirements.

• Excess flexibility may make additional supports or restraints necessary to avoid movement and
vibrations of the piping.

• Piping prone to vibrate such as compressor suction or discharge lines should be supported
independently of other piping. Also the supports should be resting type offering resistance to
motion rather than hanger supports.

• Piping from upper connections of tall vertical vessels and columns is advantageously
supported from the vessel itself to minimize relative movement between the supports
and the piping. Hence such piping should be routed close to the vessel

The standard support spans are applicable for horizontal straight runs. However most piping systems
are not made strict of straight horizontal runs. Hence support location shall be decided considering
various factors.

• Supports shall be provided as as possible to heavy load concentrations such as valves,

strainers etc. vertical runs, branch lines. Etc
• When changes of direction in a horizontal plane occurs, it is suggested that the spacing be
limited to the of the standard span to promote stability and reduce eccentric loading. It is
preferred that the support are located near elbows to reduce moments due to directional
changes between supports.
• The standard span does not apply to vertical run of the pipe. On a vertical line, it is
recommended that the supported be located on the upper half to prevent buckling due to
compressive forces in the pipe and to prevent instability in overturning of the pipe under its on
weight.
• Guides shall be used on long vertical lines to reduce pipe sag and resulting excessive
deflections. These pipe guides do not carry any pipe dead cycles.

In a typical process unit, support spacing is largely determined by spacing of conveniently located
columns. Commonly the syncing pipe racks must provide for the weakest pipe. The smaller diameter
pipes can also be supported in between from large diameter pipe running adjacent to it. Sometimes
the diameter of the pipe is increased to make it self supporting.

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10.3 PIPE SUPPORT HARDWARE

Pipe support hardware refers to the physical structural elements and structural steel used for pipe
supports. The major criteria governing hardware selection are support function, magnitude of
expected load and space limitations. However, the following must also he kept in mind

• The design temperature used for selection of pipe clamps, U- bolt, straps eto. In direct contact
with the pipe is that of the fluid contents of the pipe.
• Piping operating at high temperature or subject to condensation the outer surface will usually
he insulated. The pipe support hardware must designed to accommodate the insulation
• The piping, attachments and supporting structure in contact with each other must he of
compatible materials in order to avoid galvanic corrosion. In certain cases, it may be necessary
to insert inert packing material between dissimilar piping and support materials. Additionally
the support materials must be suitable for the environment to which they will be subjected.
• All hardware should be inspected, beginning with the start-up of the system. Hardware types
requiring less inspection and maintenance are preferable where possible

The most commonly used support types are listed below:

• Weight supports including rod hangers, sliding supports, variable spring hangers and constant
spring hangers.
• Rigid restrai and anchors including clamps, struts, support steel and welded attachments.
• Snubbers (hydraulic and mechanical)
• Sway braces

When it is desirable to reduce friction forces between sliding support and the structural steel,
antifriction pad such as Teflon is inserted between the two.

HANGER

A device which suspends (usually a single line) from structural steel, or concrete or wood. Usually
adjustable for height.
Shoe supports are provided just to take weight of the system.This is a rigid support. It can be resting
or anchored. Shoe can be anchored by bolting or welding.

GUIDES

Guides are provided for long straight pipes subjected to thermal movements.

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The above picture shows deflection of a pipe loop due to thermal expansion with guide and without
guide. Clearly we can see that deflection of the loop with guide is much lesser compared to loop
without guide.

AXIAL STOP

Axial stop is used to restrict the pipe movement in axial direction. So if we fix axial stop at middle of a
long run pipe which has thermal movement, then that pipe will elongate from middle point to end
point.
PIPE ANCHORS

Expansion is not the only force that can alter the alignment of a pipe. Vibration, commodity
turbulence, and other external forces, such as wind, cause a pipe to move. Often restriction of a
pipe's movement becomes necessary. To prevent movement or to control the direction of movement
pipe anchors are often used. Two types of pipe anchors exist: fixed and directional.

Fixed anchors are used in locations where all movement of a line must be prevented. The most
common way to anchor a pipe is to weld the pipe directly to a support or structural member. If the
pipe be anchored is insulated, the pipe shoe is welded to the structural support.

Directional anchors are used to force movement to occur in one direction while preventing it from
occurring in the opposite direction. Directional anchors are often used to direct a pipe's movement
away from buildings, structures, or pieces of equipment.

SPRING SUPPORT

Rigid supports including rod hangers sliding supports etc. may be used where vertical thermal
movements are minimal. How where thermal pipe movements are large, the result of using a rigid
support may be the Pipe lifting off the support and therefore loss of weight support) or thermal lock at
the support, with accompanying expansion overstress in the pipe. In such cases, necessary to
support the piping systems with spring supports, wherein due to the spring actions it permit the pipe
to move up ward and at the same time provide weight support. All spring supports consists of a spring

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enclosed in a metal casing usually fabricated from steel pipe. Spring supports can be either hanger
type (hang from over head structure) or can type (where the pipe is supported from the bottom).

(SPRING HANGER)

Spring supports are divided into two categories - Variable spring supports and constant spring
sports.

Can type spring support and hanger type spring support are variable type spring support.

VARIABLE SPRING SUPPORTS

Variable spring supports are so called because they provide variable supporting forcesas the
pipe moves vertically. This is due to the elongation and contraction of the spring with in the
can assembly corresponding to the vertical movement of the pipe. The spring is initially pre
compressed prior to installation on the system. An upward movement of the pipe causes spring
extension and therefore Reduces the spring force. Down ward movement causes compression
of the spring, consequently Increasing the resisting force.

The variation in the supporting force = vertical pipe movement X spring rate.
Spring rate is the force required to produce unit deflection of the spring.

The dead weight that is carried by the spring after installation is called the cold load. When the
system is in operation, the pipe moves because of temperature change, causing the spring to
expand or Compress. Now the spring is said to hot load

Cold load = hot load + KA

Where K= spring rate or spring constant (lb/in)
A = Vertical thermal movement of pipe at the support point, from non operating condition.

where upward movement is considered positive. Thus it can be seen that if pipe moves cold load is
higher than hot load and if pipe moves downward, cold load is lower than hot load. Since the pipe
weight remains constant in both cold and hot condition, the variation in the spring supporting force
results in transfer of pipe weight to the adjacent supports or equipments and consequently induces
additional stress in the system,

Hence it desirable to keep the variation of spring load from cold to hot condition within some
acceptable limits to prevent significant system imbalance. The percentage load variation of
spring is defined as

Hot load - coldload/Hot load

generally, the accepted variations is about 15-20% However for critical connected to pump,
compresses to pump, compresses etc, and the % load variation is limited to 16%.

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CONSTANT SPRING SUPPORT

Both constant and variable spring supports have essentially the same function, but the load of the
constant spring hanger remains the same throughout its travel range.

Constant spring supports are used in the following cases.

• When thermal movements are too large (typically over 50mm) to permit the use of a variable
spring.

• When additional stresses induced in the system due to the load variation in variable spring is
not acceptable, for eg when pipe stress concern arc critical, or at locations near equipment at
which very low nozzle loads must be maintained.

• Constant spring supports achieve the virtually uniform supporting force throughout the travel
range of the pipe through the application of principles of mechanical advantage.

