INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES

NOTES:
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Compiled by: Amb. Keli Walubita

Lecturer
+260 974 673 201
[email protected]
Introduction
These notes deals with:-
1. A general orientation towards Conflict, it’s causes and related concepts.
2. The Conflict Management Skills, ranging from personal to social mastery to
selected management skills.
3. Specific Conflict Resolution and Management techniques.

Outcomes
1. Asses and support the implementation of skills and interventions with specific
reference to the conflict resolution process.
2. Demonstrate an understanding of – and the concepts Self Management Skills”,
interpersonal skills and management skills for managing conflict in a public sector
context.
3. Interpret and analyze conflict management processes in the public sector.
4. Support the process of drafting a strategic Conflict Management Policy to address
the key labour relations challenges in a collaborative manner.
5. Apply the principles of Self Management, Communication, Negotiation and
Diversity – and Change Management with a conflict resolution and management
context

Teaching Method
The Teaching approach is that of Flexi-teaching in a distance education based mode –
with limited contact with Lecturers. More work by the student and access to additional
reference books.

Preamble
Management and resolving conflict is the cornerstone of the study.

The notes deal with:-

1. A general orientation towards conflict management and resolution.
2. Personal Management Skills.
3. Skills of an interpersonal nature.
4. Decision making.
5. Negotiation and conflict resolution techniques.
What is Conflict?
 Conflict is an inescapable part of our everyday life experience.
 Whenever we deal with other people, conflicts of interest, personality or values
arise.
 Conflict – A state of coexistence of mutually incompatible goals – i.e. relates to
utilization of scarce resources, or they may pertain to the occupation of a powerful
office, or they may involve the survival of some of the parties involved.
 Conflict – has many different aspects. Takes the form of a conflict situation, in
which there are interests, values or personalities in conflict.

If no violence or coercive action is involved then is Latent and not yet manifest.

 Conflict – is traditionally explained through concepts –aggression, strife, battle,

quarrel, incompatibility, hostility, tension and disagreement.
 Conflict–viewed as normal and natural consequences of human interaction.
 Planning and control/constrictive resolution are key.

Defining Conflict
a) Robbins (1984)
“A process within which an intentional attempt is made by Party A to thwart the
efforts of Party B by way of obstruction that will result in frustrating Party B in
attaining his objectives or furthering his interests”.

b) A struggle or contest between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values
and goals.

c) Shermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, (1991) – defines conflict – as a disagreement

between two or more persons or groups, or differences that result in interferences
or opposition.

Causes of Conflict
Causes in public institutions can be attributed to either Institutional, Individual or Group
causes.
Institutional Conflict
 Institutional conflict results from disagreement between individual employees,
work groups or departments.
 Institutional conflict usually arises from three (3) main sources:-
- Interdependence
- Difference in goals
- Resource competition

 Interpersonal dynamics
 Communication problems
 The Environment of an enterprise
 Line versus staff prerogatives i.e. Line versus staff.

Others
 Territorial encroachment
 Conflicting loyalties
 Separation of knowledge and authority

Types of Conflict
 Fractional conflict
 Strategic conflict
 Substantive conflict
 Constructive and destructive conflict
 Alleged or perceived conflict
 Open and real conflict

Question:
Relationship between causes and types of conflict

The Conflict Process

Robbins identifies four stages in the conflict process
 Potential opposition
 Cognition and personalization
 Behaviour
 Outcomes

Stage 1: Potential Opposition

 Communication
 Structure
 Personal factors

Stage 2: Cognition and Personalization

 Boiling over the conflict

Stage 3: Behaviour
 Expressed frustrations
 Tension

Stage 4: Outcomes
 Functional
 Dysfunctional – aggressive outbursts
 Unresolved and ongoing tension
 Breach in relationship and adversarial positions
 Undefined resolution
 Defined resolution of immediate resolution
 Defined, proactive resolution.

Conflict can manifest in either and aggressive or assertive event.

SKILLS FOR RESOLVING AND MANAGING CONFLICT
  Self aware
 Self Management
 Social Awareness

Competencies
Personal skills should be combined with social skills to be effective.

 Self Management Skills

- Self Awareness – being conscious of what one is good at and acknowledge as
to what one has still to learn.
- Admitting you have no answer
- Admitting mistakes

 On Interpersonal Level – self awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses can

win the trust of others and increase one’s credibility.

 On Organisational Level – benefits are greater. Asking for help is promoted.