Constant spring hangers are designed with a special spring and lever mechanism which counter
balance the force of movement and fluctuations of the spring. This counter balancing of the load and
spring moments about the main pivot is obtained by the use of carefully designed compression-type
load springs, lever and spring tension rods.
OTHER TYPE OF SUPPORTS

PICK-UP PIPE SUPPORTS

In most piping facilities, structural column spacing in the pipe rack is 25'. For large diameter pipe,
spanning this distance poses no problem. Smaller diameter pipes, however, don't have the strength
necessary to span this distance and will sag between supports. These sags or pockets can become
so severe they can prevent commodity flow. Pick-ups are designed to use the larger pipes to support
the smaller pipes. Using a length of steel angle attached to the larger diameter pipe with U-bolts
allows the small diameter pipes to be supported at their weakest point Pick-ups can span up to 10
and carry a load of 1,200 pounds.

TRUNION SUPPORT

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ADJUSTABLE SUPPORT

These supports are mostly used in lines connected to pump. Using this support we can eliminate
distortion occurring distortion occurring at pump nozzle due ro inaccuracy in construction at some
points like flanges.

DUMMY SUPPORT
SNUBBER
Snubber allow slow expansion but it will not allow sudden vibration.

Mechanical snubber:

Mechanical Snubbers provided by Piping Technology and Products, Inc. have two modes of
operation. In passive mode, i.e., motion caused by thermal loads, the resisting mechanism is
disengaged and the snubber "free wheels" with very low resistance. In active mode the mechanism is

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engaged, and the snubber limits the acceleration to a low threshold value. There are other types of
mechanical snubbers, but these are the most common ones.

HYDRAULIC SNUBBER:

Most hydraulic snubbers have a piston which is relatively unconstrained in motion at low
displacement rates. At high displacement rates the piston "locks up", that is, the force required to
move the piston increases substantially, usually as a result of the closing of a valve. For use on piping
systems or equipment when unrestrained thermal movement must be allowed, but which must be
restrained during impulsive or cyclic disturbance. The unit is not effective against low amplitude, high
frequency movement. Preferred usage, with standard settings, to prevent destructive results due to
earthquakes, flow transients, or wind load. Special settings are available to absorb the continuous
thrust resulting from safety valve blow-off or pipe rupture. For the most effective of the unit, please
specify the mounting position, vertical or horizontal.
PRESSURE AND LEAK TESTING OF PIPING SYSTEMS

14.1 Inspection and Testing

The inspection, examination, and testing of piping systems is covered in Chapter VI of B31.3.
Inspection (the ASME B31.3 code distinguishes between examination and inspection)

• Examination applies to quality control functions performed by the manufacturer of piping

components for the fabricator or erector.
• Inspection applies to functions performed for the owner by the owner's or the inspector's
delegates.

14.2 Types of Examination

Any examination method specified by the code, the owners inspector, or the engineering
design must be performed in accordance with one of the methods specified in the following list. The
following terms apply to the extent of any type of examination:

• 100% examination. This means the complete examination of all of a specified kind of item in a
designated lot of piping components or fabrication work.
• Random examination. This is a complete examination of a percentage of a specified kind of
item in a designated lot of piping.
• Spot examination. This is a specified partial examination of each of a specified kind of item in a
designated lot of piping, such as part of the length of all shop fabricated welds in a lot of
jacketed piping.
• Random spot examination. This means a specified partial examination of a percentage of a
specified kind of item in a designated lot of piping

Visual Examination

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The visual examination of all or part of a piping system must be performed in accordance with the
code, such as referenced in BPV Code, Section V, Article 9. Visual examination is carried out by the
naked eye and refers to defects in components and workmanship without the aid of measuring or
recording equipment. Visual inspection the first option and most commonly used method of
nondestructive testing.

Visual examination is used for the following applications:

• Correct weld preparation.

• Surface defects, such as undercuts and cracks.
• Weld profile (cap, root).
• Measurement of component geometry.
• Measurement of surface roughness.
• Detection of corrosion.
• Detection of defects and cracks.
• Detection of excess grinding defects.
Liquid Penetrant Examination

After visual inspection, liquid penetrant testing is probably the oldest and the second most commonly
used method of NDT. It can be used on any nonporous material, however, its use is restricted to the
detection of surface defects.

A colored or fluorescent dye is applied to a clean surface of the work piece and allowed to settle for
between 10 and 20 minutes. This dye is drawn into the discontinuity by capillary pressure and
penetrates the surface. This capillary pressure is determined by the width of discontinuity, surface
tension, and contact angle of the dye on the surface. Excess dye is then removed from the surface
and a developer applied, which draws out the dye and gives good visual contrast to the defect. The
work piece to be inspected is left for approximately 10 minutes, then the surfaces are visually
inspected, using a white light for red dyes and ultraviolet light for fluorescent dyes.

Magnetic Particle Examination

Magnetic Particle Examination MPE) is a very effective method for the detection of surface and close
to the surface discontinuities in any ferromagnetic material. It relies on the principle that a magnetic
field is uniform through a component unless disturbed by the presence of a flaw. A flaw generates a
local stronger field, known as a leakage field. It attracts finely ground magnetic particles, either as an
ink or dry powder, which are applied to the component, providing a visual indication, making the
defect visible. The advantages to this method are

• Simple examination
• Ability to detect surface and near-surface flaws
• Ability to detect flaws filled with contaminants, such as oxide or nonmetallic inclusions.
The disadvantages are

• Application limited to ferromagnetic materials.

• Inability to detect deep internal flaws.
• Possibility of damage due to high currents applied to the component
• Components usually have to be demagnetized.

Radiographic Examination

Radiography is an accurate examination method that uses X-ray equipment in the laboratory and
radioisotopes on site. It is the most costly of all of the examinations and produces a permanent record
of the work piece being examined. Radiography is used for subsurface defect detection, and the film
produced by the radiography method shows density changes.

The main limitations with radiography are that inspection personnel have to be protected from the
harmful rays and the areas have to be cleared of non-inspection personnel, which means that
construction has to stop. The extent of the level or amount of

radiography carried out on a piping system is defined as follows:

• 100% radiography. This applies only to girth and miter groove welds and fabricated branch
connection welds.
• Random radiography. This applies only to girth and miter groove welds.
• Spot radiography. This requires a single exposure to radiography at a specified location

Ultrasonic Examination

Ultrasonic examination uses a high-frequency (100 kHz-10 MHz) sound wave transmitted as a beam
through the work piece. When the beam meets a defect it is reflected back to the source. In certain
cases, ultrasonic testing can be used if radiography is not an option and it can be used to support
MPE or LPE

14.3 Testing of Piping Systems

Before a piping system can be commissioned for plant startup and after all the required NDE activities
have been completed, each piping system must be tested to ensure the integrity of its pressure
containing capabilities. This test usually is a hydrostatic leak test, unless for special reasons this is
not an option.

There are a number of methods for pressure and leak testing process piping systems, and the
industry tests most commonly used are

• Hydrostatic testing, which uses water or another liquid under pressure.

• Pneumatic or gaseous-fluid testing, which uses air or another gas under pressure.

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 • A combination of pneumatic and hydrostatic testing, where low-pressure air is first used to
detect leaks.
• Initial service testing, which involves a leakage inspection when the system first put into
operation.
• Vacuum testing, which uses negative pressure to check for the existence of a leak.

Where the owner of the plant considers that hydrostatic testing might damage or contaminate the
internal components of the piping system or that a pneumatic test is too hazardous, a 100%
radiography or ultrasonic testing of all welds in the piping system is an option. This is a costly
exercise, but sometimes there is no alternative.