Springboard to innovations and agility.

RELATIONSHIP SKILLS
 How a person conducts/will handle in conflict negotiation situations.
- Inspirational Leadership
- Influence
- Developing others
- Teamwork and collaboration
- Conflict management.

Conclusions
 Conflict arises when people differ, disagree.
  Can be trivial or serious.
 Conflict management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self
awareness about conflict modes, conflict communication skills and establishing a
structure for management of conflict in one’s environment.
 Self awareness and care are essential to an effective approach to conflict
management.

Conflict Management: Self Management Skills

 Success does not yield happiness.
 In pursuing success, stress and frustrations are created, resulting in tension and
conflict
 Emotional competencies

There are nine (9) distinct personal competencies divided into tow (2) areas:-
 Self Awareness comprising of three (3) competencies, and
 Self Management comprising six (6) competencies

Assertiveness Receptiveness
by products

Self Awareness
- Understanding yourself
- Accept to change
- Never be dark about yourself

 Self awareness is core competency of conflict resolution and management

 Regarded as the foundational competency of emotional Intelligence
 You cannot effectively manage others without first knowing yourself
 People with high emotional intelligence are usually very aware.
 Understanding their emotions
 Do not allow feelings rule them
 Confident of themselves
  Diffuse and manage conflict constructively
 Feedback is required in effective conflict management
 Individual competencies that make up self awareness and deemed crucially
important in conflict resolution and management are:-
a) Emotional Self-awareness
b) Accurate Self=assessment
c) Self confidence

What is Self Awareness?

 To observe oneself and recognize one’s abilities to build a vocabulary to express
input, opinion and feelings, and the awareness that there is a link between
reactions, feelings and thought.
 Since self awareness is one of the fundamental competencies of conflict
resolution, a person needs to demonstrate competency in each one of these to
achieve self-awareness and effective conflict resolution and management.
- Progress in mastering the competency
- And identifying the point at which the competency is likely to be most
effective.

 Self-awareness requires honesty in acknowledging one’s strengths and

weaknesses:-
- What are values in life
- Patterns that underpin one’s thinking
- Habitual behavior
- Assumptions one have about one’s self and others
- Past lessons

How do we Develop Self-awareness?

 Practicing mindfulness by watching what one thinks and does and says, without
judgment and with curiosity.
 Moderate self talk
 Reflection, introspection and consciousness through:-
- Journaling
- Meditation and religious pursuits
- Psychotherapy and counseling
 - Coaching and personal development training.
 Feedback

SELF CONFIDENCE AND SELF ESTEEM

What is Self Confidence?

A strong sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities.

Common Specific Self Confidence Behaviours

 Confidence in job capability
 Knows one’s strength and believes in own abilities
 Display a self assurance that is visible to others
 Has presence
Remember too high self confidence can result in fragility.
 Having a good self-awareness of your strengths contributes to Self Esteem.

What is Self Esteem?

The degree to which people like or dislike themselves.
 People with high self esteem – believe in themselves, expect success, take more
risks, use unconventional approaches and are more satisfied with their jobs than
people with low self esteem.
 In contrast, people with low self esteem are:-
a) More susceptible to external influences.
b) Depend on positive evaluation from others.
c) Prone to conform
 In negotiations and conflict situations, this is a negative aspect as conformity
equates to submissiveness and demands.
 Results in a win-lose-situation.
 A healthy self-esteem is therefore needed to be effective.
 But not a bloated ego and arrogant behavior.
  Depending on management styles, people are more likely to be unaware of their
behavior and how it impacts on others if the normally tendency is to operate at
extreme.

Foe example:-
a) Originators – tend to be quick decision makers who are afraid of
confrontation or taking risks,
b) Conservers – are much more rule bound and conflict – and – change averse.
c) Pragmatists – in between originators and conservers – don’t either seek out
or avoid confrontation and conflict.
- more practical, flexible, focused on issues.
 Remember to aim for self awareness and seek feedback.

SELF MANAGEMENT
Boyatzis and Goleman (2002) identified individual competencies that constitute self
management s follows:-
a) Emotional self control or keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check.
b) Transparency, or maintaining integrity and acting congruently with one’s values.
c) Adaptability, or flexibility in handling change.
d) Achievement, or striving to improve or meeting a standard of excellence.
e) Initiative, or readiness to act on opportunities.
f) Optimism, or persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks.

Emotional Self Control

 Thinking mind or rational brain located in the cortex or frontal part of the brain.
 “Emotional mind” – limbic system is the mid brain.
 Prefrontal part of the brain is site of the “working memory” – helps one to pay
attention and keep information.
 When the mind is calm, the working memory functions at its best.

In emergency, the brain prepares the body to either fight or run away from danger.
The Role of the Amygdala in Emotional Self Control
 Amygdala – a structure in the limbic system in the brain that in conjunction with
the thalamus, stores the imprint of emotional experiences, memories and response.
  Goleman – Amygdala is the brain emotional tank; it stores all memories about
good and bad experiences, moment of triumph and failure.

Has capacity to fall back on previous memories and experience amygdale

 Stress – contributes to one experiencing amygdale resulting in aggressive

confrontational and conflict situation.

Stress and Emotional Self Control

 Stress – has serious effects to health.
Observe and take attention to all emotional disturbances.
 Emotional Self Control is the most important competency in the Self-management
cluster and relates directly to stress and the neurological process.

How do we Manage Ourselves in Relation to Opportunities and Challenges from

Environments?
Through:-
a) Adaptability and transparency
b) Achievement, limitative and optimism

NOTE:
Research on Daniel Goleman and Richard Boyatzis – Emotional Competency Inventory
(ECI).

Techniques for Self-awareness

a) Balancing locus control
b) Recognizing and observing own feelings
c) Managing emotions
Locus Control
  People who believe that they do not have any power to choose their response to
what happen to them – Locus of site of control is outside them.
 People who believe that what happens to them is due to luck or chance have an
external locus control – these tend to blame others or bad luck for anything bad
that happens to them and they have a victim mentality.
 People with an internal locus of control believe they are in control of their own
destiny and have power to choose their responses that happens to them – these do
better at conflict resolution and management.
 Monitoring emotions and behaviours is vital to effectively manage conflict.
 Self-Monitoring people have the following attributes:-
a) Having the ability to adjust behavior to external situation factors.
b) Are sensitive to external cues and behave differently in different situations.
c) Can present contradictory public persona and private selves.
d) Gain ability to remain calm, and perceptive, creative, productive under
pressure.
e) Emotions can be used to influence others in creating a positive atmosphere
conducive to conflict resolution and management.

ASSERTIVENESS
 Defined as being pleasantly direct.
 Assertiveness – suggests that there are three (3) different ways that people can
relate to each other:-
a) Aggressive
b) Passive
c) Assertive

Aggressive
 Impose their will into others
 Forces others to submit
 Invade other personal space and boundaries.
 Violence is used.
 Domination and invasion.
 Fundamentally disrespectful
Passive
  Submits to another person’s domination play.
 Putting their own desires/wishes aside.
 Fulfill desires/wishes of the dominating person.
 Smart thing to do to avoid conflict.
 Avoid violence/coercion.
 Fundamentally disrespectful of one’s personal boundaries.

Assertiveness
 Defined as – Fishing for
 Feedback even from enemies
 Feedback becomes the control system of our self management
 Do not be an ostrich!!

How to avoid turning off Feedback

 Non defensiveness
 Ask for more information especially specifics.
 Express an honest reaction.
 Thank those providing feedback and plan for the future
 Do not be afraid to hear the four points – ask for criticism.

Conclusion
 How we think and feel about ourselves affect how we approach conflict.
 Through self-awareness we can effectively manage conflict.
 Self development is important to cope with daily stresses and external demands.
 Developing self-awareness can tell us when we are stressed.
 Asking for feedback is crucial.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Introduction
  Interpersonal – indicates plural form.
 This implies that something happens between individuals and/or groups.
 Relating successfully to others is essential, not only for personal happiness, but
growth and in life.

And nowhere more true than in the work place.

Human Relations – process building sound “on the job relationships” with associates,
peers, and supervisors (Plunkett, 1996).

BASIC GOALS TO REMEMBER IN BUILDING TOWARDS SOUND HUMAN

RELATIONS.
 Help each individual to achieve the measure of satisfaction that they wish to
achieve.
 Increase each individual’s contribution to the intellectual effort.
 Foster a spirit of co-operation between peers, subordinates and superiors.
 Provide all the help possible to allow each individual to be her/himself while on
the job.
 Know and understand each person as an individual.
 Approach and understand each associate as an individual.
 Develop an emotionally intelligent workforce.