Special Provisions for Testing

Piping subassemblies or sections of a complete piping system can be tested separately, if testing a
system in its entirety is not possible or logistically difficult. The final weld, or closure weld that joins
two connecting piping systems that have been successfully leak tested, need not be part of a leak
test, if it is 100% circumferentially radiographed.

Preparation for Leak Test

All joints and welds on the piping system, including structural attachment welds, such as
pipe supports to pressure-containing components, and bonds should be left uninsulated
and exposed for examination during leak testing. Piping systems designed for vapor or
gas should be provided with additional temporary supports, if required, to support the
weight of liquid during the leak test.

A piping system that has expansion joints that depend on external main anchors to restrain pressure-
end loads should be tested in place. A system that has self-restrained expansion joints, which have
been previously shop tested by the manufacturer, can be excluded from the system being tested.
Bellows-type expansion joints must not be subjected to a leak-test pressure greater than the
manufacturer's test pressure. Items of equipment that are not subjected to a leak test can be
disconnected from the piping system to be tested by isolating, using line blinds or a valve suitable for
the test pressure of the system it is isolating.

LEAK-TESTING METHODS

Hydrostatic Leak Test

Hydrostatic testing is the most commonly used method of leak testing and a safer method than
pneumatic testing. Water is almost non-compressible and there is a limited amount of stored energy;
however, gaseous test mediums used for pneumatic testing are highly compressible. This means that
stored energy is contained within the piping system during the test period could be released suddenly
in the event of a causing local damage to personnel and equipment.
The potential damage possible during a pneumatic test is far greater than in a hydrotest; however,
trapped air pockets in a hydrotest also can have a disastrous effect if there is a failure. That is why it
is essential that all high points in piping systems have vents to allow air to escape as the piping
system is filled with water.

According to ASME B31.3, the hydrostatic test pressure at any point in a metallic piping system
should be as follows: no less than 1.5 times the design pressure

Pneumatic Leak Test

The fluids most commonly used for a pneumatic test are air or nitrogen; however, gas testing involves
the hazard of the piping system retaining stored energy that could have a very damaging effect if
there is a failure. Great care must be taken to minimize the chance of a failure during a pneumatic
leak test. ASME B31.3 quotes a pneumatic test pressure of 110% of design pressure and a pressure
relief device must be installed.

Combination Hydrostatic-Pneumatic Leak Test

For a combined hydrotest-pneumatic test of a piping system, first, a low air pressure, of
approximately 25 psig, is introduced to see if there are any major leaks. This low pressure is less
dangerous than a full pneumatic test, and major leaks can be detected easily by the soapy water
bubble test. Necessary repairs can be carried out before advancing to the hydrotest.

MARINE AND OFFSHORE PIPING SYSTEMS

Marine and Offshore Piping Systems

a. Offshore Production Platforms

b.Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
c. Floating Production Storage and Offloading systems

Offshore Production Platforms

Wellhead / Production Platform

Production platform is often called well head platform.

Each oil production wellhead platform has the following facilities.

• Xmas Trees
• Test Separator
• Production Manifold
• Test Manifold

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 • Drain Sump Tank- process drains
• Deck Sump Tank
• Chemical Injection Unit
• Manual Hoist 2 tons
• Pig Launcher
• Wellhead Control Panel
• Fire and Gas Panel
• Back-up battery supply for navaids, F&G panel, wellhead control panel, and polling radio

Well head platform:

Typically about 12 well slots each are having a X-mas tree. The oil from each well on a well head
platform passes through a manual choke valve to the wellhead production manifold. This manifold
collects fluid from all producing wells on the platform. Each string is connected to the production and
test manifold through a corresponding diverting valve. Each manifold is equipped with pressure
indicator, pressure transmitter to telemetry system, thermal safety valve and connected to closed
drain. A line equipped with a spectacle blind goes from the test manifold to the test separator inlet.

Note: Platforms without a test separator have a connection with block valves provided on one side of
the test manifold and production manifold, for connection to a mobile flow testing vessel.

Spare connections (on both headers) with blind flanges are available on the manifold for future wells

The fluids are routed from the WHP to the Production platform via subsea line
Facilities are provided to pig the subsea line from WHP to the PMP

WHP-01 well testing is carried out periodically to a temporary test barge. 7-day pressure
Recorders are installed upstream and downstream of the choke valve.
The purpose and objectives of well testing are to obtain all necessary data in all wells to optimize the
well and field development and minimize costs. Well capacity must be determined for each productive
horizon. Based on this data, well and field development must be planned for optimum well spacing,
well design, flow line sizes and design of production facilities.

Well testing also provides accurate reservoir data, which is critical to assess the needs for pressure
maintenance, future need to artificial lift or secondary recovery.

The following are typical data collected from samples from test separator.

• Gas production rate in MMscf/d.

• Oil or condensate production rate in bbl/d.
• BS&W (Basic sediment & water) percentage of crude.
• Water production rate in bbl/d
• Gravity of oil, gas, and water
• Salinity of water
 • H2S content
• Accurate recording of surface pressures, temperatures, and flow data versus time

Corrosion monitoring coupons and probes are installed downstream of the production manifold.
Corrosion inhibitor is injected downstream of the wellheads into the production and test manifolds.
Closed drainage systems are provided for the draining of all piping and instruments to the Drains
Sump Tank.

Purging connections are also provided for inerting all associated piping and equipment.

Production platform:
Facilities are more or less similar to well head platform.
Oil from various well head platforms in the will come into the production platform. The lines from each
WHP will be subsea line. For each subsea line, there will be a pig receiver on the production platform.
Then all these lines will be combined in a production manifold.
There will be test separator here also.
In addition to this, depending on the process requirement and philosophy, a production separator will
also be here for first stage separation of oil/water and gas.
Then the oil is sent to onshore crude treatment facilities for further treatment.
PIPING LAYOUT

INTRODUCTION

A piping layout or piping general arrangement drawing is the most significant drawing developed by a
piping designer. The piping arrangement drawing evolves from the foundation location and equipment
location drawings. It shows all mechanical equipment and vessels in the unit and the pipes
connecting them, including manholes, ladders, platforms, and davits. It identifies all structural
supports such as pipe racks, equipment structures, columns, braces and any fireproofing they may
have. Once locations foundations and equipment have been established, piping configurations are
added to the drawing with the aid of symbols that represent fittings, flanges, and valves. Written
information placed on the arrangement drawing includes equipment coordinates, identification
numbers, elevation callouts , line numbers, flow arrows, and dimensions establishing pipe locations.
Instrumentation symbols are included to to indicate type, position, and orientation for accessibility by
plant personnel. Ladders and platforms are also shown on equipment and structures that have them.
A nozzle schedule is included that contains detailed information about all piping and instrument
connections for every piece of equipment. Information such as nozzle number, size and pound rating,
orientation, elevation, and projection is also included. With so much required information on a
drawing, it is easy to understand why the piping arrangement drawing must be neat, accurate, and
legible.

Piping is a major expenditure in the design and construction of industrial, refinery, petrochemical, or
power generating plants when one considers engineering costs, material costs, and fabrication and
field labor costs. Proper planning and execution of design and routing of pipe can have a major
impact on controlling the total installed cost. The design department designing a refinery or
petrochemical complex consists of four main functions:

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•Piping.
•Structural civil.
• Electrical & instrumentation.
• Equipments.

An experienced piping designer should have thorough knowledge of functions of the piping
department activities. In addition to this, he should have a broad knowledge of the other sections
also.

A piping designer must also know about the following:

• Details and specific requirements of various equipments which are connected by his piping.
• Materials necessary for various services
• Piping flexibility basics.
• Field construction practices and constraints.
• General knowledge of plant operation and maintenance.

Piping design and equipment arrangement are interrelated subjects that cannot be well taught in the
classroom. Most good designers throughout history have learned their profession by a combination of
academic and practical work. Field and design office plus a little shop experience is good preparation
for designing.

The piping layout design is developed through three major sets of drawings. They are:

• Equipment layout / plot plan.

• Piping General Arrangement drawing (piping plan)
• Piping isometrics.

To develop the above drawings the piping designer needs lot of information and documents from
various disciplines. Some of the major inputs required to start the piping design are:

• Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) from process department.

• Line list from process department.
• Piping material specification.
• Overall site plan from civil department.
• Major equipment sizes and details.
• Drawings from other sources.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Flow diagrams describe in a schematic drawing format the flow of fluids and gases through a unit or
an entire plant. By using symbols to represent various pieces of equipment, the flow diagram provides
the piping designer with an overall view of the operation of a facility. The flow diagram is used by the
piping group to develop and lay out the plot plan. When developing the plot plan, the arrangement of
the equipment in the facility reflects, in part, the logical sequence of flow depicted on the flow
diagram. However, many other factors such as code requirements, client standards and preferences,
worker safety, and cost also influence the positioning of equipment.

Once the plot plan is finalized, the piping designer routes the pipe between two vessels as indicated
by the flow diagram using piping specifications and accepted design practices. The flow diagram is
usually "yellowed out" as each line is completed and incorporated into the design. Process engineers
are responsible for developing flow diagrams. In many large engineering firms, an entire department
is dedicated to the development of flow diagrams. The process flow diagram is the first flow diagram

developed by the flow diagram department. It includes the of flow

• major equipment
• main piping
• direction of flow
• operating pressure and temperature
• major instrumentation

PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID)

P&ID is the main input required for Piping design. It indicates the design process equipment and inter
connecting piping required to perform the function for which the system is intended. It also indicates
the instrumentation and control requirements. It defines the sequence of equipment, valves, inline
components, pipeline sizes, and overall system arrangement required for system function. Piping and
instrumentation diagrams are the piping designer's roadmap for laying out piping systems. The
designer should understand the P&ID the specific system characteristics. P&ID are representative
schematics and are not drawn to scale. The following information taken from the P&ID by piping
designer:

• Flow scheme
• Piping material for each piping sections.
• Valve requirements and types of valves.

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• Line size.
• Insulation and heat tracing requirements.
• Equipment connection details.
• Process vents and drain requirements.

EQUIPMENT
LAYOUT/ PLOT PLAN:

Plot plan is derived from two drawings, site, plan and equipment arrangement drawing. The piping
group produces a site plan into a small scale. It shows whole site including boundaries, roads,
buildings, railroad spurs, pavement, process plant areas, large structures, storage areas, effluent
ponds, waste disposal, shipping and loading areas. True or geographic and assumed or plant north
are marked and their angular separation is also shown. Then a key plan is produced by adapting the
site plan and dividing the area of the site into smaller areas identified by key letters or key numbers.
Equipments are arranged by a piping group. The piping group usually makes several viable
arrangements of equipment, seeking an optimal design that satisfies process requirements. When the
equipment arrangement drawings are approved, they are developed into plot plans by the addition of
dimensions and coordinates to locate all major items of equipment and structures. A pot plan shows
the following:

• All equipments.
• Major structures.
• Main and sub pipe racks.
• Access ways.
• Control room
• Space for future expansion.
• North and east extremities of building, center lines of steel work or other architectural constructions.
• Plant north and true north
• Any other items of important.
Equipment layouts are drawn to scale of 1:50, 1:100, 1:250 etc depending on the size of the plant and
the number of equipments. Updated copy of the above drawings are sent to civil, structural, electrical
or other groups involved in design, to them about requirements as the design develops.

For the correct placing of all the above items in an equipment layout, following inputs are required:

• Available plot area.

• Process flow diagram.
• P&ID.
• Line list for sizing rack.
• Dimension of Equipment/data sheets of equipments. Type of building, structures and foundations.
• Wind directions.
• Equipment erection, maintenance and operation requirements.

DRWAINGS FROM OTHER SOURCES

Piping drawings should be correlated with the following from design group and from vendors. Points
to be checked are listed:

ARCHITECTURAL DRWAING

• Outlines of walls or sidings, indicating thickness.

• Floor penetrations for stairways, lifts, elevators, ducts, drains etc.
• Positions of doors and windows.

CIVIL ENGINEERING DRWAING

• Foundation, underground piping, drains etc.

STRUCTURAL STEEL DRWAING

• Position of steel columns supporting next higher floor level.

• Supporting structures such as overhead cranes, monorails, platforms or
• Wall bracing where pipes may be taken through walls.

HEAT VENTILATING & AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) DRAWING:

• Paths of drawing and rising ducts, fan room, space heater etc.

ELECTRICAL DRWAING

• Positions of motor control centers, junction boxes& control panels. OR

• Major conduits or wiring runs (including buried runs)

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• Positioning of light

INSTRUMENTATION DRAWING

• Instrumentation panel& console locations. 50%

VENDOR DRWAING

• Dimension of equipment.
• Position of nozzle, flange type& pressure rating etc.

MECHANICAL DRAWING

• Position and dimension of mechanical equipment.

• Piped service needed for mechanical equipment.

LINE LIST

Line list is a document prepared by process engineers. Each line in a unit is listed in the list.

Line list (line designation sheet or table) include:

• The number of the line

• Line size
• Material of construction
• Conveyed fluid
• Pressure, temperature, flow rate
• Test pressure
• Insulation and jacketing
• Connected line (which will usually branch)
PIPING GENERAL ARRANGEMENT DRAWING

Once, the equipment layout in finalized, the next step is to introduce the piping network connecting
the various equipments. This is done in another set of drawings called the piping plan or piping
general arrangement drawing.

The entire plant will be divided into numerous units or sections and each piping plan shows the piping
arrangement of a section.

Piping plans are normally drawn to scale of 1: 33.33. it shows the plan view of the plant with detailed
dimensions of the piping arrangement. Where required, sectional views and elevations are also
shown for more clarity.

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CONSIDERATION FOR PLANT AND PIPING LAYOUT

As we have seen, developing a plant layout involves locating various equipments like pumps,
compressors, vessels, towers, furnaces etc. and arranging the piping network connecting these
equipments as per process schematic requirements given in the P&ID. A good plant layout takes into
account, the most important features of the plant such as plant economy, appearance and
arrangement of the equipment from aesthetic point of view, proper maintenance facilities, safety
considerations and to facilitate movement of erection machinery like crane etc during the construction
activities.
All these featured have direct bearing on the economy of the plant and a plant layout designer has to
consider carefully, all the above aspects to arrive at an optimum plant layout.

Plant Economy:

Second biggest cost factor for a plant like refinery, petrochemical or other process plant is the piping
cost. There is a good scope to achieve an economy by way of saving in piping cost by improving up
on plant layout. Basically, plant economy means installing a plant in a smallest possible space,
consistent operability, safety and law of maintenance and using the smallest possible amount of
piping material, structural steel or concrete.

Erection / Construction equipments:

Erection scheme of all equipment must be considered during equipment layout. While developing the
equipment layout, the construction dept must be consulted for erection of equipment. Adequate
clearance and access should be provided for erection of tall columns, and heavy equipments.