COMMUNICATION
 We live in the information age.
 The dangers of information overload, distortion and misinformation increase with
the increase in available information and thus also the potential to conflict.
 Thus understanding communication and mastering communication skills are of
vital importance to all employees.
 Successful communication leads to better decision making and relations in work
place.
Definition of Communication
 Bateman & Zeithaml (1993)
 “The transmission of information and meaning from one party to another through
the use of shared symbols”.

 Gortner (1981)
Communication – “occurs between individuals as attitude are transmitted either
verbally or non verbally – from one person to another in such a way that the
transmitted message produces a response.

Understood and Feedback Key – This is also an effective communication.

 Effective communication is also a pre-requisite for conflict management and
resolution.

A model of Effective Communication

 Demands that there is a SENDER and RECEIVER.
 The SENDER conveys the message that it conveys the intended meaning and
receives a Response.
 The SENDER should avoid any misunderstanding in the transfer of the message.
 ENCODED – channel – decoded – feedback.
 Each of these stages can result in distortion – thus interference – this can lead to
conflict.

Source, Communicator or Sender

Initiates a message
By encoding a thought or idea they wish to convey.
Message can be influenced by many factors i.e. mood, knowledge or attitude.

ENCODING
  The process whereby the Sender/Communicator translates the idea into a
systematic set of symbols – into the communicator’s purpose.
 The encoding – process poses substantial potential for conflict due to possible
semantically and frame of reference differences – care should be exercised.

The Message
 Result of the encoding process is the message.
 This is what the sender wished to convey to the receiver.
 Can be verbal or non verbal.
 In writing, in form of a report, memorandum, face-to-face, telephone conversation.
 Inaction or silence can often convey to the other people, messages to other people,
thereby increasing the potential for conflict.

The Channel or Medium

 Medium through which message travels
 Sender determines which channel to use.
 Determination of channel depends on whether message is formal or informal.
 Channels differ in their capacity to convey information.
 Choice of channel depends on whether the message is routine or non routine.

 The Richness of a Channel depends on its ability to:-

a) Handle multiple cues simultaneously
b) Facilitate rapid feedback
c) How personal it is.

The Receiver
 To whom message is directed
 Has to decode the message in order to understand it.
 Determines its relevance.
 Receiver has his own attitudes, knowledge and other factors that will influence a
response, including a conflict response.
 Message is interpreted differently.
The Noise
  Anything that distorts the attention being given to the communication process.
 Anything that distorts the message qualifies as NOISE i.e. phones ringing, people
moving, fatigue or information overload.

The Feedback Loop

 Provides an opportunity to find out if the message was received and understood.
 Provides to the Sender a response.
 Desirable for clarification and explanations?? (only if both parties exhibit
maturity)
 If the original message has solicited a negative response and conflict has occurred,
chances of effective communication is severely impaired.

How do we Investigate when Communication has failed?

 There may be many reasons
 All elements and aspects of the process should be considered and investigated as
follows:-
a) Sender – was he adequately prepared to send the message?
b) Message – was it clear to or did it compromise too many aspects or
contradictions?
c) Receiver – Did he understand the message? Was he able to respond?
d) Medium – Was it suitable in terms of channel/media richness?
e) Feedback – was opportunity for feedback provided adequately?
f) Noise – Consider the location, internal and external factors and any other
communication barrier.

 Reasons for the breakdown in communication should be studied and the problem
diagnosed and rectified before communication is attempted again.

 This is if it has created a confrontation.

Communication Channels and Media Richness

  Defective and insufficient communication media may lead to a breakdown in
communication.
 Conflict can be influences from channel used.

What are the major Channels of Communication?

 Oral communication
 Written communication
 Electronic communication
 Non-verbal communication
 Media richness

Non-Verbal Communication
 These are certain physical cues that characterize the presenter’s physical
presentation of information.
 Gibson, Ivancevic and Donnelly (1988) have identified the if:-
- Head, face and eye behavior
- Posture
- Distance
- Tone of voice
- Environmental cues
- Clothing dress and appearance
- Use of time.

NOTE: that the importance of these non verbal communication cues is that one should
realize that there is much more to getting information across than the mere use of words
account for only 7% of the effectiveness of communication, with body language and
vocal quality making up the rest.