Safety Requirements:

Various international regulations, regulations, guidelines and safe practices set rules for minimum
distance between different types of equipments. The distance between fired heaters, Fuel oil dry tank,
control room, fire water hydrant /monitors, blow down facilities, water spray deluge valve etc are
mainly detected by safety consideration.
For e.g.:-Fired heaters shall be located minimum 15 m away from other hydrocarbon units, to avoid a
fire in case of a gas leak etc.
Similarly fire hydrant/monitors should be so located that in case of a fire, the operator should be able
to safety operate the Hydrant / Monitor.

Operation and maintenance requirements:

Any plant is run by operators and adequate access for the operation to perform various activities shall
be provided. All the manually operated valves, instruments etc should either be located at grade level
or if at a higher level, suitable platforms, ladders etc shall be provided. Similarly maintenance of
equipments needs adequate space. Sufficient overhead and horizontal clearances shall be provided
around each equipment for crane access, removal of parts etc. It is also essential to have road
access to equipments facilities access for cranes, trucks etc.

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LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR PIPE RACK:

Pipe rack is the structure with tiers at generally 3 to 4 levels pipe laid on these tires. One of the
important steps in preparing an equipment is the arrangement of the pipe rack with relation to the
equipment. The simplest arrangement is the pipe rack in the middle and the row of equipment on
either side and access roads parallel to the row of equipment on the both sides. But these type of
arrangement require a long plot area and in several cases, it may not be Hence "L" Shape, "H"
shaped racks may be considered.

The total width of the rack can be 6m, 8m and 10m for single bay and 12m and 16m for double bay
having three tires maximum.

• The spacing between pipe rack portals is generally taken as 3m.

• Clearance beneath pipe rack shall be 3m.
• Road clearance beneath pipe rack should be 7m for main road and 5m for secondary road.
• A head room clearance of minimum 2.2 m is provided. For all lines to clear man height.
• Locate the largest bore and the heaviest piping as close to stanchions as possible.
• Lines requiring a constant fall (relief headers) can be run on cantilevers from pipe-rack stanchions or
on vertical extensions to pipe-track stanchions.
• Run the hot line requiring expansion loops on the outside edge of pipe way to permit loops to have
greatest width over the pipe way and facilitate nesting.
• Takeoff elevations from pipe ways should be at a constant elevation, consistent with the range of
pipe sizes involved.
• Change elevation whenever banks of pipes, either on pipe ways at grade or at higher elevations on
pipe racks, change direction.
• Elevation to the underside of pipe racks should be the minimum for operation and mobile
maintenance equipment and consistent with allowable clearances.
• Open pipe trenches may be used between plants where there is no risk of flammable vapors
collecting.
• It sometimes is convenient to run open trenches along side roadways (Soil from the trench can be
used to build up the road.)
• Where a pipe way or road changes from a parallel run beneath the road. Direction, the pipe
generally is run beneath the road.
PIPE RACK SPACING

Arrangement and positioning are important factors in the layout of a piping facility. Space is limited.
Area and boundary limits force conservation of space. Arranging equipment throughout the unit in an
orderly and sequential fashion is a necessity. Therefore, proper spacing and arrangement of pipe in
the pipe rack requires special attention. A pipe rack has a defined width; therefore, working within the
allotted space makes spacing crucial. Not only must pipe be arranged to take up a minimum amount
of space, but allowances should be made for any pipe that might be added in the future. Line
spacing dimensions are based on a clearance of 1" between the outside diameter of the largest
flange and the outside diameter of the adjacent pipe. The minimum spacing between any two lines is
4". If either of the lines is insulated, the thickness of the insulation must be added. When lines are
placed adjacent to a wall, column, building, or other structure, a minimum clearance of 2'-0" is
required from the outside diameter of a flange. Pipes having orifice flanges also require a minimum
clearance of 2'-0" on either side of the pipe. Figure shows the requirements for establishing the
minimum clearances for line spacing. The line spacing chart shown in Table provides the minimum
clearances for pipe without insulation.

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DRAWING PIPE IN THE RACK

When representing pipe in a pipe rack, the careful arrangement and organization of names,
dimensions, and line bers will make the drawing easier to read. Figure shows a pipe rack that has
been well organized. Notice how the alignment of notes, dimensions, and other callouts makes the
drawing easy to read. The following guidelines will help you organize your drawing:

• Keep flow arrows the same size and aligned.

• Line numbers should be left justified when possible.
• Pipe commodity should be identified on utility lines only.
• Line spacing dimensions should align across the pipe rack from one pipe support column to the
other. This allows coordinates for each pipe to be calculated since each pipe support column is
positioned using a coordinate.

LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR EQUIPMENTS

Layout consideration for pumps

• Locate pumps close to equipment from which they take suction.

• Consideration should be made to locate pumps under structures or with their motor ends under a
pipe rack.
• Pump suction lines are generally larger than discharge line to avoid problems arising from a low net
positive suction head (NPSH).
• End suction top discharge is the preferable option for pumps, when taking suction
directly from tanks or vessels located at grade.
• Pumps should be arranged in rows with center line of discharge is on a common line.
• Clearance between pumps or pumps and pipes are a minimum of 900mm.

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LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR COMPRESSORS

• It is important to locate reciprocating compressors, anchors, and restraints for pipes belonging to the
compressor system on foundations that are independent of any building, structure, or pipe track or
rack. This independence gives the associated piping stability and minimizes unnecessary fatigue and
possible failure.
• Spacing between compressors and other equipment varies with the type of machine and its duty
• Particular attention must be paid to withdrawal of engine and compressor pistons, cam shaft, crank
shaft, and lube oil cooler bundle; cylinder valve maintenance clearance with the least possible
obstruction from piping supports.
• Compressors generally are provided a degree of shelter, that is, a sheets building Keep the sides up
to 8 feet above grade and open and vent the ridge to allow for escape of flammable gas, which might
leak from the machines.
• Certain types of compressors, owing to the height of the mass foundation above which leak from the
grade level, require a mezzanine floor of a grid construction to gas and for operation and
maintenance.
LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR EXCHANGERS

• Tubular exchanger usually have standard length tubes of 2.5, 4, 5, and 6 m.

• Whenever possible loca at grade to facilitate maintenance and tube withdrawal.

• Two or more shells forming one unit can be stacked or otherwise arranged as indicated on the
exchanger specification sheet, which is delineated by the manufacturer.

• Exchangers with dissimilar service can be stacked, but rarely more than three high, except for fin-
tube-type units.

• Horizontal clearance of at least 900 mm should be left between exchangers or

between exchangers and piping.

• Where space is limited, clearance may be reduced between alternate exchangers, providing
sufficient space is left for maintenance and inspection access.

• Where a rear shell cover is provided with a davit, allow clearance for the full swing of the head. Set
overhead vapor exchangers or condensers at such elevation that the exchanger is self-draining.

• Arrange outlets to a liquid hold pot or trap, so that the underside of the exchanger tubes is above the
liquid level in the trap.

• Arrange exchangers so that the fixed end is at the channel end.

• Vertical exchangers should be set to allow lifting or lowering of the tube bundle.

• Consult the Vessel Department as to the feasibility of supporting vertical exchangers from
associated towers.

• Space should be left free for tube or bundle withdrawal, with channels preferably pointing toward an
access area or road.

• If an exchanger is situated well within the plot, leave a free area and approach for mobile lifting
equipment.

• Air fin exchangers, preferably, should be located in a separate row outside the
main equipment row, remote from the central pipe way.

• Consider locating air fin exchangers over the central pipe way if plot space if very limited.

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LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR FIRED HEATERS:

• Fired heaters should be located at least 15 m away from other equipment that could be a source of
liquid spillage or gas leakage.
• To avoid accumulation of flammable liquids, no pits or trenches should be permitted, extend under
furnaces or any fired equipment, and if possible, they in furnace area.
• Ensure ample room at the firing front of the fired heater for operation of the burners and for the
burner control panel, if required.
• Bottom-floor fired furnaces require adequate headroom underneath the furnace. Wall fired furnaces
require an adequate platform width with escape routes at each end of the furnace.
• Apart from adequate platform and access to the firing front, other structural attachments and
platforms around furnaces should be kept minimum. Access by means of stepladder is sufficient.
• Arrange fired heaters on a common center line, wherever possible.
• Provide unobstructed space for withdrawal.
• Operation and maintenance platforms should be wide enough to permit a 1-m clear walkway.
• Escape ladders should be provided on large heaters.
• Vertical heaters usually are supplied with stub supporting feet; ensure drawings show adequate
supports elevated to the required height.
• Headroom elevation from the floor level to the underside of heater should be 2.3 m, to provide good
firing control operation.
LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR COLUMNS:

• Columns usually are self-supporting with no external structures.

• Circular or segmental platforms with ladders are supported from the shell.
• The maximum allowable straight run of a ladder before a break platform should not exceed 9 m.
• The factors influencing column elevation are the provision of a gravity flow system and installation of
thermosyphon reboilers.
• Depending on the plant arrangement, columns may have to be elevated to a height in excess of the
normal requirements to allow for headroom clearance from lower level piping off-takes.
• The skirt height of all columns or vessels providing suction to pumps, particularly if handling hot or
boiling liquids should be adequate for the pump NPSH
requirements.
• Access platforms should be provided on columns for all valves 3" and above, instrument controllers
and transmitters, relief valves, manholes and blinds or spades, and other components that require
periodic attention.
• Platforms for access to level gauge and controller should not be provided if underside of supporting
steelwork is less than normal headroom clearance from grade.
• Adjacent columns should be checked, so that platforms do not overlap. For layout, 2.0-2.5 m
between shells, depending on insulation, should suffice.
• Allow a 900 mm minimum clearance between column foundation and the adjacent plinth.
• Provide clearance for the removal of internal parts and attachments and for davits at top of columns,
if relevant.
• The center line of manholes should be 900 mm above any platform.
• Horizontal vessels should be located at grade, with the longitudinal angle to the pipe way, if
possible.
• Consider saving plot space by changing vessels from the horizontal to the vertical, if possible, and
combining vessels together with an internal head (subject to project or process approval)
• The size and number of access platform on horizontal vessels should be kept to a minimum and are
not to be provided on hofizontal vessels or drums when the top of the vessel is 2.5 m or less from the
grade.
• The channel end of vessels provided with internal tubular heaters should face toward
open space. The withdrawal area must be indicated on studies, general arrangement (GAs), and plot
plans.
• Internal agitators removal. Removal area must be provided with adequate clearance for must be
indicated on studies, GAs, and plot plans.

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LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR TANKS:

• The layout of tanks, as distinct from their spacing should always take into consideration the
accessibility needed for firefighting and the potential value of a storage tank in providing a buffer area
between process plant and for example, public roads and houses, for safety and environmental
reasons.
• The location of tanks relative to process units must be such as to ensure maximum safety from
possible incidents.
LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS TO ENSURE PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND FACILITATE
SUPPORTING:

While routing the piping every effort has to be made to provide adequate flexibility in the piping using
a minimum number of fittings, loops at appropriate locations and flexible joints. When a quick check
the determines that the system is not flexible enough, the designer reviews the system to determine
whether or not he can re design, may be by adding an elbow or two to increase flexibility.

Two cardinal principles in routing lines for economic restraint are:

• Group the pipe lines so as to minimize the number of structures needed solely for
two structures which are to be provided for other purposes. Pipe supports and restrains,

• Keep lines located close to possible points of supports. i.e.:- Either to grade or structures which are
to be provided for other purposes.

EQUIPMENT PIPING

While routing the piping to the equipments, care has to be taken to ensure that any special
requirements and constraints of the equipments operation, maintenance etc are taken in to
consideration.

For eg :- Pump suction piping shall be arranged with a particular care to avoid various pockets or un
necessary pressure drip and piping shall be as short as possible, to avoid cavitations and ensured the
required NPSH at the pump suction.

While routing compressor piping, adequate supports and clamps need to be provided to contain
vibration
Suction piping to centrifugal compressors should be designed to allow sufficient straight length. i.e.
5D minimum of pipe (D= Diameter of pipe) immediately ahead of suction nozzle to allow dissipation of
un desirable flow distortion causes by elbows, valves or other fittings At heat exchangers the piping
shall not run in the way of the handling facilities for tube-bundle removal.

The basic rule for the piping at the heat exchangers is- fluid being heated should flow up and fluid
being cooled will flow down. However if no considering or vaporizing can occur during heat transfer,
flow can be routed in any manner. In any case for best heat transfer, reverse flow must be
maintained. i.e. the flow should be in opposite directions. Hence, designing the piping layout requires
through understanding of the process conditions and requirements, mechanical design, operation and
maintenance features of the connected equipments, Special requirements of the instruments, valves
etc in the line,to name a few.

Mastery in piping design can be achieved only by vast experience, continuous learning process and
interaction with various departments.

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PIPING ISOMETRICS

Piping isometric drawings shows the pipe routing in the isometric view with detailed dimensions,
which can be used for fabrication of the piping spools. Isometrics are not drawn to scale.

Other information shown in the isometric are

• Plant north
• Line number and specification
• Bill of material
• Stress analysis requirements
• Design temperature and pressure.
• Hydro test pressure.
• NDT requirements
• Insulation thickness, if insulated.

Documents required for making ISO

• Piping GA
• P& ID, Line list for process parameters
• Piping material specification
• Vendor drawings for equipment.

EXAMPLE: draw an ISO of a line starting from nozzle N1 of the pump P101 and goes over the rack
and reaches at the nozzle N1 of the vessel V101. Piping GA, material
specifications etc. are given.
STEPS FOR GENERATING ISOMETRICS FROM GENERAL

ARRANGEMENT DRAWINGS:

• The line in our question is pump discharge line .It start from the discharge nozzle of pump P-101,
goes over the pipe rack and goes to the inlet nozzle (Ni) of the vessel V-101
• Mark the 'NORTH' direction on the isometric drawing
• Start from the pump discharge nozzle. Draw the isometric according to the routing given in the GA
drawing
• All elevations, dimensions to be indicated
• Flow arrow to be indicated
• Pipe supports to be marked
• All the design and operation parameters and reference drawings to be indicated in the appropriate
columns
• Mark the reference coordinates.

BILL OF MATERIAL

• Each and every items shall be numbered as shown on the

• Each item number shall be described in the bill of materials column on the right side of the isometric
drawing
• Detailed description of the materials shall be taken from the piping material specification

159 of
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT:

Although components such as pipe, fittings, flanges, and valves, which are used to transport various
commodities from one location in a piping facility to another, are important and impossible to do
without, they play a minor role in the actual manufacturing of a salable product. Other components of
a piping facility actually perform the tasks for which the facility is being built. These items are known
collectively as mechanical equipment. Mechanical equipment is used to start, stop, heat, cool, liquefy,
vaporize, transfer, store, mix, or separate the commodity flowing through the piping system.