Barriers to Effective Communication

 Managers should realize that communication is not a single matter.
  Obstacles to effective communication are bound to occur in the process.
 Several opportunities exist for distortions that lead to confrontations and conflicts.
 Bounds (1995) – has identified the following as being major barriers to effective
communication
- Frame of reference differences
- Poor listening skills
- Information overload and selective attention
- Selective perception
- Emotions

 Other:
- The steel-trap syndrome
- Stereotyping
- The Hallo effect
- Defense mechanism
- Perception

The Johari Window

 The Arena
 The Blind spot
 The Façade
 The Unknown

Mastering Communication Barriers

 Watching one’s language
 Following through
 Dealing with uncertainty
 Being an active listener
 Managing conflict
 Responding, not reacting
 Giving feedback
 Inviting participation
 Connect personality with employees and fellow employees
Diversity Management Skills
 Diversity in workplace breeds conflict, disagreements and confrontation.
  Organisation can benefit from different approaches and views coming from
different culture groups or people of different backgrounds.

 Despite diversity, open and honest communication with subordinates is a must:-

a) Convey clearly the expectations management has of the work unit, while
recognizing group differences in communication and perspective.
b) Provide feedback on performances often and equally to all members.
c) Openly support the competencies and contributions of workers and those of
groups.
d) Become comfortable asking questions about preferred terminology or
interactions.
e) Confront sexist, racist or any other discriminatory behavior.

 Success of supervision is directly related and dependent on the relationship and

performances of subordinates.
 Four Main Roles of a good and effective relationship:-
 The role as Educator
 The role as Counsellor
 The role as Judge
 The role as Spokesperson

MOTIVATION OF FOLLOWERS
 The primary objective of the Public Sector is the consummation of optimal outputs
through most efficient utilization of inputs and resources.
 Without a well selected development and motivated workers, management cannot
achieve organizational objectives.
 Motivation can be used to induce workers to behave in a fashion that would induce
the accomplishment of predetermined objectives.
 Motivation is hidden in individuals.
 Different workers are motivated by different factors/circumstances – what
motivates one employee may de-motivate another.
Definition of Motivation
 Bounds (1995):
 “An inner state of mind that is responsible for organising, directing or sustaining
goal – oriented behavior.

 Similitudes that describe Motivation are:

- Stimulus
- Drive
- Sense of purpose

 Motivation provides direction to purposeful behavior.

 Andrews (1984)’s Significant Conclusions about Motivation:

a) Motivation results from a need which the individual wishes to satisfy.
b) Motivation is a function of internal motives of an individual, consciously or
unconsciously directed towards achieving certain ends.
c) Motivation can be transmitted from one person to another, but one person
cannot motivate another; and
d) Motivation is a process which guides certain actions, and sustains them for a
specific length of time.

Taking the above into account, Functional Definition of Motivation is – the

willingness to embark upon a particular action or actions in the belief that the
action or actions will serve to satisfy certain defined needs.
 De-motivated person experiences tension due to unsatisfied needs.
 Andrews (1984) says that motivation consists of two components:-
i. Intrinsic Component – present within an employee.
ii. Extrinsic Component: present within an environment.

THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

 Change forms part of the Public Manager’s daily tasks.
 Either transitional or overall transformation.
  Change goes with resistance and if not well planned, supported and managed can
lead into conflict.

Change as Part of Transformation

 Schein (1980) – Describes change as an alteration structure, technology or people,
in order to reach or achieve predetermined institutional goals.
 Transformation of the dynamic external environment can result in, amongst others,
internal changes in structure, personnel, composition, process, delivery systems
and institutional culture.

The Public Manager as a Change Agent.

 A person who acts as a catalyst and manage the change process.
 Public Manager –
i. Must be sensitive to the external environment
ii. A seasoned negotiator
iii. A good communicator
iv. Leader and mentor
v. Committed to the process

Van der Waldt and du Toit (1997).

 Refers to change as a proactive and reactive process to keep the institution
continually in harmony with the changing environment.

Prerequisites for the Effective management of Change.

 Following prerequisites need to be considered to effectively facilitate the
management of change as part of conflict management:-
a) A thorough understanding is needed of the current situation. It implies
comprehension of what led to current situation and why.
b) The Local Government Manager has to conceptualize the desired,
envisioned future.
c) The Manager then has to formulate and implement a strategy to transform
the institution from the current state to the desired future state.
According to Van der Waldt and du Toit (1997) – Institutional change has been effective
if:-
a) The Institution has moved to the future state.
b) The functioning of the future state is as expected.
c) The transition on political, financial and social levels takes place without
excessive distress, and
d) The transition takes place without excessive inconvenience to involved parties.