VESSELS

HORIZONTAL VESSELS/ ACCUMULATORS:

The horizontal vessel is a cylindrical-shaped storage tank whose long axis is parallel to the horizon. It
is used primarily as a receiving and collecting container for liquids and, therefore, has no internal
moving parts. Support saddles are welded on the underside of the vessel to prevent it from rolling off
its concrete foundations. A nozzle on the top of the vessel allows liquids to enter and fill the ssel. A
nozzle on the bottom allows the liquids to be drawn out. Smaller nozzles, can be used for venting and
instrumentation attachment. Instruments are needed to measure the level of the commodity within the
vessel. A large diameter nozzle, 18_ ID, called a man way, provides an entrance for a worker into the
vessel for internal inspection and maintenance.

VERTICAL VESSELS/ FRACTIONATION COLUMNS:

The vertical vessel is a cylindrical vessel whose long axis is perpendicular to the horizon. Easily the
most visible piece of equipment, some vertical vessels can exceed 200 feet in height. Fractionation
columns have internal plates called trays that aid in the separation and collection of the various
molecular compounds of a feed stock. The process of breaking down a feed stock into its molecular
compounds is called fractional distillation.
After further refinement and processing, these compounds will become by-products such as diesel,
gasoline, kerosene, and many others.

LADDERS, CAGES, AND PLATFORMS:

Many vessels and other pieces of equipment are built to such great heights they become accessible
only by ladders. Ladders allow workers to access the higher elevations of equipment for routine
inspection and maintenance. Ladders are made of steel bar and plate, and are welded or bolted to
the exterior of a vessel. Cages are designed to enclose a ladder and prevent a worker from falling
away should he lose his grip on the rungs. Made of steel plate, cages provide the worker with a sense
of security when scaling tall vertical structures. Platforms are like small elevated walkways around the
outside of a vessel or between equipment and structures.

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PUMPS

Pumps are mechanical devices used to move fluids under pressure fro one location to another.
Pumps accelerate the speed at which a commodity travels within a pipe, thereby increasing its rate of
flow. Pumps used in piping facilities will be one of the following classifications: centrifugal,
reciprocating, or rotary.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:

The Centrifugal force created by the high speed impellers of a centrifugal pump creates a smooth
non-pulsating rate of flow. With a fast spinning impeller creating a low pressure center point, any
commodity entering the pump will naturally seek the center of the impeller only to be spun out at a
high rate of speed. The efficient operation of the

centrifugal pump makes it the standard of most piping facilities.

RECIPROCATING PUMPS

The reciprocating pump uses internal parts, similar to a piston or plunger, that alternately move back
and forth to create pressure. With each stroke of the piston, pressure is increased forcing the
commodity out of the pump. The reciprocating pump is installed in piping systems where extremely
high pressures are required.

ROTARY PUMP

The rotary pump is similar to the reciprocating pump in that it is a positive displacement type. Rotary
pumps use mechanical devices such as pistons, gears, or screws to discharge a commodity at a
smooth, continuous rate of flow. It performs without creating the extreme pressure surges often
associated with the reciprocating pump.

NOZZLE ARRANGEMENTS

To effectively locate a pump within a piping facility, one must consider the suction and discharge
nozzles.The suction nozzle is where the commodity enters the pump. The discharge nozzle is where
the commodity exits the pump. The positioning of the nozzles on the pump is called pump nozzle
arrangement. Depending upon the type , pumps typically are available in five different nozzle
arrangements.

To achieve maximum efficiency, most pumps are installed with the shortest possible suction line.
PUMP DRIVERS

All pumps require a starting device to function. These devices are known as drivers. The driver is
connected the pump via a rotating shaft. The shaft turns the impellers, gears, screws, or pistons to
initiate the pumping action. An electric motor is the most commonly used driver. As an alternative to
electricity and as a back-up to the electric motor, a steam turbine is often employed. The steam
turbine can operate during power outages or when a motor is being repaired or replaced. Steam
turbines are also chosen over electric motors for use in areas where explosive gases may be present.
The electric current required to power the motor is a possible source to ignite flammable gases. The
turbine, driven by steam, obviously reduces the possibility of an explosion. Figure 6-8 shows an
electric motor driver. A diesel engine is used during times of emergency. When piping systems are
shut down, diesel engines provide power to operate firewater systems and other essential services.
Limited to outdoor service only, diesel engines can be used when conditions render electric motors
and steam turbines useless.

COMPRESSORS:

The compressor is similar to the pump, but it is designed to move air, gases, or vapors rather than
liquids. The compressor is used to increase the rate at which a gate commodity flows from one
location to another. Gases, unlike liquids, are elastic and must be compressed in order to control their
flow characteristics. Like pumps, compressors are manufactured in centrifugal, reciprocating, and
rotary configurations.

EXCHANGERS:

Another common piece of mechanical equipment is the exchanger. Its purpose in a piping facility is to
transfer heat from one commodity to another. Whether the objective is to heat a liquid to a desired
temperature or cool a product for final storage, the exchanger can accomplish both. Exchangers do
not mix commodities together, but rather transfer heat through contact with a surface of a different
temperature. A number of exchanger types are available; they include the shell and tube, double
pipe, reboiler, and air fan.

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SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGER:

The shell and tube exchanger performs its task by circulating a hot liquid around tubes which contain
a cooler liquid. The hot liquid circulates in an enclosed area called the shell. Tubes containing the
cooler liquid are looped through the shell. Hot liquid in the shell warms the cooler liquid in the tubes,
while the cooler liquid in the tubes cools the warm liquid in the shell. Contact between the cool and
hot liquids will naturally exchange heat from the hotter to the colder.

DOUBLE PIPE EXCHANGER

Also known as the G-Fin or hairpin exchanger, double pipe exchangers are manufactured with a
single, small diameter pipe inserted into a larger diameter pipe. The two pipes contain commodities of
different temperatures similar to the shell and tube exchanger. To prevent the two pipes of the
exchanger from coming in contact with one another, thin metal plates called fins are welded to the
outside of the smaller pipe. These fins also aid in the transfer of heat from one commodity to the
other.
REBOILER

The reboiler, as the name implies, is used to replenish the temperature of a commodity. Two types of
reboilers are used; the kettle-type and thermosyphon. A kettle-type reboiler is similar in design to the
shell and tube exchanger. The thermo syphon reboiler is attached directly to the bottom of a
fractionating tower. Reboilers are used to keep fluids, which are circulating through a tower, at their
boiling point. The process commodityenters the reboiler from the tower in a liquid state, is heated by
either super heated steam or another hot liquid, and is returned in a vaporous state to an area in the
tower called the flash zone.

AIR FAN:

Air fans are large fan-type coolers placed abve or below a pipe rack that draw air across pipes to cool
them. Air fans operate on the same principle as an automobile's radiator, only on a large scale.

COOLING TOWERS

After circulating through equipment such as exchangers and condensers, cooling water will have
accumulated substantial heat gain. Without dissipating the heat gain, cooling water will lose its
cooling effectiveness. A cooling tower is a mechanical device that will lower the temperature of
cooling water. Cooling towers are uniquely designed to dissipate heat gain by evaporating specific
amounts of aerated water that has been circulated through an air-induced tower. Although there is a
significant amount of drift the amount of water lost during the aerating and evaporation sequence)
cooling towers are extremely efficient and are widely used.

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HEATERS/BOILERS

Heaters, or furnaces as they are also known, are used to raise the temperature of a feed stock to the
point where it can be used in a process facility. Some feeds, like crude oil, must be heated to
approximately 700°F before it can be piped into a fractionation column. Lining the interior walls of a
heater arc pipes that travel in a continuous S or U pattern. Burners, fueled with oil or gas, ure used to
generate the extreme temperatures required in a heater.

Heaters can be of the vertical or horizontal type. Vertical shape and have internal piping traveling in a
vertical direction.
Boilers use the same principle as a heater. They are used primarily to generate super heated steam
or stripping steam. Constructed similar to a heater, boilers can raise the temperature of water or
condensate to 1,000'F or more.

STORAGE TANKS:

Storage tanks are used in several phases of the refining process. They can be used to store crude oil
prior to its use in the facility, as holding tanks for a partially refined product waiting further processing,
or to collect a finished product prior to its delivery or pick-up by a customer. Usually placed within a
common area of a facility known as a tank farm, storage tanks come in various shapes and sizes.
Some are shaped similar to horizontal vessels and some are spherical, like a ball. The majority of
storage tanks, however, are huge, ground-supported vessels, much as 200 feet in diameter and up to
60 feet tall. Spherical tanks are used primarily for storing liquefied petroleum gases like butane,
methane, or propane. The conical, elliptical larger tanks, used for storing liquid product, will have
either a or a floating roof. Floating roofs raise and lower to automatically adjust to the level of the
commodity in the tank. Floating roofs help reduce evaporation and prevent the buildup of dangerous
gases that often occur with flammable liquids. As a preventative measure, dikes are erected to
contain major leaks or spills. Should a storage tank rupture or suffer severe damage, a dike would
prevent major contamination to surrounding areas. Dikes can be earthen dams or concrete walls built
around a storage tank at a height that would contain the entire contents of the storage tank should a
spill Occur.

EQUIPMENT IN USE

Crude oil is the most common supply product used in petrochemical facilities. Known as feed, crude
oil is made up of molecules formed by thousands of different hydrogen and carbon atom
combinations. Because the molecules are different, each crude oil molecule will boil at a different
temperature. But, because they are comparatively similar in molecular structure, groups of molecules
often boil within a narrow range of each these groups are called fractions. The process that will
separate these fractions into their various groups so they may be collected for further processing is
called fractional distillation.
From the storage tank facility, crude oil feed is pumped to a Once inside the heater, the feed is
circulated through the pipes and heated to approximately 700°F. The boiling feed is then piped to the
fl a temperature of zone of the fractionating column. The flash zone is the position in the fractionating
column where the incoming feed separates into vapor and liquid states. Inside the column, the heated
crude oil molecules will begin to group together according to their weights. The natural tendency of
lighter weight molecules to rise causes the light fractions, those with a low temperature boiling point,
to vaporize and rise to the top of the column. Heavy fractions, the heavier molecules with a high
temperature boiling point, remain in a liquid state and settle to the bottom of the column. The
horizontal trays in the column, spaced 18_ to 24 apart, act as a filter to separate the rising vapors and
falling liquids into individual fractions. As vapors rise through the column, they begin to cool and
condense. Condensing fractions collect on the trays and are drawn off through a nozzle. The liquid
fraction, now a by-product of the feed, is routed to other areas of the facility for additional refinement
and processing. If an excess of liquid collects on the tray, it will overflow and fall down to a lower
section of the column. There it is once again heated to the point of vaporization. The vapors will begin
to rise and start the process over again. In the typical fractional distillation process, heavy by-products
such as asphalt and tar come off the bottom of the column as residue. As temperatures begin to
decrease, heavy oil products, which include fuel and lubricating oils, are extracted. At higher
elevations in the column, light oil products such as diesel fuel and kerosene are removed. Above the
kerosene, heavy naphtha, used in making motor gasoline, and light naphtha, used to make aviation
gasoline, are collected for further processing. The light naphtha is a prime example of how further
processing can yield additional products. When the light naphtha vapors are removed from the top of
the column, they are sent through exchangers to be condensed. As the liquid naphtha is condensed,
it is piped to an accumulator for collection. In the accumulator, the liquid naphtha settles to the bottom
and is away for additional processing to later become aviation gasoline (av gas). The naphtha vapors
left in the accumulator rise to the top and are removed by a compressor to be further processed into
liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) such as butane, methanc, and propane.

EQUIPMENT TERMINOLOGY

The following list identifies items generally associated. with mechanical equipment and
vessels: Base plate. A flat, metal ring welded to the bottom of a vessel's supporting skirt that rests on
a concrete foundation. Holes around the perimeter of the metal ring make it possible to position it
over anchor bolts and secure it to the foundation.

• Skirt. A cylinder shaped support for a vertical vessel. One end is welded to the base plate allowing it
to rest on the foundation and the other end is welded to the bottom head of a vertical vessel.
• Head. The end enclosures of a vessel. They can be either semi-elliptical, spherical, or dished.
• Shell. The cylindrical walls of a vessel.
• Skirt access opening. An 18_ID hole 2_-6_ above the foundation that allows workers entrance for
inspection and maintenance.
• Skirt vents. Equally spaced holes approximately 3"to 4" in diameter bored near the top of the vessel
skirt that allow toxic and explosive gases to escape.

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Skirt fireproofing. Generally brick or gunite, fireproofing is applied around the interior and exterior
walls of a vessel skirt. It is necessary to prevent damage to vessel skirt in case a fire occurs.
• Nozzle. The tie-in connection between the vessel or equipment and the piping system. Nozzles
areprovided in locations where a commodity is either introduced or removed from a vessel or piece of
equipment.
• Nozzle orientation. The angular arrangement of nozzles around the perimeter of a vessel's shell.
• Nozzle projection. Used to establish the distance from the vessel's centerline to the nozzle's face of
flange
• Reinforcing pad. A plate contoured to the shape of a vessel shell. It is positioned around nozzles
and provides additional strength in the areas where metal was removed from the shell.
• Manholes. Similar to large nozzles that allows workers entry points intò a vessel. They generally are
18" ID and are accessible by ladders and platforms When not in use, the manhole is sealed with a
blind flange.
• Manhole hinge: A hinge that creates a pivot point allowing the blind flange attached to
the manhole to be easily removed for worker entrance.
• Seal pan. A tray installed below the bottom tray in a vessel to prevent liquids from bypassing the
trays.
• Trays: Flat metal plates spaced approximately 18 to 24 apart inside a vertical vessel. They can be
bolted or welded to vessel shell. Trays are perforated to allow rising vapors and falling liquids to pass
through with the aid of a valving mechanism called a cap.
• Weir: A dam-like plate. welded on a tray that allows a fractionated by product to collect and be
extracted by a nozzle.
• Down comers: Openings adjacent to a tray that allow liquids flowing over a weir plate to fall to the
tray below and begin the fractionation process over again.
• Insulation rings: Continuous circular rings welded to the exterior of a vertical vessel that support a
vessel's insulation.
• Saddles: U-shaped supports welded on horizontal vessels and exchangers. Saddles are bolted to
concrete foundations and create a cradle-like support in which the vessel can rest.
• Lifting lugs: Donut-shaped rings welded to the vessel's shell or head that allow the
vessel to be raised and positioned during installation.