The Change Management Process

 Unfreezing
- Identify forces for change
- Recognize need for change
- Identify obstacles

 Changing to desired new state

- Identify alternatives
- Analyze restricting factors
- Choose alternatives
- Overcome resistance

 Re freezing the new state to make it permanent.

Possible Obstacles to Change

 An inherent part of transformation is a resistance to change.
 Spangenberg (1991):-
 i. Power and organizational control are the primary obstacles in any change
process.
ii. Form of politics – people compete for power and as change occurs this is
intensified.
iii. Individuals/groups feel threatened that may lose power, fear/resistance to
change.
iv. Move from the known to the unknown – create uncertainty and fear.
v. Change disrupts normal course of events in the organization and often
undermines existing management control systems.
vi. Control can be lost
vii. Many people resent the loss of control associated with change.
viii. Long-term benefits not easily appreciated and recognized.

Employees
 Change not good for organization
 Need for security
 Vested interests
 Differences in interpretation
 Maintaining the status quo
 Poor timing
 Lack of resources
 Threat to interpersonal relationships

HOW TO OVERCOME RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

a) Allowing employees to openly talk about their fears.
b) Comprehending the actual reasons why the employees are resisting the change
c) Explaining how the change can benefit the employee.
d) Allowing employees to participate in decision regarding the change.
e) Using group members who support the change to positively influence resisters.
f) Building trust amongst employees
g) Providing incentives for all employees, and
h) Opening all channels of communication.
Van der Waldt & Du Toit (1997) – To minimise the effects of change they identified five
(5) Guidelines to assist the Management of change:-
a) Develop and display a clear image of the future situation
b) Try to change behavior and attitude
 c) Use transitional means
d) Arrange for feedback

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: DECISION MAKING

Introduction
 Decision making is important in public manager’s job.
 Decision making is part of planning, organising, leading and controlling and
synonymous with managing.
 Smit & Cronje (1992) – defines Decision making as the identification and
selection of a plan of action to solve a specific problem.
 Intuitive Decision Making
 An unconscious process of making decisions on the basis of experience and
accumulated judgment.

Decision Making Styles

 Public managers have different styles when it comes to decision making.
 Directive style.
 Analytic style.
 Conceptual style.
 Behavioural style.

Human Factors and Behavioral Influences on Individual Decision Making

 Values.
 Perception
 Personality
 Propensity for risk
 Potential for dissonance
 Limitations of human ability
 Political Power
 Time Constraints
GUIDELINES FOR BETTER INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING
 Adopt a systematic approach
 Focus on important decisions
 Avoid making snap decisions
  Do not become a victim of analysis paralysis
 Base your decision on facts
 Don't be afraid of making wrong decisions
 Learn from your mistakes
 Use your imagination
 Resist making decisions under stress
 Make your decisions then move.

Techniques for Improving Group Decision Making.

 Brainstorming.
 Nominal Group Technique.
 Delphi Technique.
 Group Decision Support System.
 Electronic Meeting.

NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Introduction
 Conflict comes out of differences.
 Conflict demands our energy.
 Unresolved conflict can call on tremendous amounts of our attention.
 Conflict is inevitable in Organizations.

Negotiation Skills.
 To resolve conflict and problem people need to negotiate a settlement.
 Managers are involved in negotiations daily.
NEGOTIATION- Is a process which two or more parties exchange goods or services and
attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them (Robbins and Hunsaker1996).
 Van de Waldt & Du Toit (1997) – describes Negotiation as reconciliation of
conflicting views.
 Negotiation – is bargaining (Trade Unions).
 Negotiation – differs from communication in the sense that negotiation is the
transferring of a message with the aim of informing another party or parties.

Bargaining
There are different ways of bargaining.

Robbins & Hunsaker (1996) identified two general approaches to bargaining:-

 Distributive bargaining
 Integrative

BASIC APPROACHES TO BARGAINING

 Compromise
 Bargaining
 Coercion
 Emotion
 Logical reasoning

GENERAL GUIDELINES
 Consider the other party
 Have a concrete strategy
 Begin with a positive overture
 Address the problem not personalities.
 Maintain a rational goal oriented frame of mind.
  Pay little attention to initial offers.
 Emphasize win-win solutions.
 Insist on using objective criteria.

APPROACH TO CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN LABOUR RELATIONS

Role of Trade Unions.

End of Notes